2. What is cost?
• In producing a commodity a firm has to
employ an aggregate of various factors of
production such as land, labour, capital and
entrepreneurship.
• These factors are to be compensated by the
firm for their contribution in producing the
commodity.
• This compensation (factor price) is the cost.
3. Various concepts of Cost
• 1. Real Cost
• 2. Opportunity or Alternative Cost
• 3. Money Cost – Explicit & Implicit Costs
• 4. Accounting & Economic Costs
• 5. Fixed and Variable Costs
4. Cost concepts
• 6. Production Costs –
• Total Cost (TC)
• Total Fixed Cost (TFC)
• Total Variable Cost (TVC)
• Average Fixed Cost (AFC)
• Average Variable Cost (AVC)
• Average Total Cost (ATC) and
• Marginal Cost (MC)
5. Real Cost
• The ‘real cost of production’ refers to the
physical quantities of various factors used
in producing a commodity.
• Real cost signifies the aggregate of real
productive resources absorbed in the
production of a commodity (or a service).
6. Opportunity Cost
• The concept of opportunity cost is based on the
scarcity and alternative applicability
characteristics of productive resources.
• The real cost of production of something using
a given resource is the benefit forgone (or
opportunity lost) of some other thing by not
using that resource in its best alternative use.
• An opportunity cost or alternative cost is the
value of a resource in a foregone employment.
7. Economists’ Money Costs
• Economists wish to include imputed value of all
the inputs provided by the producer himself in
addition to outright money transactions between
the firm and other parties from whom inputs are
purchased for carrying out production.
• Thus money costs in economic terms or
• Economic cost = explicit or Accounting costs +
implicit costs.
8. • Sunk cost is a cost once incurred cannot be
retrieved. It is associated with commitment
of funds to specialized equipment or
facilities which cannot be used for anything
else in the present or future. E.g.brewery
plant during prohibition.
Sunk Costs
9. Shutdown Costs
• Shut down costs are costs which would be
incurred when plan operation is suspended, but
would have been saved if the operation was
continuing.
• E.g. costs of sheltering plant and equipment.
• Construction or hiring of sheds for storing
exposed property.
• Expenses on recruitment and training incurred on
re-employment of workers.
10. Abandonment Costs
• Abandonment arises when there is complete
cessation of activities and there is a problem
of disposal of assets.
• E.g.discontinuance of using typewriters and
shifting over usage to computers.
• Shifting to paperless operations.
11. Replacement and Historical
Costs
• Historical cost means the cost of a plant at a
price originally paid for it. Replacement
cost means the price that would have to be
paid currently for acquiring the same plant.
12. Economic Cost
• Explicit costs are direct contractual monetary
payments incurred through market
transactions.
• Explicit costs are usually costs shown in the
accounting statements and include costs of raw
materials, wages and salaries, power and fuel, rent,
interest payments of capital invested, Insurance,
Taxes and duties, Misc. expenses such as selling,
transport, advertising & sales promotional
expenses.
13. Economic Cost (contd.)
• Implicit costs are the opportunity costs of the
use of factors which a firm does not buy or hire
but already owns.
• Implicit costs include
• Wages of labour rendered by the entrepreneur himself.
• Interest on capital supplied by him.
• Rent of land and premises owned by the entrepreneur and used
for production.
• Normal returns or profits of entrepreneur as compensation for
his management and organizational services.
14. Fixed Costs
• Fixed costs are those costs that are
incurred as a result of the use of
fixed factor inputs. They remain
fixed at any level of output.
• While engaging in productive
activity the producer always has to
incur some expenditure which
remains fixed whatever the level of
production.
15. Fixed Costs
• In the short run, fixed costs remain fixed
because the firm does not change its size and
the amount of fixed factors employed which
include:
• Payments of rent for building.
• Interest on capital.
• Insurance premium
• Depreciation and Maintenance allowances
• Adm. Expenses (Managerial & Staff salaries)
• Property and business taxes, licence fees etc.
16. Variable Costs
• Variable costs are those costs that are
incurred by the firm as a result of the
use of variable factor inputs. They are
dependant on the level of output.
• The cost which keeps on changing with
the changes in the quantity of output
produced is known as variable cost.
17. Variable costs
• The short-run variable costs include
• Prices of raw materials,
• Wages paid for labour
• Fuel and power
• Excise duties, sales tax, octroi, VAT.
• Freight (or transportation) charges..
18. Production Costs
• Total Cost (TC)
• Total Fixed Cost (TFC)
• Total Variable Cost (TVC)
• Average Fixed Cost (AFC)
• Average Variable Cost (AVC)
• Average Total Cost (ATC) and
• Marginal Cost (MC)
19. Theory of Cost in the Short run
• Total Cost TC = TFC + TVC
• Average Fixed Cost AFC = TFC ÷ Q
• Average Variable Cost AVC = TVC ÷ Q
• Average Total Cost ATC = TC ÷ Q
= TFC/Q + TVC/Q
Marginal Cost
MC = ∆ΤC ΟR ∆ΤVC
∆Q ∆Q
20. Short-run Production costs
Figures in rupees
Output
(Units)
Total
Fixed Cost
Total
Variable Cost
Total Cost
0 240 0 240
1 240 120 360
2 240 160 400
3 240 180 420
4 240 212 452
6 240 280 520
26. Output
(units)
TFC TVC TC AFC
(TFC/Q)
AVC
(TVC/Q)
ATC
(TC/Q)
MC
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
0 --- --- 1200 X X X X
1 --- --- 1265
2 --- 204
3 --- --- 494
4 --- --- 86
5 --- 525
6 --- --- 286
7 --- --- 97
8 --- 768
9 --- --- 97
Problem: Based on your knowledge of the various measures of
short run cost, complete the following table.
27. Output
(units)
TFC TVC TC AFC
(TFC/Q)
AVC
(TVC/Q)
ATC
(TC/Q)
MC
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
0 1200 0 1200 X X X X
1 1200 265 1265 1200 265 1265 265
2 1200 204 1404 600 102 702 139
3 1200 283 1483 400 94 494 79
4 1200 369 1569 300 92 392 86
5 1200 525 1725 240 105 345 156
6 1200 580 1780 200 96 286 65
7 1200 679 1879 171 97 239 99
8 1200 768 1968 150 96 246 89
9 1200 873 2073 133 97 230 105
Problem: Based on your knowledge of the various measures of
short run cost, complete the following table.
29. Relationship between Marginal Cost and Average Cost
• 1. When Average Cost is minimum, Marginal
cost is equal to Average Cost.
• MC curve intersects at the minimum point of
ATC curve.
• 2. When MC curve is below AC curve, marginal
cost is less than average cost, and the latter falls.
• 3.When the MC curve is above AC curve,
marginal cost is more than average cost, the latter
rises.
30. MARGINAL COST AND AVERAGE COST LINES
MC
AC
COST
OUTPUT
P
M
NN
L Q
A
B
C
O
31. Esimation of Cost Functions
Relationship between cost and output is
expressed by cost function.
TC = f(Q)
TC = Total Cost Q = Quantity of output
32. Three variants of Short-run Cost function
1.Linear Cost function
1. Linear function: TC = a + bQ
(TFC + TVC) (TFC) (AVCxQ)
TVC
ATC = TC/Q = TFC/Q + TVC/Q = a/Q + b
MC = δΤC = b
δQ
Illustration:
TC = 100 + 0.5Q (Q=10)
∴ΤFC = 100 ; TVC = 0.5Q
At Q = 10, TVC = 0.5 x 10 = 5 and TC = 100 + 5 = 105
ATC = a/Q + b = 100/10 + 0.5 = 10.5
∴ΜC = b = 0.5 cost
output
TFC
TC=a + bQ
33. Explanation of Linear Cost function
The firm has fixed costs which must be met irrespective of the quantity of
output produced. This is represented by a in the equation TC=a+bQ
The firm must pay proportional amount for rawmaterials, labour and other
inputs, which is the TVC represented by bQ in the equation.
The equation for Total Cost = Total Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost
Will thus be given as TC = a + bQ.
At Zero output TC = a + bxo = a =TFC
Average Total Cost = TC ÷ Output Q = a/Q + b
Average Fixed Cost = a/Q and Average variable cost = b
Since in the shortrun, TFC is the same irrespective of output, all increases
(differentials) in cost due to increase (differentials) in output will be
the Marginal Cost MC = b
34. Quadratic Cost Function
TC = a + bQ + cQ2
ATC = a/Q + b + cQ
MC = b + 2cQ
TC=a + bQ + cQ2
TFC
cost
outputHere, the firm has Fixed Costs Rs.5000 and
Variable costs for (labour, raw materials etc.) to produce Q units are 250Q + 3Q2
Firm’s initial cost of producing Q units is 250Q
Additional units can be produced at increased cost due to shortage of raw materials
and other inputs (their price being higher) ups their price by +3Q2
which is the last
variable.
35. Implications of the Quadratic equation:
a + bQ + cQ2
• 1. If Q = 0, TC = a = TFC
• 2. Number of bends in the Graph is 1,
• Number of bends = 1 less than highest
exponent.(Q2
) .
• ATC = TC/Q = a/Q + b + cQ
• AFC = a/Q, therefore, AVC = b + cQ
• MC = b + 2cQ (by differentiation)
• When Q = 0 MC = AVC = b
36. There can be another type of Quadratic
Equation TC = a + bQ – cQ2
Here – cQ2
represents reduction in costs on
account of increased productivity. The TC
curve will rise at a decreasing rate.
TC = a + bQ -- cQ2
TFC
cost
output
37. Problem:
ABC Ltd.estimates its total cost Rs.Y of manufacturing X units of
electronic gauges per month as Y = 8000 + 300X + 0.1X2
(i) Calculate the average cost of producing 200 gauges per month.
(ii) If the company doubles this output, will it halve its average cost?
(iii)If not, what will be its average cost be?
(iv) How much is the average variable cost of producing 200 units
per month?
(v)What will be the average variable cost if no units are
Produced?
(vi) What will be the marginal cost function of the company?
38. Cubic Cost Functions
• Cubic type of function will be
• TC = a + bQ + cQ2
+ dQ3
• Here the highest exponent is 3. Hence one less than 3 bends will be
thre in the cost curve.
• This function combines both increasing and decreasing productivity or
returns.
Increasing
Productivity
Decreasing
Productivity
TC=a + bQ = cQ2
+dQ3
TFC
output
cost
39. (i)Total cost of producing 200 gauges
Y = 8000 + 300X + 0.1X2
= 8000 + 300(200) + 0.1(200)2
= 8000 + 60000 + 0.1(40000)
= 8000 + 60000 + 4000
= 72000 Rs.72000
(ii) Doubling the output, X = 400
Y = 8000 + 300X + 0.1X2
= 8000 + 300(400) + 0.1(400)2
= 8000 + 120000 + 0.1(160000)
= 8000 + 120000 + 16000
= 144000 Rs.1,44,000.
(iii)Average cost of producing 200 units
Y = 8000 + 300 + 0.1(200)
X 200
= 40 + 300 + 20
= 360. Rs.360
(iv) Average cost of producing 400 units
Y = 8000 + 300 + 0.1(400)
X 400
= 20 + 300 + 40
= 360 Rs.360
The average cost has not been halved.
The reduction in fixed cost has been
offset by increase in AVC.
(v)Average variable cost of producing
200 units per mointh is
AVC = b + cX
= 300 + 0.1(200)
= 300 + 20 = Rs.320
If no units are produced, X really does
not exist. So no question of AC.
(vi)MC = 300 + 0.2X
