2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
1.Explain the static and dynamic characteristics of an
instrument.
2. Calculate and analyze the measurement error,
accuracy, precision and limiting error.
3. Describe the basic elements of electronic
instrument.
26. OVERVIEW
Types of Sensors and how they work
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometres
2. Bimaterial thermometres
3. Electrical thermometres
4. IR-thermometres
5. Pyrometres
7. Other measurement methods
Sensor Applications
Advantages and Disadvantages
29. Causes of inaccuracies / errors
Temperature
differences in the
liquid
Glass temperature
also affects
The amount of
immersion (vs.
calibration)
30. Bimetallic /Bimaterial Thermometres
Method based on different thermal expansions of
different metals
◦ Every metal expands more than other: twisting
◦ Inaccurary ± 1 ° C
◦ Industry, sauna thermometers
31. TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Thermocouples
Resistance
Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
Thermistors
Infrared Sensors
Semiconductors
32. THERMOCOUPLES
Two wires of different
metal alloys.
Converts thermal
energy into electrical
energy.
Requires a temperature
difference between
measuring junction and
reference junction.
Easy to use and obtain.
35. THERMOCOUPLES
Simple, Rugged
High temperature
operation
Low cost
No resistance lead wire
problems
Point temperature
sensing
Fastest response to
temperature changes
Least stable, least
repeatable
Low sensitivity to small
temperature changes
Extension wire must be
of the same
thermocouple type
Wire may pick up
radiated electrical noise
if not shielded
Lowest accuracy
Advantages Disadvantages
36. RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
(RTDS)
Wire wound and thin
film devices.
Nearly linear over a
wide range of
temperatures.
Can be made small
enough to have
response times of a
fraction of a second.
Require an electrical
current to produce a
voltage drop across the
sensor
37. RTD APPLICATIONS
Air conditioning and
refrigeration
servicing
Furnace servicing
Foodservice
processing
Medical research
Textile production
38. RTDS
Most stable over time
Most accurate
Most repeatable
temperature
measurement
Very resistant to
contamination/
corrosion of the RTD
element
High cost
Slowest response time
Low sensitivity to small
temperature changes
Sensitive to vibration
(strains the platinum
element wire)
Decalibration if used
beyond sensor’s
temperature ratings
Somewhat fragile
Advantages Disadvantages
39. THERMISTORS
A semiconductor used as a temperature sensor.
Mixture of metal oxides pressed into a bead, wafer
or other shape.
Beads can be very small, less than 1 mm in some
cases.
The resistance decreases as temperature increases,
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
40. THERMISTORS
Most are seen in
medical equipment
markets.
Thermistors are also
used are for engine
coolant, oil, and air
temperature
measurement in the
transportation
industry.
41. THERMISTORS
High sensitivity to small
temperature changes
Temperature
measurements become
more stable with use
Copper or nickel
extension wires can be
used
Limited temperature
range
Fragile
Some initial accuracy
“drift”
Decalibration if used
beyond the sensor’s
temperature ratings
Lack of standards for
replacement
Advantages Disadvantages
42. INFRARED SENSORS
An infrared sensor intercepts a portion of the infrared energy
radiated by an object.
Many types Optical Pyrometers, Radiation Pyrometers, Total
Radiation Pyrometers, Automatic Infrared Thermometers, Ear
Thermometers, Fiber optic Thermometers, Two-Color
Pyrometers, Infra-Snakes, and many more.
45. Thermal radiation
Every atom and molecule exists in perpetual motion
A moving charge is associated with an electric field and thus
becomes a radiator
This radiation can be used to determine object's temperature
Waves can be characterized by their intensities and wavelengths
◦ The hotter the object:
the shorter the wavelength
the more emitted light
46. INFRARED APPLICATIONS
Manufacturing process like
metals, glass, cement, ceramics,
semiconductors, plastics, paper,
textiles, coatings.
Automation and feedback
control
Improve safety in fire-fighting,
rescues and detection of
criminal activities.
Used to monitor and measure
human body temperatures with
one second time response.
Reliability and maintenance
needs from building heating to
electrical power generation and
distribution
47. INFRARED SENSORS
No contact with the
product required
Response times as fast
or faster than
thermocouples
No corrosion or
oxidation to affect
sensor accuracy
Good stability over time
High repeatability
High initial cost
More complex - support
electronics required
Emissivity variations
affect temperature
measurement accuracy
Field of view and spot
size may restrict sensor
application
Measuring accuracy
affected by dust,
smoke, background
radiation, etc.
Advantages Disadvantages
48. SEMICONDUCTORS
Are small and result from the fact that
semiconductor diodes have voltage-current
characteristics that are temperature sensitive.
Temperature measurement ranges that are small
compared to thermocouples and RTDs, but can be
quite accurate and inexpensive.
Applications
Hard Disk Drives
Personal Computers
Electronic Test Equipment
Office Equipment
Domestic Appliances
Process Control
Cellular Phones
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58. Types of Flow Measurement Technologies
• Variable Area (rotameters)
• Rotating Vane (paddle & turbine)
• Positive Displacement
• Differential Pressure
• Vortex Shedding
• Thermal Dispersion
• Magnetic Magnetic
• Thermal Mass
• Coriolis Mass
• Ultrasonic
59.
60. Some Facts About Variable Area
Flowmeters
• Called “float type float
type”, “rotameter’’, or
“variable area”
flowmeters.
• By far the most
common specified,
purchased, and
installed flowmeter in
the world
61. Variable Area Flowmeters
• Fluid flow moves the float
upward against gravity.
• Float will find equilibrium
when area around float
generates enough drag
equal to weight -
buoyancy.
• Some types have a guide
rod to keep float stable.
• Low Cost (pricing usually
starts < $50)
• Simple Reliable Design
• Can Measure Liquid or Gas
Flows
• Tolerates Dirty Liquids or
Solids in Liquid
62.
63. (1) End fitting — flange
shown;
(2) flowmeter body;
(3) rotation pickup —
magnetic,
reluctancetype shown;
(4) permanent magnet;
(5) pickup cold wound on
pole piece;
(6) rotor blade;
(7) rotor hub;
(8) Rotor shaft bearing —
journal type shown;
(9) rotor shaft;
(10)diffuser support and
flow straightener;
(11)diffuser;
(12) flow conditioning plate
(dotted) — optional
with some meters.
64. Electromagnetic Flowmeters
• Magnetic flowmeters have been widely used in
industry for many years.
• Unlike many other types of flowmeters, they offer
true noninvasive measurements.
• They are easy to install and use to the extent that
existing pipes in a process can be turned into
meters simply by adding external electrodes and
suitable magnets.
• They can measure reverse flows and are insensitive
to viscosity, density, and flow disturbances.
• Electromagnetic flowmeters can rapidly respond to
flow changes and they are linear devices for a wide
range of measurements.
• As in the case of many electric devices, the
underlying principle of the electromagnetic
flowmeter is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.
• The induced voltages in an electromagnetic
65. • As is the case in many applications, if the pipe walls are
made from nonconducting elements, then the induced
voltage is independent of the properties of the fluid.
• The accuracy of these meters can be as low as 0.25%
and, in most applications, an accuracy of 1% is used.
• At worst, 5% accuracy is obtained in some difficult
applications where impurities of liquids and the contact
resistances of the electrodes are inferior as in the case of
low-purity sodium liquid solutions.
• Faraday’s Law of Induction
• This law states that if a conductor of length l (m) is
moving with a velocity v (m/s–1), perpendicular to a
magnetic field of flux density B (Tesla), then the induced
voltage e across the ends of conductor can be expressed
by:
66. Ultrasonic Flowmeters
• There are various types of ultrasonic flowmeters
in use for discharge measurement:
• (1) Transit time: This is today’s state-of-the-art
technology and most widely used type.
• This type of ultrasonic flowmeter makes use of
the difference in the time for a sonic pulse to
travel a fixed distance.
• First against the flow and then in the direction of
flow.
• Transmit time flowmeters are sensitive to
suspended solids or air bubbles in the fluid.
• (2) Doppler: This type is more popular and less
expensive, but is not considered as accurate as
the transit time flowmeter.
• It makes use of the Doppler frequency shift
caused by sound reflected or scattered from
suspensions in the flow path and is therefore
more complementary than competitive to transit