The document discusses the history and applications of Stirling engines. It describes how Robert Stirling invented the Stirling engine in 1816 as a safer alternative to steam engines. It then discusses the different types of Stirling engine configurations (alpha, beta, gamma) and how they operate through thermodynamic cycles with regenerators. Some key reasons for using Stirling engines are their ability to run on various fuels with low emissions, high efficiency, ability to run quietly and for long periods. Economically, Stirling engines can reduce costs over time due to their ability to harness renewable energy sources like solar power and their high efficiencies. The document concludes by examining applications of Stirling engines like in vehicles, distributed power generation, and solar thermal

1. VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELGAUM
A
TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT
ON
NIGHT VISION TECHNOLOGY IN AUTOMOBILES
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
Mechanical Engineering
For the academic year
2017-2018
By
AFTAB ALAM
H.K.B.K.C.E,Bangalore
Department of Mechanical Engineering
H.K.B.K College of Engineering
S.No:22/1,Near Manyata Tech park, Bangalore-560045

2. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The Stirling Engine was invented by Robert Stirling. This device was born as a competence to the
vapour machine, since a Stirling Engine works with smaller pressures than the device created by Watt
and it did not require a qualified train engineer. At the end of with the development of the internal
combustion engine and the appearance of electric engines, the machine of this study was forgotten.
Now a day the technology that involves the invention of Robert Stirling is in completely development
because of the fact that now very useful applications are available.
This document travels in the history of this curious device looking for reasons of this incredible
development in this called high technology with its different applications and doing an analysis from
the point of view of the economy. This project explains the principle function of the engine with a
deep investigation. And we show how the Sterling Engine in combination with renewable energy
sources.
Fig.1.1: Sketch of Robert Stirling of his invent

3. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 2
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY
The Stirling Engine is one of the hot air engines. It was invented by Robert Stirling
(1790-1878) and his brother James. His father was interesting in engine and he inherited it. He
became a minister of the church at Scotland in 1816. At this period, he found the steam engines
are dangerous for the workers. He decided to improve the design of an existing air engine. He
hope it wound be safer alternative. After one year, he invented a regenerator. He called the
“Economiser” and the engine improves the efficiency. This is the earliest Stirling Engine. It is
put out 100 W to 4 kW. But the internal combustion engine substituted for it quickly. The
Ericsson invented the solar energy in 1864 and did some improvements for after several years.
Robert’s brother, James Stirling, also played an important role in the development of Stirling
engines.
Fig.2.1: Earliest Stirling engine

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Department of Mechanical Engineering 3
Robert Stirling gets a patent for the economizer with an air engine incorporating it in
1817.
Fig.2.2: Stirling Engine’s principle of operation
Stirling engine of the second generation began in 1937.The Philips of Holland used new
materials and technology to ascend a very high level. The knowledge about the heat transfer
and fluid physical, which is a great significance to improving of the structure and raised the
stability.
Throughout World War II and by the late 1940s, Philips’ subsidiary Johan de Witt does
this work continued. And they did the Type 10, incorporated into a generator set as originally
planned The set progressed through three prototypes (102A, B, and C), with the production
version, rated at 200 watts electrical output from a bore and stroke of 55x27mm, being
designated MP1002CA.
In 1951, the price of Stirling engine is too high for the market. It made used of radios
at that time. Though the MP1002CA may have been a dead end, it represents the blooming of
the modern age of Stirling Engine development. In addition to which the advent of transistor
radios with their much lower power requirements meant that the market for the set was fast
disappearing. Though the MP1002CA may have been a dead end, it represents the start of the
modern age of Stirling engine development.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering 4
CHAPTER 3
Presentation of Stirling Engines
3.1 Stirling thermodynamic cycle
The Stirling engine cycle is a closed cycle and it contains, most commonly a fixed mass of
gas called the "working fluid" (air, hydrogen or helium). The principle is that of thermal
expansion and contraction of this fluid due to differential. a temperature
So the ideal Stirling cycle consists of four thermodynamics distinct processes acting on the
working fluid: two constant-temperature processes and two constant- volume processes. The
gasses used inside a Stirling engine never leave the engine. There are no exhaust valves that
vent high-pressure gasses, as in a gasoline or diesel engine, and there are no explosions taking
place. Another useful characteristic of the Stirling engine is that if supplied with mechanical
power, it can function as a heat pump (reversibility of the Stirling cycle). Understanding how
a Stirling engine works is not a simple matter. It is not overly intuitive. Let’s explain the device
through the presentation of the different engines configuration.
3.2. Engine configurations
Mechanical configurations of Stirling engines are classified into three important distinct
types: Alpha, Beta and Gamma arrangements. These engines also feature a regenerator
(invented by Robert Stirling). The regenerator is constructed by a material that conducts readily
heat and has a high surface area (a mesh of closely spaced thin metal plates for example). When
hot gas is transferred to the cool cylinder, it is first driven through the regenerator, where a
portion of the heat is deposited. When the cool gas is transferred back, this heat is reclaimed.
Thus the regenerator “pre heats” and “pre cools” the working gas, and so improve the
efficiency. But many engines have no apparent regenerator like beta and gamma engines
configurations with a “loose fitting” displacer, the surfaces of the displacer and its cylinder will
cyclically exchange heat with the working fluid providing some regenerative effect.
3.2.1 Alpha Stirling
Alpha engines have two separate power pistons in separate cylinders which are connected
in series by a heater, a regenerator and a cooler. One is a “hot” piston and the other one a “cold
piston”.

6. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 5
Fig.3.1: Alpha engine’s configuration
The hot piston cylinder is situated inside the high temperature heat exchanger and the
cold piston cylinder is situated inside the low temperature heat exchanger. The generator is
illustrated by the chamber containing the hatch lines.
Transfer: At this point, the gas has expanded. Most of the gas is still in the hot
cylinder. As the crankshaft continues to turn the next 90°, transferring the bulk of the
gas to the cold piston cylinder. As it does so, it pushes most of the fluid through the
heat exchanger and into the cold piston cylinder.
Expansion: At this point, the most of the gas in the system is at the hot piston
cylinder. The gas heats and expands, pushing the hot piston down, and flowing
through the pipe into the cold cylinder, pushing it down as well.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering 6
Fig.3.2: Example of a real cycle of an alpha engine
3.2.2 Beta Stirling
The Beta configuration is the classic Stirling engine configuration and has enjoyed
popularity from its inception until today. Stirling's original engine from his patent drawing of
1816 shows a Beta arrangement.
Both Beta and Gamma engines use displacer-piston arrangements. The Beta engine has
both the displacer and the piston in an in-line cylinder system. The Gamma engine uses separate
cylinders.
Fig.3.3: Beta engine’s configuration

8. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 7
The purpose of the single power piston and displacer is to “displace” the working gas
at constant volume, and shuttle it between the expansion and the compression spaces
through the series arrangement cooler, regenerator, and heater.
A beta stirling has a single power piston arranged within the same cylinder on the same
shaft as a displacer piston. The displacer piston is a loose fit and does not extract any power
from the expanding gas but only serves to shuttle the working gas from the hot heat exchanger
to the cold heat exchanger. When the working gas is pushed to the hot end of the cylinder it
expands and pushes the power piston. When it is pushed to the cold end of the cylinder it
contracts and the momentum of the machine, usually enhanced by a flywheel, pushes the power
piston the other way to compress the gas. Unlike the alpha type, the beta type avoids the
technical problems of hot moving seals.
Fig.3.4: Beta engine with momentum flywheel
Expansion: At this point, most
of the gas in the system is at
the heated end of the cylinder.
The gas heats and expands
driving the power piston
outward.
Transfer: At this point, the gas has
expanded. Most of the gas is still
located in the hot end of the cylinder.
Flywheel momentum carries the
crankshaft the next quarter turn. As
the crank goes round, the bulk of
the gas is transferred around the
displacer to the cool end of the
cylinder, driving more fluid into the
cooled end of the cylinder.

9. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 8
Fig.3.5: Example of a real cycle of a beta engine
3.2.3 Gamma Stirling
A gamma Stirling is simply a beta Stirling in which the power piston is mounted in a
separate cylinder alongside the displacer piston cylinder, but is still connected to the same
flywheel. The gas in the two cylinders can flow freely between them and remains a single body.
This configuration produces a lower compression ratio but is mechanically simpler and often
used in multi-cylinder Stirling engines. Gamma type engines have a displacer and power piston,
similar to Beta machines, but in different cylinders. This allows a convenient complete
separation between the heat exchangers associated with the displacer cylinder and the
compression and expansion work space associated with the piston.
Fig.3.6: Gamma engine’s configuration
Further more during the expansion process some of the expansion must taken place in
the compression space leading to a reduction of specific power. Gamma engines are therefore
used when the advantages of having separate cylinders outweigh the specific power
disadvantage. The advantage of this design is that it is mechanically simpler because of the
convenience of two cylinders in which only the piston has to be sealed. The disadvantage

10. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 9
is the lower compression ratio but the gamma configuration is the favorite for modelers and
hobbyists
3.2.4 Other types
Changes to the configuration of mechanical Stirling engines continue to interest engineers
and inventors who create a lot of different version of the Stirling engine. There is also a large
field of "free piston" Stirling cycles engines, including those with liquid pistons and those with
diaphragms as pistons. For example, as an alternative to the mechanical Stirling engine is the
fluidyne pump, which uses the Stirling cycle via a hydraulic piston. In its most basic form it
contains a working gas, a liquid and two non-return valves. The work produced by the fluidyne
goes into pumping the liquid.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering 10
CHAPTER 4
Reasons to use a Stirling Engine
There are several reasons to use a Stirling Engine:
➢ One reason is that for this kind of engine it’s almost impossible to explode. You don’t
have to produce steam in a high pressure boiler. And inside the cylinder there are no
explosions needed to run the pistons like in an Otto or Diesel engine. There are no
ignitions, no carburetion because you only need one kind of gas and no valve train
because there are no valves. This was a big advantage to the steam engines in the days
when Stirling invented his engine because it was much less dangerous to work next to
a Sterling Engine than to a common steam engine.
➢ Inside the pistons can be used air, helium, nitrogen or hydrogen and you don’t have to
refill it because it uses always the same body of gas.
Fig.4.1: Schematic Stirling Engine
➢ To produce heat you can use whatever you want: fuel, oil, gas, nuclear power and of
course renewable energies like solar, biomass or geothermal heat.
➢ The external combustion process can be designed as a continuous process, so the most
types of emissions can be reduced.
➢ If heat comes from a renewable energy source they produce no emissions.

12. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 11
➢ They run very silent and they don’t need any air supply. That’s why they are used a
lot in submarines. E.g. in the Royal Swedish Navy.
➢ They can be constructed to run very quiet and practically without any vibration.
➢ They can run with a small temperature difference, e.g. with the heat of your hand or
from a cup of hot coffee. They can be used as little engines for work which needs only
low power.
➢ They can run for a very long time because the bearings and seals can be placed at the
cool side of the engine → they need less lubricant and they don’t have to be checked
very often ( longer period between the overhauls ).
➢ They are extremely flexible. The engine can run as a CHP (combined heat and power)
because the heat which is produced to run it can easily be collected. Or in summers
they can be used as coolers.
Fig.4.2: Combined heat and power

13. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 12
CHAPTER 5
Analyse from Economic point
the Stirling engine is a kind of external combustion engine, and it can use a variety of
fuels. It can be estimated that combustible gases are the best material, including gasoline,
diesel, propane, sunshine and salad oil; even cow dung can be run on as fuels. A cup of coffee
cannot become a cup of gasoline, but it can be also used as a Stirling engine driver. There is a
famous experiment that a Stirling engine can easily run on a cup of coffee. The Stirling engine
is a kind of piston engine. In the external heating sealed chamber, the expansion of gases inside
the engine promotes the pistons work. After the expanded gases cooling down in the air-
conditioned room, next process is taking on. As long as a certain value of the temperature
difference exists, a Stirling Engine can be formed.
Fig: 5.1: Stirling Engine working on a cup of coffee
This experiment shows that only a very small power operation can carry out a Stirling
engine, which contributes a lot to energy conservation. This characteristic especially shows
out on economy point. The benefits obtained from the Stirling engine are definitely far beyond
the costs. So once solar is used to produce energy for the Stirling engine, the cost would surely
be cut down for quite a lot. As long as there is sunshine, the Stirling engine will run on and on.
Of course it costs much to manufacture a Stirling engine, as it requires a high level of the
materials and manufacturing processes. The expansion-side heat exchanger’s temperature is
often very high, so the materials must stand the corrosive consequences of the heat. Typically
these material requirements substantially increase the cost of the engine. The materials and
assembly costs for a high temperature heat exchanger typically accounts for 40% of the total

14. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 13
engine cost. But once the Stirling engine is made and put into a proper condition, quite a few
costs would be paid for keeping it running.
Some engines cause a lot of pollution, so much is cost for pollution control and
government. On contrast, Stirling engine exhausts cleanly and avoid this type of matter.
Development and utilization of solar will not pollute the environment, as solar is one of the
cleanest energy. While the environmental pollution is becoming more and more serious today,
this characteristic is extremely valuable. It saves the cost for a lot while making sustainable
development.
At the end of 18th century and the early 19th century, heat engine generally is steam
engine. Its efficiency is very low, only 3% to 5%, that is, over 95% of the heat is not used.
Stirling thermodynamic theory is aiming to improve the thermal efficiency. Stirling proposed
that the Stirling cycle efficiency, under the ideal condition, may get the infinite enhancement.
Certainly it cannot come to 100% due to the physical limitation, however the theory provide a
direction for improving the thermal efficiency. In fact, now the efficiency of Stirling engine
can come up to 80% or even more. So another part of cost is saved.
Nowadays, more and more countries have recognized that a society with sustainable
development should be able to meet the needs of the community without endangering future
generations. Therefore, use clean energy as much as possible instead of the high carbon content
of fossil energy is a principle which should be followed during energy construction. Vigorously
develop new and renewable sources of energy utilization technology will be an important
measure to reduce pollution. Energy problem is a worldwide one, and it is sooner or later to
get into the transition- to-new-energy period. Because of its sustainability, renewably and
efficiency, the Stirling engine is just the very one being consistent with the requirements of the
times.

15. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 14
CHAPTER 6
6.1 APPLICATIONS
➢ Cars
In the ages of 1970s and 1980s several automobile companies like “General Motors” or
“Ford” were researching about Stirling Engine. This device is good for a constant power
setting, but it is a challenge for the stop and go of the automobile. A good car can change the
power quickly. One possibility to obtain this important characteristic is design a power control
mechanism that will turn up or down the burner. This is a slow method of changing power
levels because is not enough to accelerate crossing an intersection.
The best solution in spite of these difficulties in automobiles is hybrid electric cars
where Stirling Engine could give enough power to make long trips where could get burn
gasoline or diesel, depending on which fuel was cheaper. The batteries could give the instant
acceleration that drivers are used to. This invention makes the car silent and clean running. On
March 20, 2002 I delivered one of our KY-2000 Stirling engines to the Mechanical Engineering
department at San Diego State University.
➢ Submarine
“Kockums”, a Swedish defense contractor, produce Stirling Engines for the navy making
the quietest submarines in the world. This high-technology is named air-independent
propulsion (AIP). There are four submarines equipment with Stirling AIP. The models are
HMS Näcken, which was launch in 1978 and after ten years 1988 became the first submarine
equipped with AIP system, by means of a cut and lengthened by an intersection of a Stirling
AIP section, which before the installation is equipped by two Stirling units, liquid oxygen
(LOX) tanks and electrical equipment. Successful demonstration of AIP system during many
routine patrols of HMS Näcken made that Gotland, another type of submarine, was the first
submarine designed from the beginning to operate with AIP system.
➢ Aircrafts
In relation about Stirling engines in aircraft, the communities near airports could benefit
from the quiet engine. Unlike other types of aircrafts this kind of aircrafts increases the
performance climbs to altitude.

16. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 15
➢ Heat and power System
It is an innovative system developed to provide central heating, water heating and
electricity. Usually this device is called “Micro Combined Heat and Power (CHP)” and
produces much less carbon dioxide than other ways of providing heat and power. In fact, if the
level of CHP was increased to the Government's target of 10,000 MW, the UK could be one
third of the way to meeting its international commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
➢ Cryocooler
If It is applied mechanical energy instead of cold and heat sources by means of external
engine, It is possible reach temperatures like 10 K (-263°C) in machines of high technology.
The first Stirling-cycle cryocooler was developed at Philips in the 1950s and commercialized
in such places as liquid nitrogen production plants. This company is still active in the
development and manufacturing Stirling cryocoolers and cryogenic cooling systems.
A wide variety of smaller size Stirling cryocoolers are commercially available for tasks such
as the cooling of sensors.
Thermoacoustic refrigeration uses a Stirling cycle in a working gas which is created by high
amplitude sound waves.
➢ Nuclear power
Steam turbines of a nuclear plan can be replaced by Stirling engine thus reduce the
radioactive by-products and be more efficient. Steam plants use liquid sodium as coolant in
breeder reactors, water/sodium exchanger are required, which in some cases that temperature
increase so much this coolant could reacts violently with water.
➢ Solar Energy
Placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror a Stirling engine can convert solar energy to
electricity with efficiency better than non-concentrated photovoltaic cells.
In 2005 It is created a 1 kW Stirling generator with a solar concentrator, this was a herald
of the coming of a revolutionary solar, nowadays It generates electricity much more efficiently
and economically than Photovoltaic (PV) systems whit technology called concentrated solar
power (CPS). Nowadays the company Infina Applications has development a 3 kW Solar
Stirling Product.

17. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 16
6.2 ADVANTAGES
➢ Stirling engines can run directly on any available heat source, not just one produced by
combustion, so they can run on heat from solar, geothermal, biological, nuclear sources or
waste heat from industrial processes.
➢ A continuous combustion process can be used to supply heat, so those emissions associated
with the intermittent combustion processes of a reciprocating internal combustion engine
can be reduced.
➢ Some types of Stirling engines have the bearings and seals on the cool side of the engine,
where they require less lubricant and last longer than equivalents on other reciprocating
engine types.
➢ The engine mechanisms are in some ways simpler than other reciprocating engine types.
No valves are needed, and the burner system can be relatively simple. Crude Stirling
engines can be made using common household materials.
➢ A Stirling engine uses a single-phase working fluid that maintains an internal pressure close
to the design pressure, and thus for a properly designed system the risk of explosion is low.
In comparison, a steam engine uses a two-phase gas/liquid working fluid, so a faulty
overpressure relief valve can cause an explosion.
➢ In some cases, low operating pressure allows the use of lightweight cylinders.
➢ They can be built to run quietly and without an air supply, for air-independent
propulsion use in submarines.
➢ They start easily (albeit slowly, after warmup) and run more efficiently in cold weather, in
contrast to the internal combustion, which starts quickly in warm weather, but not in cold
weather.
➢ A Stirling engine used for pumping water can be configured so that the water cools the
compression space. This increases efficiency when pumping cold water.
➢ They are extremely flexible. They can be used as combined heat and power in the winter
and as coolers in summer.
➢ Waste heat is easily harvested (compared to waste heat from an internal combustion
engine), making Stirling engines useful for dual-output heat and power systems.
➢ In 1986 NASA built a Stirling automotive engine and installed it in a Chevrolet Celebrity.
Fuel economy was improved 45% and emissions were greatly reduced. Acceleration
(power response) was equivalent to the standard internal combustion engine.

18. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 17
6.3 DISADVANTAGES
➢ Greater volume and greater weight.
More voluminous and heavy. External combustion, which requires heat exchangers at both
hot and cold points, makes the Stirling engine generally more bulky and heavier than a
generic internal combustion engine with the same output power
➢ Higher economic cost of the engine
High cost. Stirling engines require inlet and outlet heat exchangers, which contain the high-
temperature working fluid, and must withstand the corrosive effects of the heat source and
the atmosphere. This involves the use of materials that significantly address the machine
➢ The Stirling engine have a slower start
Slower start. The inherent thermal inertia of an external combustion engine
makes it slower to start. For this reason the Stirling engine is not suitable for
applications that require fast starts or rapid changes in speed.
➢ More dangerous
More dangerous. The mixture of air and lubricating combustible fluids inside the
engine can produce explosive mixtures due to the oxygen contained in the air, a
danger that is accentuated in high-pressure engines. The problem was solved using
reducing (hydrogen) or neutral (helium, nitrogen) working gases or without the use
of conventional lubricants.

19. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 18
CONCLUSION
Stirling engines qualify for “free energy” designation when they allow us to tap
previously inaccessible sources of naturally occurring energy. Stirling cycle engines are very
efficient for a given temperature difference between the heat source and the heat sink. Actually,
steam engines (the Rankine cycle) fall into this category, too. But depending upon what kind
of hardware and its maintenance you prefer, one or the other will be preferred. Steamers have
fewer parts and higher power density. Other fluids, such as a variety of refrigerants, can be
used instead of water. Stirlings avoid fluid containment problems, as they can run with air as
the working fluid, and will have less maintenance issues. Stirling Engines are very flexible.
There are a lot of different types of engines. They can be very small and run with only a small
temperature difference, they are very quiet, for example to use them in submarines or they can
be used as a CHP plant.
Another good point is that they can be constructed in a way that they produce no
emissions. That means, in combination with solar or geothermal heat, they can be used as a
renewable energy source to produce electricity. As is showed above, the Stirling engine has
strong economic practicality. Above all, the original cost is quite lower than for any other
engines. Even a few calories can drive it and keep it running. The next point is that the auxiliary
costs are low, because the Stirling engine costs little on environment protection. The fuels it
uses can be clean, so it costs little to handle with pollution governance. What is more, the profit
of the Stirling engine is far beyond the cost. And the high efficiency can bring the maximum
utilization. And last but not least, the Stirling engine is consistent with the requirements of
sustainable development. It is the main development way in the future, so the Stirling engine
does not only meet the economic needs at present time, but also in the future.
The Stirling engine is an interesting device like it is showed in this document with
various applications and high development. Its advantages are really beneficial for the
environment because it is possible produce electricity with the power of sun with high
efficiency (theorically like the Carnot Cycle). It is a huge advantage to the economy because
is possible to burn the cheapest fuel and it is working instead of the more expensive one. And
this engine is comfortable for the people because is quiet and not noisy like an internal
combustion engine.
The real renewable energy is the solar application for this device because the other ways
to produce the heat source are burning something. It is possible to decrease the emissions of
CO2 or other toxic gases but not eliminate completely this problem for the earth and therefore

20. Stirling Engine
Department of Mechanical Engineering 19
for humans. This application could be one of the different ways to solve the problem of
greenhouse gas emissions and to continue and also to develop our comfort.
In all applications that was showed in this presentation the performance the devices are better,
obviously increase the efficiency is good
Depend of which kind of fuel is getting burn in process. The Stirling Engine is a
machine of external combustion thus if it is burned fuel the emissions of CO2 is not solved. It
is showed that the performance is better but in the point of view of environment the real
problem continues existing. Find a heat source to make it works, this is the case of biomass
fuels in connection with a Stirling engine are concentrated on transferring the heat from the
combustion of the fuel into the working gas and in the same way the solar application. Because,
as companies look increasingly to alternative power units, it is entirely possible that the Stirling
engine will find its own niche in the marketplace, perhaps as part of a hybrid power plant, or
through further development and optimization. No high-tech materials are needed. This
competes with solar cells. Taking one with another, Stirling engine bring a tremendous
revolution to human being. We think there is also a lot of potential in this area because modern
industrialization should be sustained by regenerate power system. It is not a dead end but a new
start.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering 20
REFERENCES
1. Stirling Engines", G. Walker (1980), Clarenden Press, Oxford, page 1: "A Stirling
engine is a mechanical device which operates on a *closed* regenerative
thermodynamic cycle, with cyclic compression and expansion of the working fluid at
different temperature levels.
2. W.R. Martini (1983), p.6
3. T. Finkelstein; A.J. Organ (2001), Chapters 2&3
4. "The Stirling Engine". mpoweruk.com.
5. Sleeve notes from A.J. Organ (2007)
6. C.M. Hargreaves (1991), Chapter 2.5
7. Graham Walker (1971) Lecture notes for Stirling engine symposium at Bath
University. Page 1.1 "Nomenclature"
8. "Previous Survey Results – StirlingBuilder.com". stirlingbuilder.com. Archived from
the original on 26 May 2014.
9. T. Finkelsteinl; A.J. Organ (2001), Chapter 2.2
10. English patent 4081 of 1816 Improvements for diminishing the consumption of fuel
and in particular an engine capable of being applied to the moving (of) machinery on
a principle entirely new. as reproduced in part in C.M. Hargreaves (1991), Appendix
B, with full transcription of text in R. Sier (1995).
11. Excerpt from a paper presented by James Stirling in June 1845 to the Institution of
Civil Engineers. As reproduced in R. Sier (1995), p.92.