health research

1. Referencing and Bibliography
in Health Research
MSc. Radiology Presentation in the Department of Radiology
Bayero University Kano, Nigeria.
By
Abubakar Hammaadama
SPS/21/MRA/00005
30/11/2023

2. Outline of the presentation
• Referencing
• Referencing systems/styles
• Bibliography
• summary
• Conclusion

3. Introduction
In writing books, thesis or any other papers we may recite the findings
or workings of others.
• It is not sin to cite others in the study, If we use others contribution in
the study we must acknowledge them both in text and in Reference

4. Referencing
• It is an author-date system used in the academic community to
indicate the source of ideas, theories, quotes, facts and any other
evidence and information used to undertake an assignment or thesis
or paper.
• It is a way of acknowledging other people’s ideas and work through
citation in the text and reference at the end of work.
• A list of reference refers to list of sources of literature cited in the text
of a document.

5. Reference Systems
• There are many different referencing systems, though no universally
adopted one for academic writing.
• However, most scholars and students employ one of the most
popular systems currently in use in the UK and America.
• These include the following
The Harvard System (often called the ‘Author Date System)
American Psychological Association (APA)
Vancouver System

6. Reference Systems cont….
Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA).
• Chicago and Turabian. These are two separate styles but are very
similar, just like Harvard and APA. These are widely used for business,
history and economics.
MLA. is most often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly in
the USA. It is arguably the most well used of all of the citation styles.

7. Harvard Referencing System
• The Harvard System is an author-date system of referencing within
text and bibliography.
• It was developed at Harvard University in the 1930s.
• It uses author(s) name and date within the text and details in the
Reference or Bibliography

8. Harvard Referencing system Contd
• The Harvard system is one of the best known and most popular.
• Here sources are cited in short, parenthetical (in brackets) notes within the text,
rather than in foot notes or end notes
• Only the name of the author, date of the source, and if necessary the page
numbers are included.
• The rest of the information required by the reader to find and consult the source
such as the title, location and publication details is contained in the list of
references at the end of the work
• Harvard system is attractive to both authors and readers of academic text.

9. Harvard Referencing system Contd
• Harvard/Boston system uses the author's last name and date of publication
in the body of the text, e.g. (Musisi, 2004), and the bibliography/reference
list is given alphabetically by author.
• Major advantage is that it is more informative; knowing the author and date of
publication may be of interest to readers.
• How to cite:
• One author, e.g.:
• Farrar (1997) suggested that……
• Or …. (Farrar 1906).
• Some journals require a comma between the author and date (Farrar,
1906), but most do not.

10. Harvard Referencing system Contd
• Two authors, e.g.:
• Cupp and Farrar (1994) proposed that …
Or …. (Cupp and Farrar 1996).
• Two or more papers by different authors, e.g.:
• Jones (1946) and Smith (1948) have both shown…
Or …. (Jones 1946; Smith 1948)
• When two or more papers by different authors are cited at the same time, list the references in
chronological order with the earliest first.
• Three or more authors, e.g.:
• Calie et al. (1994) suggested that …. Or…. (Calie et al. 1994).

11. Harvard Referencing system Contd
• Two or more papers by same author, e.g.:
• Cupp (1990, 1992) indicated that….
Or …… (Cupp 1990, 1992).
• Two or more papers by same author in the same year,
e.g.:
• McConnell (1999a, b) suggested that …..
• …. (McConnell 1999a, b).

12. Harvard Referencing system Contd
• No author
• If the author cannot be identified use ‘Anonymous’ or ‘Anon’ and the title of the
work and date of publication. The title should be written in italics. Every effort
should be made to establish the authorship if you intend to use this work as
supporting evidence in an academic submission: e.g.:
Marketing strategy (Anon 1999)
• No date
• The abbreviation n.d. is used to denote this:
Smith (n.d.) has written and demonstrated……
• or indirectly: (Smith n.d.)

13. Harvard Referencing system Contd
• Page numbers
• Including the page numbers of a reference will help readers trace your sources.
This is particularly important for quotations and for paraphrasing specific
paragraphs in the texts.
• Lawrence (1966, p.124)
• or indirectly: (Lawrence 1966, p.124)

14. Harvard Referencing system Contd
• When citing in the text, put references where they make the most
sense.
• Put each citation close to the information you wish to acknowledge. Do not
always include citations at the end of sentences, e.g.:
• The role of ECOSAN toilets has been studied both in developed (Pressman
1990) and developing countries (McElroy 2000).
• Don't overuse citations.
• Citing a large number of papers may be more confusing than enlightening.
• Decide which references are most important & use them.

15. Referencing-Reference list
• Reference list or literature cited section often comes at the end of the
report
• It consists of a list of all data sources that have been cited in the text
• Always check & double-check the Literature Cited section for
accuracy, completeness, and consistency!!
• Check that every reference you cite in the text is listed in the
reference list.
• Check that no reference appears in the reference list that is not cited
in the text.
• Make sure dates in text match dates in reference list.
• Check all punctuation marks, abbreviations, spacing, & spelling.

16. Reference List
• The purpose of a reference list is to enable sources to be easily traced
by another reader.
• Different types of publication require different amounts of
information but there are certain common elements such as author,
year of publication and title.

17. Harvard System- Reference listing
• The reference list is arranged in alphabetical order by surname of first
author.
• Different literature sources are listed differently in the reference list
• This is exemplified in the various articles/journals below

18. Journal Articles
• Required elements for a reference are:
• Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Journal, Volume
number (Issue/Part number), Page numbers.
• Perry, C., 2001. What health care assistants know about clean hands. Nursing
Times, 97(22), p.63-64.

19. Journal Articles from an Electronic Source
• Required elements for a reference are:
Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Journal, [type of medium]
Volume number (Issue/Part number), Page numbers if availalble.
Available at: include web site address/URL(Uniform Resource Locator) and
additional details of access, such as the routing from the home page of the
source. N.B. the URL should be underlined [Accessed date]
• Hamill, C., 1999. Academic essay writing in the first person: a guide for
undergraduates. Nursing Standard, [Online] 21 Jul., 13 (44), p. 38-40.
Available at: http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ejournals/333 [accessed 12 June
2005].

20. Books
• For books the required elements for a references are:
Author, Initials., Year. Title of book. Edition. Place: Publisher.
• Redman, P., 2006. Good essay writing: a social sciences guide. 3rd ed. London:
Open University in assoc. with Sage.

21. Books with two, three or four authors
• The required elements for a reference are:
Authors, Initials., Year. Title of book. Edition. (only include this if not
the first edition) Place: Publisher
• Kirk, J. & Munday, R.J., 1988. Narrative analysis. 3rd ed. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
• Note: Names should all be included in the order they appear in the
document. Use an ampersand, not ‘and’ to link the last two multiple
authors.

22. Books which are edited
• For books which are edited and but give editor(s) surname(s) and
initials, followed by ed. or eds. Please note that ed. is the
abbreviation for both editor and edition.
• The required elements for a reference are:
Author, Initials., Year. Title of book. Edition. (only include this if not
the first edition) Place: Publisher
• Keene, E. ed., 1988. Natural language. Cambridge: University of Cambridge
Press.
• Silverman, D.F. & Propp, K.K. eds., 1990. The active interview. Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage.

23. Chapter from an Edited Book
• Required elements for a reference are:
Chapter author(s) surname(s) and initials.Year.Title of chapter
followed by ‘In’ Book editor(s) initials and surnames with ed. or eds.
after the last name. Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher.
Chapter number or first and last page numbers followed by full-stop.
• Smith, J., 1975. A source of information. In W. Jones, ed. One hundred and
one ways to find information about health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ch. 2.
• Samson, C., 1970. Problems of information studies in history. In S. Stone, ed.
Humanities information research. Sheffield: CRUS, 1980, p. 44-68.

24. APA System (American Psychological Association)
• The American Psychological Association (APA) System is a variation on the author-
date system of referencing within text and bibliography. It was published in 2001
at the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
• This means emphasis is placed on the author and the date of a piece of work to
uniquely identify it.
• It is used by Education, Psychology, and Sciences.
• It is very similar to Harvard. Where APA is primarily used in the USA, Harvard
referencing is the most well used referencing style in the UK and Australia, and is
encouraged for use with the humanities.

25. Vancouver Reference system
• It is also known as the author-number system
• A citation style that uses numbers within the text that refers to
numbered entries in the reference list
• It is popular in the physical sciences and one of the two reference
system normally used in medicine, the other being the Harvard
system.
• Vancouver style is used in MEDLINE and PubMed
• This system has existed since 1978

26. Vancouver Reference system cont….
• Vancouver system has matching number of references indicated
either as a superscript or a number in brackets.
• The surname of the author or the principal author of multi-
authorship comes first, followed by not more than two initials
without a full-stop sign between them
• In case of multiple authors, the names should be separated with
commas.
• The title of the paper comes next followed by the std abbreviation of
the journal, year of publication, the volume and the first and last
pages of the article

27. Vancouver Reference system cont…
• The main advantage of the Vancouver style is that the main text reads
more easily, and some editors consider this to be less obtrusive.
• Additionally, references in the bibliography are directly correlated to
numbers, saving the reader time in searching alphabetically for the
first author of a reference.

28. Vancouver Reference system cont….
• Example
• Citation in the text
"The author has discussed the implications of these proposals on the National
Health Service in another paper (1). Other writers have commented on related
issues, notably Lane (2,3) and Lewis (4). "
• References in the Vancouver style would be cited in numerical order as below..
(1) Annas GJ. New drugs for acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med.
1997;337:435-9.
(2) Grinspoon L, Bakalar JB. Marijuana: the forbidden medicine. London: Yale
University Press; 1993.
(3) Feinberg TE, Farah MJ, editors. Behavioural neurology and neuropsychology.
2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1997.

29. Bibliography
Introduction:
• Bibliography on the other hand refers to list of all the sources of
literature used to generate the ideas about the topic of a research
including those cited in the research as well those not cited.
• It is a list of authors and their contributions used in the study. It
enables the readers to find out the original items

30. What are the different kinds of bibliographies?
• Different types of academic works call for different types of
bibliographies. For example, your computer science professor might
require you to submit an annotated bibliography along with your
paper because this type of bibliography explains the why behind each
source you chose to consult.
• Analytical bibliography
• An analytical bibliography documents a work’s journey from
manuscript to published book or article. This type of bibliography
includes the physical characteristics of each cited source, like each
work’s number of pages, type of binding used, and illustrations.

31. Types of bibliography cont….
• Annotated bibliography
• An annotated bibliography is a bibliography that includes annotations,
which are short notes explaining why the author chose each of the
sources. Generally a few sentences long, these notes might
summarize or reflect on the source.
• An annotated bibliography is not the same as a literature review.
While a literature review discusses how you conducted your research
and how your work fits into the overall body of established research
in your field, an annotated bibliography simply explains how each
source you used is relevant to your work.

32. Types of bibliography cont….
• Enumerative bibliography
• An enumerative bibliography is the most basic type of bibliography. It’s a list of sources
used to conduct research, often ordered according to specific characteristics, like
alphabetically by authors’ last names or grouped according to topic or language.
• Specific types of enumerative bibliographies used for research works include:
- National bibliography
• A national bibliography groups sources published in a specific region or nation. In many
cases, these bibliographies also group works according to the time period during which
they were published.
- Personal bibliography
• A personal bibliography lists multiple works by the same individual author or group of
authors. Often, personal bibliographies include works that would be difficult to find
elsewhere, like unpublished works.

33. Types of bibliography cont….
• Corporate bibliography
• In a corporate bibliography, the sources are grouped according to their
relation to a specific organization. The sources can be about an
organization, published by that organization, or owned by that
organization.
• Subject bibliography
• Subject bibliographies group works according to the subjects they cover.
Generally, these bibliographies list primary and secondary sources,
whereas other types of enumerative bibliographies, like personal
bibliographies, might not.
• Other types of bibliographies
• In some cases, it makes sense to use a bibliography format other than
those listed here. These include:

34. Types of bibliography cont….
- Single-author bibliography
• This type of bibliography lists works by a single author. With certain
assignments, like an essay comparing two of an author’s books, your
bibliography is a single-author bibliography by default. In this case, you can
choose how to order the sources, such as by publication date or
alphabetically by title.
- Selected bibliography
• A selected bibliography is a bibliography that only lists some of the sources
you consulted. Usually, these are the most important sources for your
work. You might write a selected bibliography if you consulted a variety of
minor sources that you didn’t end up citing directly in your work. A
selected bibliography may also be an annotated bibliography.

35. Comparison between Referencing and
Bibliography
Reference
• Implies list of sources cited in
the text of the research.
• Consist of primary sources
• Usually arranged alphabetically
and numerically
• Can be used to support an
argument
• Used in thesis and Dissertations
Bibliography
• List of material consulted during
the research work
• Both primary and secondary
sources
• Arranged numerically
• Cannot be used to support an
argument
• Used in journal papers and
Research work.

36. Terminologist
• Citation: It is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and
intellectual works that you utilized to support your research. It can also be used
to locate particular sources and combat plagiarism. Typically, a citation can
include the author's name, date, location of the publishing company, journal title,
or DOI (Digital Object Identifier).
• Citation style: It Dictates the information necessary for a citation and how the
information is ordered, as well as punctuation and other formatting.
• Referencing style: It is a set of rules telling you how to acknowledge the
thoughts, ideas and works of others in a particular way. It is crucial part of
successful academic writing, avoiding plagiarism and is key to your assignments
and research.
• Plagiarism: Quoting or paraphrasing another author's work without including a
reference to it.
It does not only mean cheating, it is mainly used to describe forgetting or not
realizing to include a reference to other's work or theories.

37. Summary
• Reference and Bibliography is an important part of project under
study as it helps in acknowledging other researchers works and helps
readers of research in finding the original sources information.
• They prevent plagiarism and indicates that the researcher had done a
good search on the subject by using information from variety of
sources.
• They gives appropriate credit to the sources and authors.

38. Conclusion
• Which ever particular system you choose, be consistent and maintain
exactly the same style of citation throughout each peace of work.
• The most important thing is to ensure that you include references in
all the right places in your work and acknowledge our indebtedness
to others for ideas and facts.

39. THANK YOU FOR LISTENING
.