Abnormal Psychology

1. Abnormal
Psychology

2. Normality and Abnormality
 Abnormality is the significant deviation from
commonly accepted patterns of behavior,
emotion or thought, while normality is the
absence of illness and the presence of state
of well being. It can be difficult to draw the line
between normal and abnormal behaviors

4. Abnormality
 Story was told of Rodney, who happened
to be good with the computer when it first
came out, a time where a huge percentage
of people were skeptical about its good.

5.  Rodney was seen as a no good by his family
and fellow students. But little did they know he
would make his first million through his
internet marketing business, and found a
multimillion dollar company using his
“skewed” nerd skills. He converted his
abnormal situation to a case of normalcy in a
context where using internet was abnormal
and irresponsible to people. So sometimes,
labelling abnormal is just a matter of context,
understanding and insight.

6. Causes for Abnormal Behaviour
 The cause of a disease is also known as
the etiology or pathogenesis .
 Kenneth Rothman, a famous American
epidemiologist, define a cause as “an
event, condition, or characteristic without
which the disease would not have
occurred.”

7. Risk factors for Abnormal
Behaviour
 Any behavioral, hereditary, environmental, or
other consideration which increases
the likelihood of developing a disease or
disorder , or becoming involved in dangerous
situations.
 RISK FACTOR: "Unprotected sex is a risk
factor in sexually transmitted diseases.“


8.  Risk factors have been divided into three
large categories: those at the level of
 the individual
 the family
 the community.

9.  The first category of risk factors is defined at
the level of the individual.
 Both physical and emotional considerations
are relevant.

10. Biological factors of abnormal
behavior
 Biological viewpoint believes that cognitive,
emotional and behavioral symptoms of
psychological disorders originate from disorders of
nervous system and endocrine system or they are
inherited. A number of these causes are operative
during pre-natal and post-natal developmental
stages. These causes include genetic
vulnerabilities, constitutional liabilities and physical
deprivation.

11. Biological factors
 In order for the brain to function adequately
neurons, or excited nerve cells, need to be
able to communicate effectively with one
another.
 The site of communication from the axon of
one neuron to the dendrites or cell body of
another neuron is the synapse (or
synapticcleft) _a tiny filled space between
neurons.

12. Neurotransmitters
 These interneuronal ( or transsynaptic )
transmissions are accomplished by chemicals
called neurotransmitters that are released
into the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic
neuron when a nerve impulse occurs . there
are many different kinds of neurotransmitters;

13. Some increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic
neuron will “fire” (produce an impulse), while
others inhibit the impulse.
Whether the neural message is successfully
transmitted to the postsynaptic neuron depends,
among other things, on the concentration of
certain neurotransmitters within the synaptic cleft .

14.  Neurotransmitters, simply defined as,
chemicals, released by neurons, that carry
information across the synapses
 Neurotransmitters produce one of two
effects. Their effects are
 Excitatory
 Inhibitory

16.  Excitatory neurotransmitters trigger
depolarisation, increasing the likelihood of a
response
 Inhibitory neurotransmitters trigger
hyperpolarisation, decreasing the likelihood of
a response

17. Some of the major neurotransmitters
 Acetylcholine (Excitatory)
 Norepinephrine (Excitatory)
 Dopamine (Excitatory and Inhibitory)
 Serotonin (Excitatory)
 GABA (gamma-amino-butyric acid)
(Inhibitory)

19. Imbalances of
Neurotransmitters
 The belief that neurotransmitter
imbalances in the brain can result in
abnormal behavior is one of the basic tenets
of the biological perspective today,
sometimes psychological stress can bring
on neurotransmitter imbalances.

20.  If a particular drug mimics, or enhances the
impact of, a specific neurotransmitter at a
receptor site, it is said to be an agonist of the
neurotransmitter.
 If, in contrast, a drug interferes with, or inhibits
the impact of, a neurotransmitter at a receptor
site, it is said to be an antagonist of the
neurotransmitter.

21. Factors affecting neurotransmitter imbalance
include:
Excessive production and release of the
neurotransmitter substance into the synapses,
causing an excess in levels of that
neurotransmitter.

22. Factors affecting neurotransmitter
imbalance include:
 Dysfunctions in the normal processes by which
neurotransmitters are deactivated after they are
released into the synapse. This deactivation is
done in two ways. They are either deactivated by
enzymes present in the synapse or reabsorbed or
sucked back into the presynaptic axon button, a
process called re-uptake. Dysfunctions can occur
when the enzymes in the synapse are deficient or
there is slowing of the process of re-uptake.

23. Factors affecting neurotransmitter
imbalance include:
 Problems in the receptors in the postsynaptic
neuron, which may either be abnormally
sensitive or insensitive.

24.  Different disorders are thought to occur from
different patterns of neurotransmitter
imbalances.
 Different types of drugs that are used to treat
various disorders are believed to work by
correcting these imbalances

25.  Although there are dozens of different kinds of
neurotransmitters, there are five that have
been most extensively studied in relationship
to psychopathology:
 norepinephrine
 dopamine
 serotonin
 (These all part of a class of neurotransmitters
called monamines because they are each
synthesized from a single amino acid (
monoamine means one amine)

26.  4) GABA.
 Dopamine and norepinephrine are most closely
related to one another (both are called
catecholamines ) because they are both
synthesized from a common amino acid,
 Norepinephrine has been implicated as playing an
important role in the emergency reactions our
bodies show when we are exposed to an acutely
stressful or dangerous situation.

28. Acetylcholine
 Acetylcholine, an ester of choline and acetic
acid that serves as a transmitter substance of
nerve impulses within the central and
peripheral nervous systems.

29.  Acetylcholine is the chief neurotransmitter of
the parasympathetic nervous system, the part
of the autonomic nervous system (a branch of
the peripheral nervous system) that contracts
smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels,
increases bodily secretions, and slows heart
rate.

30. Norepinephrine
 Norepinephrine, also called noradrenaline,
substance that is released predominantly from the
ends of sympathetic nerve fibres and that acts to
increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction
and the rate and force of contraction of the heart.
The actions of norepinephrine are vital to the fight-
or-flight response, whereby the body prepares to
react to or retreat from an acute threat.

32. Dopamine
 Dopamine is our main "focus"
neurotransmitter that also regulates our
pleasure/reward circuits, memory, and motor
control (physical movement and
coordination). It acts as either an excitatory
or inhibitory neurotransmitter, depending on
the dopamine receptor it binds to

33. Dopamine
Dopamine is sometimes called the “pleasure
neurotransmitter,” because it is the primary
neurotransmitter in the brain reward system
and is associated with adventuresome and
exploratory behaviors. Many drugs of abuse
(e.g., amphetamines, cocaine) exert their
psychoactive effects by increasing
dopaminergic tone.

34. Dopamine – low level
 Low dopamine levels can cause depression,
loss of motor control, loss of satisfaction,
addictions, cravings, compulsions, low sex
drive, poor attention and focus. When
dopamine levels are elevated symptoms may
manifest in the form of anxiety, paranoia, or
hyperactivity.

35. Dopamine
 Dopamine levels are depleted by stress,
certain antidepressants, drug use, poor
nutrition, and poor sleep.
 Alcohol, caffeine, and sugar all seem to
decrease dopamine activity in the brain.

36. Dopamine
 Dopamine precursors are specific amino acids
that our brains utilize to manufacture dopamine.
 Neurotransmitters are frequently not supplied in
great enough levels by our modern diet or in the
way our brain best utilizes them. As stress further
depletes supplies, it is difficult, if not impossible,
for the brain to restore necessary amounts to
proper levels.
 Dopamine supplements may then be required to
increase dopamine and other neurotransmitter
supplies.

37.  GABA is Gamma-aminobutyric acid, a
neurotransmitter and the cornerstone of the
inhibitory (calming) system in the body;
controlling the action of epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and dopamine.

38.  GABA ( short for gamma aminobutryic acid)
was the most recently discovered of the
neurotransmitters and its is strongly
implicated in anxiety.

39.  Inhibitory neurotransmitters and their receptors
reduce excitability in the brains neurons and
increase the likelihood that an incoming signal will
be terminated.
 For optimal functioning, the brain must balance
the excitatory and inhibitory influences:
 Excessive excitation can lead to seizures,
insomnia, anxiety, and many other clinical
conditions, whereas excessive inhibition of
neurons can result in incoordination, sedation,
and anesthesia.

40.  GABA can be viewed as the "braking system" in
the realm of neurotransmitters.
 GABA's high concentration in the hypothalamus
suggests it plays a significant role in
hypothalamic-pituitary function. The hypothalamus
is a region of the posterior section of the brain that
is the regulating center for visceral (instinctive)
functions such as sleep cycles, body temperature
and the activity of the pituitary gland.

41.  Low GABA levels have been found in the
brains of patients with multiple sclerosis,
action tremors, tardive dyskinesia, & other
disorders of movement.

42.  LOW GABA LEVELS HAVE BEEN FOUND
IN:
 panic anxiety
 depression
 alcoholism
 bipolar disorders


43. CAUSES OF GABA
DEFICIENCY
 GABA receptor function may be reduced
because of a genetic polymorphism in the
GABA receptor that reduces the efficiency of
GABA neurotransmission, the presence of
GABA receptor inhibitors, or low serotonin
levels. Serotonin is a positive regulator of
GABA-GABA receptor interaction.

44.  DEFICIENT GABA LEVELS THAT MAY BE CAUSED
BY:
 Inadequate diet
 Prolonged stress
 Genetics
 An inadequate GABA response may lead to an
extended state of excitement and electrical stimulation
in the brain.
 GABA deficiency can be linked to anxiety disorders
such as panic attacks, seizure disorders like epilepsy,
and numerous other conditions including addiction,
headaches, Parkinson's Syndrome, and cognitive
impairment. GABA's role is that of the primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter and functions by down-regulating
neurotransmission.

45. SEROTONIN
 Serotonin is involved in the regulation of several
processes within the brain, including, depression,
mood, emotions, aggression, sleep, appetite, anxiety,
memory and perceptions.
 Serotonin regulates these processes through pathways
that innervate (connect to) different brain regions. Most
cells in the brain, over 40 million, are either directly or
indirectly affected by serotonin levels as well as
muscles, and parts of the cardiovascular and endocrine
systems. Because of this far reaching influence, low
serotonin levels are often attributed to anxiety, panic
attacks, obesity, insomnia, and fibromyalgia.

46.  Serotonin is synthesized from a different
amino acid than are the catecholamines and
is called an indolamine. It has been found to
have important effects in the way we process
information from our environment and seems
to play a role in emotional disorders such as
anxiety and depression as well as suicide.

47. Function of serotonin
 The function of serotonin depends on the region
of the brain into which it is released (it also
depends on the type of serotonin receptor present
in that region). For example, the serotonin
neurons in the neocortex in the front of the brain
(frontal cortex) regulate cognition, memory, and
perceptions. The serotonin neurons in the
hippocampus regulate memory and mood. The
serotonin neurons in other limbic areas such as
the amygdala also regulate mood.

48. FACTORS CAN CAUSE LOW
SEROTONIN LEVELS:
 Alcohol
 Artificial sweeteners (aspartame)
 Caffeine
 Cigarette Smoking
 Diabetes
 Dietary deficiencies of nutrient co-factors
 Ecstasy, Diet Pills, and certain medications
 Genetic Predisposition
 Hormone Imbalances (thyroid, adrenal, estrogen)
 Hypoglycemia

49.  Insulin Resistance
 Inflammation
 Infections
 Poor Diet
 Lack of exercise
 Lack of sunlight
 Problems converting tryptophan to Serotonin
 Problems with Digestion
 Stress and Anger
 High Cortisol Levels

50. LOW SEROTONIN SYMPTOMS
 Low serotonin levels are often attributed to
anxiety, depression, panic attacks, insomnia,
obesity, fibromyalgia, eating disorders,
chronic pain, migraines, and alcohol abuse.
Negative thoughts, low self-esteem,
obsessive thoughts and behaviors, PMS, and
Irritable Bowel Syndrome are also symptoms
of low serotonin.

51.  Once natural serotonin levels are low enough to cause
syptoms it is very difficult to significantly raise serotonin
levels enough by food alone.
 SSRI's or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
and SNRIs, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitors do not actually increase the amount of
serotonin molecules in the brain. SSRI’s are
thought to block the reabsorption (reuptake) of
serotonin by certain nerve cells in the brain. This
theoretically leaves more serotonin available in the
brain.

52. Applying Knowledge of Synaptic Transmission
to Treat Psychological Disorders
 Schizophrenia
 A chronic disorganization of mental function
that affects thinking (paranoid ideas, high
distractibility), feelings (blunted affect,
inappropriate reactions to social situations),
and movement (from hyperactivity and
excitement to bizarre postures maintained for
extended periods of time).

53.  What’s Going on Here?
Schizophrenia is associated with too much
dopamine in the brain.
 How Is It Treated?
Schizophrenia can often be treated successfully
with dopamine antagonists—drugs that block
the action of dopamine at certain receptor
sites in the brain.

54. Applying Knowledge of Synaptic Transmission
to Treat Psychological Disorders
 Depression
A psychological disorder involving intense
feelings of sadness, lack of energy, and
feelings of hopelessness and despair.
 What’s Going on Here?
 Some types of depression appear to be
associated with decreased levels of
serotonin—a neurotransmitter—in the brain.

55.  How Is It Treated?
Successful treatment of depression has
included drugs, such as Prozac, that block the
reuptake of serotonin in the synapse, thereby
increasing the amount of available serotonin
at certain receptor sites.

56. Hormonal imbalances
 Hormones are chemical messengers secreted
by a set of endocrine glands in human bodies.
 Each of the endocrine glands produce and
release its own set of hormones, which travel
through the bloodstream and affect various
parts of the brain and body

57. Neurohormones
Substances secreted by endocrine glands that
regulate a wide range of bodily processes.
neurohormones—hormones that interact with
and affect the nervous system. Neurohormones,
like neurotransmitters, influence neural activity.
However, because they are released into the
circulatory system rather than into synapses, they
exert their effects more slowly, at a greater
distance, and often for longer periods of time than
neurotransmitters

58. Endocrine system
 Endocrine glands that secrete hormones
directly into the bloodstream.
 Endocrine glands are found in several
locations throughout the body. The hormones
they produce exert important effects on many
bodily processes.
 The pituitary gland, which is the master gland
of the body that produces a variety of
hormones

60. Pituitary gland
 The relationships between the hypothalamus
and the endocrine glands are complex.
Basically, though, the hypothalamus exerts its
influence through the pituitary gland

61. Pituitary gland
This gland is located just below the
hypothalamus and is closely connected to it.
The pituitary is sometimes described as the
master gland of the body, for the hormones it
releases control and regulate the actions of
other endocrine glands.

62. Pituitary gland
The pituitary is really two glands in one,
 the posterior pituitary
 the anterior pituitary.
The posterior pituitary releases hormones that regulate
reabsorption of water by the kidneys and, in females,
the production and release of milk.
It is the anterior pituitary that releases the hormones that
regulate the activity of other endocrine glands. One
such hormone, ACTH, stimulates the outer layer of the
adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex, causing it to secrete
cortisone. Cortisone, in turn, affects cells in many parts
of the body.

63. Hormones
The pituitary also secretes hormones that affect
sexual development, govern the functioning of
the sexual glands (regulating the amount of
hormones they release), and help control basic
bodily functions relating to metabolism and
excretion.

64. Disorder related to hormones
A dramatic illustration of the importance of
hormones secreted by the endocrine glands is
provided by a disorder known as the
congenital adrenogenital syndrome (CAS). In
this condition excessive levels of adrenal
androgens (hormones that typically exist in
higher concentrations in males than in
females) are produced. In males, this disorder
merely accelerates the onset of puberty. In
females, however, the syndrome has much
more disturbing effects.

65. Congenital Adrenogenital Syndrome
A female suffering from this disorder is born with external
sexual organs that are distinctly masculine in
appearance. If her condition is recognized at birth and
she receives corrective surgery plus hormonal
treatment designed to reduce levels of androgens, the
girl’s development may proceed normally. If, however,
she does not receive treatment until her teen years,
she may retain some masculine characteristics; she
may describe herself as a tomboy, prefer boys’ clothes,
and express little interest in babies or future maternity
(Ehrhardt & Meyer-Bahlberg, 1981). Since many other
females also demonstrate such tendencies, however,
the meaning of these findings is somewhat difficult to
interpret.

66. Adrenogenic Insensitivity syndrome
In another disorder, known as the adrenogenic
insensitivity syndrome, the cells of genetic males lack
receptors for androgens. Such persons are born with
genitals that are distinctly female, and they develop as
what appear to be normal females. As noted by Money
and Ehrhardt (1972), their childhood play, goals, sexual
behavior, and maternal interests all conform to patterns
traditionally seen among females. However, these
individuals are unable to have children, since they lack
ovaries and other internal female sexual organs.
Treatment for such persons includes surgical
enlargement of the vagina and psychological
counseling to help them cope with the fact that because
of their condition, they cannot become pregnant.

67. Role does the endocrine system play in
shaping gender specific behaviors
Genetically based hormonal disturbances
such as congenital adrenogenital syndrome
(CAS) and Adrenogenic Insensitivity
syndrome may play a role in shaping gender-
specific behaviors.

68. Genetic Vulnerabilities
 The genetic transmission of traits or
vulnerabilities from one generation to the next
is, by definition , a biological process.
 Heredity is an important predisposing causal
factor for a number of different disorders-such
as depression, schizophrenia, and
alcoholism-support the biological viewpoint.

69. Heredity and Chromosomes
Heredity: Biologically determined characteristics
passed from parents to their offspring.
Chromosomes: Threadlike structures containing
genetic material, found in nearly every cell of the body.
Genes: Biological “blueprints” that shape development
and all basic bodily processes.
Mitosis: Cell division in which chromosome pairs split
and then replicate themselves so that the full number is
restored in each of the cells produced by division

70. Chromosomes
 Every cell of body contains a set of biological
blueprints that enable it to perform its essential
functions. This information is contained in
chromosomes, strandlike structures found in the
nuclei of all cells Chromosomes are composed of
a substance known as DNA, short for
deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA, in turn, is made up of
several simpler components arranged in the form
of a double helix—something like the twisting
water slides found by the sides of large swimming
pools.

71. Genes
 Chromosomes contain thousands of genes—
segments of DNA that serve as basic units of
heredity.
 Our genes, working in complex combinations and in
concert with forces in the environment, ultimately
determine all aspects of our biological makeup.

72. Genes
Genes do not directly control behavior or other aspects of
life genes exert their influence only indirectly, through
their influence on chemical reactions in the brain or
other organs. These reactions, in turn, may depend on
certain environmental conditions. One example is
phenylketonuria (PKU), a genetically based
disorder in which persons lack the enzyme necessary
to break down phenylalanine— a substance present in
many foods. Affected persons on a normal diet tend to
accumulate phenylalanine in their bodies. This, in turn,
interferes with normal development of the brain and
leads to mental retardation, seizures, and hyperactivity

73. Altering environmental conditions, however, can prevent this
chain of events. Hospitals now routinely screen infants’
blood for high levels of phenylalanine. If PKU is detected
during the first few weeks of life, babies placed on a diet
low in phenylalanine do not
develop the PKU symptoms. Dietary restrictions can then be
relaxed in late childhood, after the majority of brain
development is complete.

74. “Nature–Nurture controversy”

75.  According to Bem, biological variables, such
as genes, do not determine sexual orientation
directly, but instead shape childhood
temperaments that predispose some children
to prefer male-typical activities, such as
rough-and-tumble play, and others to prefer
female-typical activities

76. Temperament
 It is stable individual differences in
characteristic mood, activity level, and
emotional reactivity as temperament. Stable
individual differences in the quality and
intensity of emotional reactions.

77. Temperament
 Newborns differ in how they react to particular
kinds of stimuli. Some are startled by slight
sound or cry if sunlight hits their faces; others
are seemingly insensitive to such stimulation .
These reactions differ from baby to baby and
are example of characteristic behaviors that
appear to have been established before any
extensive interaction with the environment.

78. Most infants can be divided into three basic categories
with respect to temperament (Thomas & Chess, 1989).
Those in the first category, about 40 percent of infants,
are described as easy children. They quickly establish
regular routines in infancy, are generally cheerful, and
adapt easily to new experiences. About 10 percent are
difficult children. They are irregular in daily routines,
are slow to accept new situations or experiences, and
show negative reactions more than other infants.

79.  Finally, about 15 percent can be described as
slow-to-warm-up children. They are
relatively inactive and apathetic and show
mild negative reactions when exposed to
unexpected events or new situations. The
remaining 35 percent of infants cannot be
readily classified under one of these
headings.

80.  Girls and boys don’t differ with respect to
problems relating to temperament during the
first three years of life, such differences begin
to appear, and to widen, after that age: Boys
show a higher incidence of “difficult”
behaviors

81. Temperament-related problems
When children enter school, boys show much higher
rates with respect to what have been termed
externalizing disorders—problems relating to
overt behavior, such as hyperactivity and conduct
disorders—than do girls (Keenan & Shaw, 1997).
This advantage for girls persists until
adolescence,
when they begin to experience higher rates of
internalizing disorders—depression and mood
disturbances—than do boys

82.  The infant dimensions of fearfulness and
irritability correspond to the adult dimension of
neuroticism-the disposition to experience
negative affect. The infant dimensions of
positive affect and possibly activity-level seem
related to the adult dimension of extraversion,
and the infant dimension of attentional
persistence seems related to adult dimension
of constraint or control.

83. Brain dysfunction
 Brain disorders include any conditions or
disabilities that affect brain. This includes
conditions that are caused by:
 illness
 genetics
 traumatic injury

84. Brain
 The left hemisphere specializes in verbal
activities like speaking, reading, and writing and in logical
thought and the analysis of information. The right
hemisphere specializes in the control of certain motor
movements, in synthesis (putting isolated elements
together), and in the comprehension and
communication of emotion.

85. Brain dysfunction
 Brain injuries
 Brain tumors
 Neurodegenerative diseases
 Brain injuries are often caused by blunt trauma. Trauma
can damage brain tissue, neurons, and nerves. This
damage affects brain’s ability to communicate with the
rest of body. Examples of brain injuries include:
 Hematomas
 Blood clots
 Contusions, or bruising of brain tissue
 Cerebral edema or swelling inside the skull
 concussions
 strokes

86. Brain injury and brain tumor
 Traumatic brain injury is most common in
children under 4 years old, young adults
between 15 and 25 years old, and adults 65
and older.
 Brain tumors can affect people at any age.

87.  Helen Mayberg, MD, a professor of psychiatry and
neurology at Emory University, has been actively
involved in research that singled out a region of
the brain — Brodmann area 25 — that is
overactive in people with depression. Mayberg
describes area 25 as a "junction box" that
interacts with other areas of the brain involved in
mood, emotion and thinking. She has
demonstrated that deep-brain stimulation of the
area can alleviate symptoms in people with
treatment-resistant depression (Neuron, 2005).

88.  More recently, the McGill team studied the
brains of people who committed suicide, and
found those who had been abused in
childhood had unique patterns of epigenetic
tags in their brains (Nature Neuroscience,
2009). "Stress gets under the skin, so to
speak," McNally says.

89. Brain Dysfunction and Neural
Plasticity
 Significant damage of brain tissue places a
person at risk for psychopathology, but
specific brain lesions are rarely a primary
cause of psychiatric disorder. Brain damage in
the elderly sometimes leads to abnormal
behavior. In addition, it also increase
vulnerability by making a person less able to
cope.

90. Psychosocial factors
 The combination of psychological, and
environmental factors that contribute to
abnormality is called psychosocial factors
 Psychosocial factors are those developmental
influences that may handicap a person
psychologically, making him or her less
resourceful in coping with events

91. Psychosocial factors
 early deprivation or trauma,
 inadequate parenting styles
 marital discord and divorce structures, and
 maladaptive peer relationships.

92. Physical Deprivation or
Disturbance
 Depressions, for example, frequently
accompany significant physical illnesses is
part because illnesses painfully remind of the
limits of control over the life.

93. Deprivation of basic Physiology Needs
 The most basic human requirements are
those for food, oxygen , water, sleep, and
the elimination of wastes.
 Insufficient rest, inadequate diet, or
working too hard when ill, can all interfere
with a person’s ability to cope and predispose
him or her to a variety of problems.

94.  Prolonged food deprivation also affects psychological
functioning
 It is also now recognized that chronic but even
relatively mild sleep deprivation can have adverse
emotional consequences in children and adolescents.

95. Schemas and Self-Schemas
 A schema is an organized representation of prior
knowledge about a concept or about some stimulus
that helps guide our processing of current information (
Alloy & Tabachnik, 1984; Fiske & taylor, 1991).
 Our self-schemas include our views on what we are,
what we might become, and what is important to us.
Other aspects of our self-schema concern our notions
of the various roles we occupy or might occupy in our
social environment, such as woman, man, student,
parent, physician, American, older person, and so no.

96. Variations in Schemas and
Personal Growth
 A person’s failure to acquire appropriate
principles or rules in cognitive organization
can make him or her vulnerable to
psychological problems later in life.

97. Early Deprivation or Trauma
 The deprivation of needed resources
normally supplied by parents or parental
surrogates is one such circumstance.
 The needed resources range from food and
shelter, to love and attention. Parental
deprivation of such resources can occur in
several forms.

98. Early Deprivation or Trauma
 For example, it can occur even in intact families
where, for one reason or another, parents are
unable (for instance, because of mental disorder)
or unwilling to provide for a child’s needs forclose
and frequent human contact. But the most severe
manifestations of deprivation are usually seen
among abandoned or orphaned children who may
either be institutionalized or placed in a
succession of unwholesome foster homes.

99. Institutionalization
 As noted, in some cases children are raised in an
institution where, compared with an ordinary home,
there is likely to be less warmth and physical contact;
less intellectual, emotional, and social stimulation; and
a lack of encouragement and help in positive learning.
It is clear that many children deprived of normal
parenting in infancy and early childhood show
maladaptive personality development and are at risk for
psychopathology.

100. Deprivation and Abuse in the
Home
 Most infants subjected to parental
deprivation are not separated from their
parents, but rather suffer from inadequate
care at home. Parental rejection of a child
may be demonstrated in various ways- by
physical neglect, denial of love and affection,
lack of interest in the child’s activities and
achievements, failure to spend time with the
child, and lack of respect for the child’s rights
and feelings.

101. In a minority of cases, it also involves cruel
and abusive treatment .
 Among infants, gross neglect may be worse
than having an abusive relationship. Abused
children often have a tendency to be overly
aggressive (both verbally and physically) and
some even respond with anger and
aggression to friendly overtures from peers

102. Other Childhood Traumas
The term psychic trauma is used to describe
any aversive (unpleasant) experience that
has harmful psychological effects on an
individual,

103. Parental Psychopathology
Parental Psychopathology in general, it has
been found that parents who have various
forms of psychopathology, including
schizophrenia, depression, antisocial
personality disorder, and alcoholism, tend to
have children who are at heightened risk for a
wide range of developmental difficulties.

104. Parenting Styles
 Warmth and Control four types of parenting
styles have been identified that seem to be related
to different developmental outcomes for the children:
 Authoritative
 Authoritarian
 Permissive/indulgent
 Neglectful/uninvolved

105. Authoritative Parenting
The authoritative style is one in which the
parents are both very warm and very careful to
set clear limits and restrictions regarding certain
kinds of behaviors, but also allow considerable
freedom within certain limits. This style of
parenting is associated with the most positive
early social development, with the children
tending to be energetic and friendly and showing
development of general competencies for dealing
with others and with their environments.

106. Authoritarian Parenting
Parents with an authoritarian style are high on
control but low on warmth, and their children
tend to be conflicted, irritable, and moody. When
followed into adolescence, these children had
more negative outcomes, with the boys doing
particularly poorly in social and cognitive skills. If
such authoritarian parents also use overly severe
discipline in the form of physical punishment-as
opposed to the withdrawal of approval and
privileges-the result tends to be increased
aggressive behavior on the part of the child.

107. Permissive indulgent Parenting
A third parenting styles the permissive-indulgent
style, in which parents are high on warmth but
low on discipline and control. This style of
parenting is associated with impulsive and
aggressive behavior in children. Overly
indulged children are characteristically
spoiled, selfish, inconsiderate, and
demanding.

108. Neglect parenting
 Some parents are too busy or preoccupied
with their own concerns to listen to their
children and to try to understand the conflicts
and pressures they are facing. As a
consequence, these parents often fail to give
needed support and assistance, particularly
when there is a crisis.

109. Marital Discord and Divorce
Disturbance family structure is an overarching
risk factor that increases an individual’s
vulnerability to particular stressors.

110. Marital Discord
One spouse may express feelings of frustration
and disillusionment in hostile ways such as
nagging, criticizing, and doing things
purposely to annoy the other person.
Whatever the reasons for the difficulties,
seriously discordant relationships of long
standing are likely to be frustrating, hurtful,
and generally damaging in their effects on the
adults and their children.

111. Divorced families
 In many cases a family is incomplete as a result of
death, divorce, separation, or some other
circumstance.

113. Maladaptive Peer
Relationships
Another important set of relationships outside
the family usually begins in the preschool
years those involving age-mates, or peers.

114. Maladaptive Peer Relationships
Peer social problems in childhood have been linked
to a variety of breakdowns in later adaptive
functioning, including depression, school dropout,
and delinquency.

115.  A child who fails to establish a satisfactory
relationship with peers during the
developmental years is deprived of a crucial
set of background experience and is at
higher-than-average risk for a variety of
negative outcomes in adolescence and
adulthood.

116. Peer pressures