Social Science Research- Research Methodology, Methods, and techniques. induction and deduction approach.

1. Social Science
Research
Ashitha T
PhD Research Scholar
DCMS
Calicut University

2. Research
It is an organized and systematic study of materials and sources in order to discover new
things and establish facts and reach new conclusion.
Characteristics
. Aims at solving a problem
. Purposive
. New knowledge
. Primary and secondary data
. Expertise and skills
. Objective and logical
. Documentation and reporting

3. Objectives
– To explore
– To describe
– To diagnose
– To establish causal
relationship
Significance of research
– Discovery and innovations
– Decision making
– Helps to ascertain trend
– Frame government policies
– Useful for business
organizations

4. Social Science Research
– Sciences are broadly divided into natural and social science
– Social science includes various disciplines dealing with human life ,behavior, social groups
and social institution
– Social science research ─ refers to any scientific study of human action and interaction
focusing on elements of thought and behavior that are in some sense social.
Assumptions
– Neutral and unbiased study
– Same kind of natural law or norms in the society
– Similar causes produce similar effect under similar conditions
– Results are generalizable
– Samples are true representatives

5. Functions of SR
– Discovery of facts and their
interpretation
– Diagnosis of problem and their
analysis
– Control over social phenomenon
– Prediction
– Development planning
– Social welfare
Objectives
– To discover new facts or to
verify and test existing facts
– To understand human
behavior
– To develop new tools,
concepts and theories
– To identify social problems

6. Inductive approach
– Bottom up
– Specific to general
– It consist of studying several individual cases and
drawing a generalization
– Conclusion are tentative in nature
 Enumerative induction
 Analytic induction
Deductive approach
– Top down
– General to specific
– The process starts with an existing theory from which
we develop a specific hypothesis
Hypothetical deductive approach
– Used to improve or clarify previous theories
according to new knowledge gathered through
observation.

7. Deductive and Inductive approaches to Research
– Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations, and deductive
reasoning the other way around.
– The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims
at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.

8. Research Methodology
Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and
analyze information about a topic.
In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall
validity and reliability.
It’s about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that
address the research aims and objectives.
In social science
– There won’t be a single methodology for all social sciences.
– Both qualitative and quantitative research go hand in hand
– Modern approach is demanding interdisciplinary approach

9. Contents of Research methodology
section
– Introduce your method
– Methodological connection
– Instruments using
– Discuss analysis
– Background information
– Sampling process
– Research limitations

10. Business Research
Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information of all the areas of business and using such
information in maximizing the sales and profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which
product/service is most profitable or in demand.
Research is an important part of a business’ decision-making process, especially when it comes to major structural
changes or new product lines. Even highly innovative companies rely on extensive information about consumer
needs, market trends and management practices when developing a business strategy.
-Market and consumer research
-Competition research
- Internal research

12. Types of Business Research
 Applied
To solve a current problem faced by the manager
 Basic
To generate a body of knowledge about how to
solve problems that could be occurred in
organisation
Research in Business Decisions
 In management
– Employee attitude and behavior
– HRM
– Production operation management
– Information system
 In marketing
– Advertising
– Sales promotion
– Product packing
– Consumer preferences
– New product development

13. Scientific research
It is systematic step by step procedure following the logical process of reasoning.
Basis
– Empirical evidence
– Relevant concepts
– Ethical neutrality
– Generalization
– Verifiability
– Logical reasoning
process
Scientific research process by Horton
and Hund
– Defining the problem
– Review of literature
– Formulation of hypothesis
– Research design
– Data collection
– Analysis
– Drawing conclusion
– Replicate the study for generalization

14. Research
methods,
Methodology
and Techniques

15. Research methods
.
All the techniques that have been used to conduct the research.
It explain the modus operandi of conducting research.
There will be different research methods for different research questions.
– Fundamental
– Applied
– Action
– Qualitative
– Quantitative
– Explanatory
– Exploratory
– descriptive
– Longitudinal
– Cross sectional
– Mixed
– Experimental research
– Historical
– Philosophical
– Ex post facto
– Correlational studies

16. Research methodology
– The science of research method
– For each method there will be certain steps to follow that is called its
methodology
– Logic behind research
– It is the systematic and theoretical analysis of the methods applied to
the field of study
– Researcher will describe, explain and justify the method chosen for the
study
– It will determine study’s validity and reliability.

17. Research techniques
– Instruments and behaviors used in the research.
– It is the particular step taken to collect data foe further analysis and
interpretation process.
– Used mainly for data collection and selection of statistical analysis
procedure.
– Questionnaire, interview schedule, score cards, measurement scales,..

18. Methodology & Method
Research methodology Research methods
Beginning of any scientific or non scientific
research
End of any scientific or non scientific research
Involves learning various techniques that can be
used to conduct research
Involves conducts experiments, tests, surveys, etc.
Aims at employment of the correct procedures to
find solution to research problem
Aims at finding solutions to research problems

19. Method & Techniques
Type Methods Techniques
Library research Analysis of historical records Recording notes, content analysis,
etc.
Analysis of documents Statistical compilation and
manipulations, reference and
abstract guides, content analysis.
Field research Personal/ group/ focused group
interviews
Telephone surveys, observations
Case studies, Mailed
questionnaire.
Behavioural scales, score cards
Attitude scales, projective
techniques
Detailed schedule with open and
closed questions.
Laboratory research Small group study of random
behavior, play and role analysis
Use of audio visual recording
devices, use of observation
Hypothesis testing Pre test, post test, measuring and
recording.

20. Basis Methodology Method Technique
Definition It is the science of methods. Techniques used for conducting
research
They are the instruments and
behaviors used in research
Purpose Explain the logic behind research. Explain the modus operandi of
conducting research
Help in actually conducting the
research
Example It is given in the research proposal
prepared in response to a problem.
Interview, content analysis,
observation
Questionnaire, interview
schedule, score cards,
measurement scales.

21. Different research techniques used in
research
– Questionnaire and
schedule
– Observation schedule or
observationnaire
– Interview guide
– Rating scale
– Check list
– Opinionnaire
– Scales and indices
 Arbitrary scales
 Thurstone differential scales
 Rating scale
 Ranking scale
 Guttman scale
 Semantic differential scale
 Attitude scales
 Socio economic status scales
 Pilot study and pre testing

22. Questionnaire and schedule
– Both contain set of questions logically related to a problem under study
– Both aims to record response from respondents
– Schedule is used as a tool for interviewing. It will be filled by the interviewer or
enumerator.
– Questionnaire is filled by the respondent
Observation schedule or observationnaire
– A form on which observations of an object or phenomenon are recorded.
– Observation will be based on the study
– It helps to avoid observational mistakes and biases.

23. Interview guide
– Directive and depth interviews
– Broad topic or area to be covered. It is not specific
– Provides outline for the interview.
– Flexible
Rating scales
– Recording form used to measure individuals attitude, aspirations and other
psychological and behavioral aspects.
– Either a graphic rating scale or an itemized scale

24. Check list
– Simplest
– It consist of a prepared list of items pertinent to an object or particular task. The
presence or absence of each item maybe indicated by checking yes or no or
multiple scale
– Can be a independent tool or as part of questionnaire/ schedule
Opinionnaire
– List of questions or statements related to an issue or programe
– Used for studying the opinions of people.
– Commonly used in opinion polls
– Respondents are asked to express their response to the listed questions or
statements.

25. Scales and indices
 Arbitrary scales
– Constructed by assigning arbitrary numerical values to the responses to a set of
questions appropriate to a given attribute.
– Values are summed up to secure the attribute scale
 Thurstone differential scale (Judgement scaling)
– Scale consist of number of statemnets whose position on the scale has been
determined previously based on the ranking operation performed by judges
– 3 to 7 point scale is used
 Rating scale

26.  Ranking scale
– Meant for arranging objects or persons in order from most to least with regard to
some attribute
– Does not indicate the difference or distance between ranks
 Guttman scale (Cumulative scale of scalogram)
– Qualitative data
– Possible to know which item respondent has answered positively
– It is a procedure for determining the unidirectionality and reproducibility of a set
of items.

27.  Semantic differential scale (SD Scale)- Osgood
– Attempts to measure the psychological meaning of a concept to individual
– It consist of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually seven points by which groups or
subjects are asked to rate one or more concepts relevant to the selected research
problem.
 Attitude scales
– An attitude is a tendency to act or react in a certain manner based on certain stimuli.
– It is the degree of positive or negative feelings about an object or issue.
– It is not directly observable, but is inferred from one’s verbal and non verbal behavior.
– Their main function is to divide the respondents into a number of broad groups with
regard to particular attitude.

28.  Socio economic status scales
– It covers socio economic status such as economic status, social participation,
educational status. occupational ranking, source of income, material possession,
etc.
– Arbitrary values will be assigning for measurement.
– Socio economic status is correlated with several variables like opinion, attitude,
voting behavior, etc.
 Pilot study and pretesting
– Pretesting is done to test the questionnaire
– Pilot study is to conduct a sample research and find out hindrance in data
collection and also to check reliability and validity of data collected

29. Classification of research
1. Based on objective
– Fundamental
– Applied
– Action
2. Based on nature of data
– Qualitative
– Quantitative
3. Based on nature of findings
– Explanatory
– Exploratory
– descriptive
4. Based on approach involved
– Longitudinal
– Cross sectional
– Mixed
5. Based on experimental manipulations
 Experimental research
– True experimental
– Quasi experimental
 Non experimental research
– Historical
– Philosophical
– Ex post facto
– Correlational studies

30. Pure/ Basic/ Fundamental research
– Undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply that knowledge
– Undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness
– Aims to extension of knowledge. It may leads to the development of new theory or
refinement of an existing theory
– It lays foundation for applied research.
Applied research
– Carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision.
– It is problem oriented and action driven
– They need empirical study for finding solution
– Incidentally it will contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge.

31. Action research
- Evaluation study of an action program launched for solving a problem or to improve existing
situation
- Attempts to solve actual problem in work situation
- Success of action research depends on the corporation of action implementing people and
beneficiaries of the action program
Qualitative research
– To understand a phenomenon from a closer
perspective and to uncover prevalent trends in
thoughts and opinion
– Tries to observe and interpret
– Non statistical data analysis
– Open ended questions
– Data collection methods are semi structured or
unstructured
– Use either hypothesis or research questions
– Interview, focus groups, GD, ethnography, case
study,..
Quantitative research
– To quantify data and generalize results from a
sample to the population of interest.
– Tries to measure and test
– Statistical tools using for data analysis
– Mostly closed questions
– Data collection methods are highly structured
– Mainly uses hypothesis
– Online and postal survey, simulations, etc.

32. Explanatory research
– A type of research that attempts to explain why certain phenomenon work in the way that they do.
– Mainly using in science. And usually after exploratory and descriptive research
– Links different ideas to understand the nature of cause and effect relationship in order to explain why
certain phenomenon occurs
Exploratory research/ Formulative
– Type of research that attempts to explore and investigate a problem that is not clearly defined
– Won’t give a conclusive or final solution
– It is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome.
Descriptive research
– A research that explore and explain an individual group or a situation.
– Aims to test specific hypothesis, examines relationships and describes characteristics and functions.
– Structured and results are more conclusive.

34. Longitudinal research
– A type of correlational research that involves observing certain variables over an
extended period of time
– Period can be weeks, months or even years
– A fixed example of population elements is measured repeatedly on the same variable
– Types
• Trend studies
• Cohort analysis
• Panel study
Trend studies
– It samples different group of people at different time from the same population
– Permits researchers to examine pattern and rate of changes and to make prediction
about future direction based on previously identified patterns and rate of changes.

35. Cohort analysis
– A cohort is a group of individuals who are linked in some way or who have experienced
the same significant life event within a given period.
– Cohort analysis is a study in which some characteristics of one or more cohorts is
measured at 2 or more points in time
Panel studies
– Measures the same sample of respondents at different points in time
– It reveals information about both net change and gross change in the dependent variable
– Mostly used in market research
 Static panel- same members throughout
 Dynamic panels- members substituted from time to time.

36. Cross sectional research
– Collects data to make inferences about a population of interest at one point in time.
– Provides snapshot of the population about which they gather data
– Can adopt any mode of data collection- interview, telephone interview, mailed questionnaire, etc.
– More generalizable than longitudinal
Single cross sectional study- only one sample of respondents is drawn from the target population
Multiple cross sectional study- two or more samples.
• Each sample will be approached once.
• Different samples is obtained at different time over long intervals.
• Comparison at aggregate level but not at the respondents level.

38. Experimental research
- Strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a variable
that can be manipulated by the researcher and a variable that can be measured,
calculated and compared.
• True experiment – used to establish cause and effect relationship
 Manipulation
 Control
 Randomisation
• Quasi experimental- involves manipulation of Independent Variable to observe the
effect on DV

39. Historical research
A procedure supplementary to observation in which the researcher seeks to test the
authenticity of the reports or observation made by others
Analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent past
Ex Post Facto research
It is a deal for conducting social research when it is not possible or acceptable to
manipulate the characteristics of human participants
Correlational studies
• It measures the association and covariation of 2 or more dependent variables
• Used to
– Relationship between two variables
– For prediction
• If there is no association between two variables, then there is no causal
connection.

40. Case study
A systematic inquiry into an event or a set of related events which aims to describe and
explain the phenomenon of interest -Bromley (1990)
Purpose- exploratory, explanatory and descriptive research
Survey research
– To study the relationship and strategies
– Surveys are method of data collection in which information is gathered through oral or
written questioning
– Used to know or get the opinion of a large group of people about a particular topic or
issue.
Evaluation research
Also called program evaluation, refers to a research purpose rather than a specific method
A form of applied research- intended to have some real life effect
“Research seeks to prove, evaluation seeks to improve”- M.Q. Patton

41. Assessment research
Research assessment includes the evaluation of research quality and measurements
of research inputs, outputs and impacts.
Comparative method
It is a process of comparing situations, groups, cultures or whatever, which are
similar and yet which differ in known ways
Interdisciplinary research
– Multidisciplinary, cross disciplinary. Transdisciplinary, sub disciplinary, etc.
– Process of answering a question, solving a problem, or addressing a topic that is
too broad or complex to be dealt with adequately by a single discipline or
profession.

42. THANK YOU..