CONSTRUCTION1

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE OR ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

CTM 156 – INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT IN
CONSTRUCTION

CREDITS HOURS – 3

COURSE MATERIALS
By
PROF. BK BAIDEN PhD FGIOC MPMI MAACE AMASCE

CTM 156 – Introduction to Management in Construction
ÓProf BK Baiden 2018 Page i

Table of Contents
COURSE OUTLINE ............................................................................................................................. 1
Unit 1 – Definition of Management.............................................................................................. 1
A. Meanings of Management ..................................................................................................... 1
B. Features of Management ....................................................................................................... 1
C. Definition of Management ..................................................................................................... 2
D. Activities of Management/Managers ................................................................................. 2
UNIT 2 – EARLY PERSPECTIVE AND CLASSICAL APPROACH ............................................... 4
1. Early perspectives ................................................................................................................... 4
2. Classical Management Approach ......................................................................................... 4
A. Scientific Management ............................................................................................................................... 4
B. Administrative Management................................................................................................................... 7
C. Bureaucratic Management .................................................................................................................... 11
UNIT 3 - HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH ................................................................................13
1. Hawthorne Studies ................................................................................................................13
2. Motivational Need Studies...................................................................................................14
3. Human Involvement in Enterprise ...................................................................................15
UNIT 4 - Modern Management Approach ...............................................................................16
1. Systems Management ..........................................................................................................16
A. Open System.................................................................................................................................................. 16
B. Closed System ............................................................................................................................................... 17
2. Recent theorists .....................................................................................................................17
A. Porter’s Five Forces ................................................................................................................................... 17
B. Organisational Configurations ............................................................................................................. 18
3. Contingency Theorist ............................................................................................................18
A. Contingency Theory .................................................................................................................................. 19
UNIT 5 - Management Functions ...............................................................................................20
1. Planning....................................................................................................................................20
A. Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
B. Importance ..................................................................................................................................................... 20
C. Process ............................................................................................................................................................. 20
D. Types ................................................................................................................................................................ 21
2. Organising ................................................................................................................................21
A. Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 21

ÓProf BK Baiden 2018 Page ii
B. Importance ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
C. Process ............................................................................................................................................................. 22
3. Leading .....................................................................................................................................22
A. Leading - Definition ................................................................................................................................... 22
B. Leadership – Definition ........................................................................................................................... 22
C. Leadership Characteristics ..................................................................................................................... 22
D. Leadership Styles........................................................................................................................................ 22
E. Leadership power ....................................................................................................................................... 23
4. Controlling ...............................................................................................................................24
A. Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 24
B. Features ........................................................................................................................................................... 24
C. Importance ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
5. Other Functions of Management .......................................................................................25
A. Staffing ............................................................................................................................................................. 25
B. Communication............................................................................................................................................ 25
C. Delegation ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
D. Directing ......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Unit 6 – Relevance of Organisations .........................................................................................26
1. Definition .................................................................................................................................26
2. Need for organisations .........................................................................................................26
3. Organisation Structure .........................................................................................................26
A. Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
B. Achievement.................................................................................................................................................. 26
C. Forms ................................................................................................................................................................ 27
4. Organisation Chart ................................................................................................................27
A. Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
B. Purpose ............................................................................................................................................................ 28
C. Types ................................................................................................................................................................. 28
D. Limitations ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
5. Span of Control .......................................................................................................................28
A. Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
B. Factors.............................................................................................................................................................. 28
C. Wide Span ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
D. Narrow Span ................................................................................................................................................. 29
6. Oragnisational Relationships .............................................................................................29
A. Direct ................................................................................................................................................................ 29

ÓProf BK Baiden 2018 Page iii
B. Lateral .............................................................................................................................................................. 29
C. Functional ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
D. Staff.................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Unit 7 – Management Theories ..................................................................................................30
1. Hierarchy of Needs ................................................................................................................30
A. Background.................................................................................................................................................... 30
B. Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 31
C. Implications ................................................................................................................................................... 31
D. Comments ...................................................................................................................................................... 31
2. Hygiene-Motivation ...............................................................................................................31
B. Theories ........................................................................................................................................................... 31
C. Comments ....................................................................................................................................................... 31
D. Implications................................................................................................................................................... 32
3. Employee Motivation ............................................................................................................32
A. Background.................................................................................................................................................... 32
B. Theory X .......................................................................................................................................................... 32
C. Theory Y .......................................................................................................................................................... 32
D. Comments ...................................................................................................................................................... 33
4. Immaturity/Maturity ............................................................................................................33
A. Background and Theory .......................................................................................................................... 33
B. Personality Changes .................................................................................................................................. 33
C. Comments ....................................................................................................................................................... 33
Unit 8 – Introduction to Construction Management .............................................................34
1. Construction Management ..................................................................................................34
2. Construction Manager ..........................................................................................................34
3. Code of Ethics ..........................................................................................................................34
4. Main Responsibilities ...........................................................................................................35
5. Job Description .......................................................................................................................35
6. Skills and Knowledge ............................................................................................................35
7. Career Opportunities ............................................................................................................36
READING LIST..................................................................................................................................36

ÓProf BK Baiden 2018 Page 1
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Definition of Management - Unit 1
2. Evolution of Management – Units 2-4
3. Management functions. – Unit 5
4. Relevance of organisations – Unit 6
5. Management theories – Unit 7
6. Introduction to Management in Construction – Unit 8

Unit 1 – Definition of Management
1. Meanings of Management
2. Features of Management
3. Definition
4. Management activities

A. Meanings of Management
Management has 3 different meanings;
1. Noun – refers to a group of managers
2. Process – refers to the function of management such as planning, organising, etc
3. Discipline – refers to the subject of management in formal educational curriculum.

B. Features of Management
1. Continuous and never-ending process.
2. Getting things done through people.
3. Result oriented science and art.
4. Multidisciplinary in nature.
5. A group and not an individual activity.
6. Follows established principles or rules.
7. Aided but not replaced by computers.
8. Situational in nature.
9. Need not be an ownership.
10. Both an art and science.
11. Management is all pervasive.
12. Management is intangible.
13. Managers use a professional approach in work.
14. Management is dynamic in nature.

C. Definition of Management
Several definitions exist and have been modified and refined over the years.
Early management theorist/researchers had a basic definition with a focus on central control.
Recent modifications/refinement defined management as an organisational process.
The definition focuses on the roles and functions within the organisations.

Early definition
“To manage is to forecast and plan, organise, command, co-ordinate and control.” – H Fayol

Recent definitions
“the art of getting things done through and with people in formally organised groups” – H Koontz

“a multi-purpose organ that manages business, managers, workers and work” – P Druker
“the art of getting things done through people” – M Follet

“Management is a process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the efforts of organisation’s
members and of using all other organizational resources (labour, capital, information and
technology) to achieve stated organizational goals.” - MH Mescon

Management is an individual or a group of individuals that accept responsibilities to run an
organisation.
Managers/Management motivate others to do the work and co-ordinate to achieving set objectives.

It can be concluded from the above definitions that “Management” brings together Men and Women,
Money, Machines, Materials, Methods and Markets (the 6 M’s). These resources are used to achieve
objectives of as high sales, maximum profits, expansion, etc.

D. Activities of Management/Managers
1. Work with and through people, i.e. inside their own organizations and with other managers and
people in other organizations.
2. They work to achieve both personal and organizational goals.
3. Act as channels of communication within their own organization and with others.
4. Have personal goals that should not conflict with those of the organization.
5. Accountable and responsible and the success and failure of their subordinates is a direct
reflection on them.
6. Accountable for their own work as well the work of others; and this implies that a manager is
expected to accomplish more than others.

7. Recognize and construct alliances.
8. Review situations, analyse options, which are often competing, or conflicting and set priorities.
They aim at a combination that leads to maximum profit or minimum cost.
9. Think analytically and break down problems into constituent parts to arrive at feasible
solutions. They are able to identify the concept of a problem and solution.
10. Mediate because organizations are based on people who often disagree about goals and
priorities. Disputes can lead to disruptions and lower productivity.
11. Politicians, build relationships, use personal skills of persuasion and compromise.
12. Make difficult decisions and follow through their difficult decisions and measures even when
they are not popular.

UNIT 2 – EARLY PERSPECTIVE AND CLASSICAL APPROACH
Four perspective/approach
1. Early perspectives
2. Classical management
3. Human Relations
4. Modern Management

The following would be discussed in Unit 2
2. Classical management

Management is not a new concept.
The first known management ideas were recorded in 3000-4000 B.C
The success in the construction of the pyramids clearly shows the existence of some sound
management principles
Management principles were also known to have been used by the Romans in the constructions of
cathedrals.
Industrialisation and factory systems presented a new challenge for practitioners.
The need to develop and improve a rational system of managing both people and work became
very necessary.
Principles were therefore developed and documented with an objective of improving productivity
to meet the demands of the time.

2. Classical Management Approach
Rapid industrialisation led to rational development of principles for handling workers, materials,
money and machinery. The approach is characterised by a rational economic view and comprises
management theories and principles that have been further categorised into:
1. Scientific Management
2. Administrative Management
3. Bureaucratic Management

A. Scientific Management
THEORY
Scientific management theories were developed through the following:
1. Based on reflection upon personal experiences at work to develop management theories.
2. The primary goal was to achieve the highest productivity possible through efficient work
methods and encouraging employees to take advantage of these new techniques.
3. Aimed at producing a set of rational principles that could be applied universally in order to

achieve organisational efficiency.

Theories developed were concerned with:
1. the structuring of work for higher levels of productivity: and
2. organisational rather than human motivation or organisational culture.
Management approach was prescriptive - set out what managers ought to do in order to fulfill their
leadership functions within the organisation.

CONCEPTS
These are focused on the following:
• Develop a standard method for performing a task and train workers to use these methods.
• Managers to develop precise procedures based each organizational task
• Provide workers with the proper tools needed to work.
• Choose selected employees for specific tasks.
• Assign specific tasks to workers that were stronger both mentally and physically.
• Provide wage incentive when output was increased.
• Motivate employees to increase their output with the use of additional benefits.
• The success of the scientific managers brought about changes in the worker-manager ratio

CRITICISMS
• Workers felt exploited because their social aspect of life was disregarded.
• Workers were treated as machines and not humans.
• Management stereotyped workers and did not allow them to prove their skills in other areas.
• Workers were not allowed to form innovative ways to perform their tasks.

THEORISTS
Four contributors to the Scientific Management theory will be discussed.
These are
1. Frederick Taylor
2. Henry Gant
3. Frank Gilbreth
4. Lilian Gilbreth

1. Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915)
Mechanical Engineer (American)
He had a Strong interest in efficiency of working methods.
FW Taylor also had shop-floor to managerial experiences.
He developed ideas through systematic analysis.
FW Taylor believed that maximum efficiency in organisations leads to maximum profits.

Management Principles by FW Taylor
1. Manual workers are motivated primarily by the prospects of financial rewards.
2. Offer the possibility of earning good wages and a manual worker will work hard to achieve that
objective.
3. Manual workers do not identify with their collective objective and cannot be trusted to work
without supervision i.e. not capable of managing their own work.
Implications
1. Employees should be paid wages directly related to the volume of work.
2. Division of labour should be applied to the maximum.
3. Set targets and reward for achieving the targets.
4. Identify suitable persons and allocate task appropriate to their level of skills.
5. Management should plan and control all the efforts of the workers.
1. Job descriptions should be precise and clear.
Impact
• Development of true science of work rather than rule of thumb methods of working.
• Scientific selection, training and development of workers rather than random choice and self-
training by workers.
• Science of work and training to ensure work followed laid down principles.
• Constant and intimate co-operation of management and workers to ease reduce workload
previously only on workers.

2. Henry Laurence Gantt (1861-1919)
Mechanical Engineer (American)
Worked as a management consultant on steel within the ship building industry.
Believed in application of scientific management principles to work.
Applied these principles to increase productivity
Known for significant contribution to production management.

Production Management by Gantt
Gantt’s contribution to production management included;
a. The Gantt chart:
An important project management tool

Provides a graphic schedule for the planning and controlling of work, and recording progress
towards stages of a project.
A modern variation, Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).

b. Concept of Industrial Efficiency
The concept involved the following:
1. The application of scientific analysis to all aspects of the work in progress to ensure
efficiency.
2. Ensure that industrial management’s role leads to improvement in the system by
eliminating chance and accidents.
c. The Task and Bonus System:
Linkage of the bonus paid to managers to how well they taught their employees to improve
performance.
d. The social responsibility of business:
The belief that businesses have obligations to the welfare of the society in which they
operate.

3. Frank Bunker Gilbreth (168-1924)
Management Engineer (American)
Worked as a bricklayer, builder, inventor and a management Engineer.
Made significant contribution to work study.
Described the science of management as applying measurement to management.
Laid down the systematic rules and procedures for operating efficiently.
Developed flow process chart used in process/operational analysis.
Designed fatigue reduction system that increased productivity
He documented the best way to perform the task within the physical comfort of the worker.
Pioneered the application of motion analysis to work in progress.

4. Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972)
Psychologist and Industrial Engineer (American)
Focused on improving overall job performance through worker satisfaction and efficiency.
Contributed to micro motion study techniques in engineering and management.
Applied psychology to industrial management.
Linkage of management engineering and human relations.

B. Administrative Management
THEORY
Administrative Management theorists looked at the best way to combine jobs and people into an
efficient organisation.
Attempts to find a rational way to design an organization as a whole.
Based on formalised administrative structure and their areas of responsibilities.

PRINCIPLES
Departmentalisation of activities within an organisation.
Identification and classification of different work activities into groups or department.
Focuses on improving the efficiency of management for standardisation and use at the operational
level.
Top-down approach.

THEORISTS
Four contributors to the Scientific Management theory will be discussed.
These are
1. Henry Fayol
2. Lyndall Urwick
3. Mary Follet
4. Chester Barnard

1. Henri Fayol (1841-1925)
Mining Engineer and Industrialist (French)
Credited for the development of the key principle of management.
He believed that more emphasis should be more emphasis should be laid on organisational
management and the human and behavioral factors in the management.
Viewed managerial activities from an oragnisational point as not the exclusive preserve of
management but part of overall activities of the entire organisation.
Developed the first management principles.

Management contribution
Fayol examined the 3 mains aspects of management.
These are:
1. The activities of the enterprise – what enterprises do;
2. Elements of management – what management does; and
3. Principles of management – series of practical suggestions.

Enterprise Activities
All activities can be attributes to industrial groups divided into.
1. Technical – production, manufacturing.
2. Commercial – buying, selling, batter.
3. Financial – search and use of capital.
4. Security – protection of property and persons.
5. Accounting – stocktaking, costs, stats.
6. Managerial – forecast, plan, organise and control.

Management Elements
Managers need to discharge responsibilities in order to help the firm achieve objectives.
Management job activities are proportioned as;
1. Managerial – 40%
2. Technical & Commercial – 15%
3. Financial, Security & Accounting – 10%
It is not clear how Fayol got these figures.
Believed to be based on Fayol’s personal experiences in management.

Management Principles
Fayol’s approach looked at organisations from the top down.
Comprehensive view of role of management in organisation.
Developed 14 principles including:
1. Specialisation and division of Work;
2. Unity of command; and
3. Fair remuneration system.
4. Fair internal disciplinary system.
5. Linkage of authority to responsibility.
6. Existence of centralisation to different extents in firms of different sizes depending on quality of
managers.
7. Encouragement of initiative amongst all staff.
8. Justice and kindness towards all employees.
9. Use of organisation charts and job description
10. Harmony and teamwork should be encouraged to help boost employee morale and encourage
unity of purpose.
11. Existence of order – everything in its right place.
12. Creation of stable work groups and job security for personnel.
13. Common good supersedes individual interest.
14. Setting out of objectives throughout the firm.

2. Lyndall Fownes Urwick (1891-1983)
Business Management Consultant (British)
Integrated the ideas of earlier theorists into a comprehensive theory of administration.
Believed in control of social organisations through application of rules or universal principles.
Famous for “Elements of Administration”.
Developed ten principles of Administration.

Administrative Principles
Urwick’s 10 principles were meant to bring balance to the various units of the organisation. They
are sometimes referred to as administrative best practices. These are:
1. Objective – overall purpose.
2. Specialisation – one group, one function.
3. Co-ordination – depends on organisation process.
4. Authority – every group with supreme authority.
5. Responsibility – superiors responsible for the action or inaction of subordinates.
6. Definition – clearly defines jobs, duties, etc.
7. Correspondence – authority should be commensurate with responsibility.
8. Span of control – max subordinates size of 6 for superiors to be effective.
9. Balance – balance the various units in firms.
10. Continuity – structure within organisations should provide for continuity of activities.

3. Mary Parker Follet (1868-1933)
Management Consultant (American)
Pioneered research work in organizational theory and behaviour and the understanding of lateral
processes within hierarchical organisations.
Believed that achieving common employee goals will reduce organizational conflict.
Management must gain the trust and respect of employees for efficiency.

4. Chester Irvin Barnard (1886-1961)
Business Executive (American)
Pioneered research work in management theory and organizational studies.
Developed the informal organization concept based management and subordinates informal
grouping to create a bond.
Existence of cooperation depends on how the organisation satisfies the motives of its members
while attaining its explicit goals.
Developed the theory on incentives and authority within an organisation.
Known for his work on the functions of the executives:
1. Establish and maintain communication system;
2. Secure essential services from other members;
3. Formulate organizational purposes and objectives.

C. Bureaucratic Management
THEORY
Explores ways to eliminate personal views and bring a more formalised structure to organizations.
It creates organisations that are authoritative, rigid and structured.
Based on the management of large hierarchical organisations with fixed rules, impersonal
relationships, rigid adherence to procedure and highly specialised division of labour.
FOCUS
The theory focuses on:
1. dividing organizations into hierarchies; and
2. establishing strong lines of authority and control.
Based on the premises that organizations:
1. develop comprehensive; and
2. require detailed standard operating procedures for all routinised tasks.

VIEWS AND MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Minimises opportunities for corruption, favoritisms and arbitrary exercises of power.
2. Can sometimes lead to extra paperwork.
3. Can be identified with any large organization.
4. Can sometimes be mistaken for civil service (governmental organizations) but actually is
being used at various types of organizations.
5. Leads to inflexible organisation setup.

THEORIST
Karl Maximillian Weber (1864-1920)
Sociologist and Political Economist (German)
His works focused on the rationalization and disenchantment associated with the rise of capitalism
and modernity.
Famous for his critique of socialism as an economically impossible system.
Developed theory of bureaucracy.
Credited for management theory on the role of a leader in an organisation.

Theory of bureaucracy
1. Standardised procedures.
2. Formal division of responsibility.
3. Hierarchical arrangement of offices.
4. Separation of personal and private business.

5. Decision and action formulated and recorded in writing.
6. Strict, systematic discipline and control of the official's work.
7. Appointment of offices based on technical competencies and cannot be inherited.
8. Career structure and a promotion system based on seniority or merit based on the
judgment of superiors.
9. Impersonality with equality of treatment for all clients of the organization.
10. Officials do not own resources but are accountable for their usage.

Implications
1. Leveling of the social classes by allowing a wide range of recruits with technical competence
to be taken by any organization.
2. Plutocracy (rule of the wealthy), because of the time required to achieve the necessary
technical training.
3. Greater degree of social equality due to the dominance of the spirit of impersonality or
objectivity.

Criticism
1. Overspecialisation and less co-ordination of department.
2. Undermining of rule of impersonality by nepotism, politics, etc
3. Slow decision-making due to rigid procedures.
4. Killing of initiatives.
5. Lack of critical thinking and resistance to change by organisations.

UNIT 3 - HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
THEORY
Referred to as Human Relations Theorist.
Academics who researched into human behaviour at the workplace
Concerned with the efficiency and effects of the physical working conditions on employees.
Researched into human factors at work on issues such as motivation, communication, leadership
style, etc.
THEORISTS
Suggested that jobs should be designed to meet higher levels needs by allowing workers to use
their full potential.
Includes the following theorist and their contributions:
1. Mayo - The Hawthorne Studies
2. Maslow & Hertzberg - Motivational needs
3. McGregor - Human involvement in Enterprise

George Elton Mayo (1880-1949)
Psychologist, Sociologist and Organization Theorist (Australian).
Credited with the founding of the Human Relations Movement and conducting the Hawthorne
Studies
Researched into behaviour of manager and ways of improving productivity.
Had a number of belief and was criticised by sociologists.
Emphasised the importance of relationships among organisation’s workers.
Conducted a number studies through observation of employee productivity levels under varying
work environments.
Concluded on the source of employee motivation, which became the basis for team building and
group dynamics.

1. Hawthorne Studies
Background
Research at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago.
The research involved the separation of two groups of six women.
Their conditions of work were altered in a number of ways, over a five-year period.
They were then observed for the effects on production and the morale of the group.
Results
1. The women felt important because they had been singled out.
2. The women developed good relationships with each other because they were allowed to set
their own work patterns.

3. The working environment became more pleasant due to improvement in relationships among
the women.
Conclusions
1. Work satisfaction depends, to a large extent, upon the informal social relationships between
workers in a group and the social relationships between workers and their bosses.
2. Work is a group activity and an employee’s attitudes and effectiveness are conditioned by social
demands from both outside and inside work environment.
3. Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation, but must be seen as members of a group.
4. Monetary incentives and good working condition are less important to the individual than the
need to belong to a group.
5. Informal or unofficial groups formed at work have a strong influence on the behavior of those
workers in a group.
Implications
Managers must be aware of these 'social needs' and cater for them to ensure that employees
collaborate with the official organization rather than work against it.
Criticism
1. Restriction of human capacity and freedom.
2. Substituting therapy for democracy.

2. Motivational Need Studies
Studies on motivation are often complex.
Most studies focus on the motivational needs of the individual rather than the organisation.
They are further categorised as basic and secondary needs.
Two pioneers are;
a. Abraham Maslow
b. Frederick Hertzberg

Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970)
Psychologist (American)
Founded Humanistic Psychology.
Noted for his conceptualization of a "hierarchy of human needs” – Maslow’s theory
His psychological ideas were influenced by both family life and his experiences.
His contribution in management is applicable to transpersonal business studies.

Frederick Irving Hertzberg (1923-2000)
Psychologist (American).
Famous for his contribution to business management.

Introduced job enrichment and the Motivator-Hygiene or 2-factor theories.
His interest in motivation was triggered by interaction with his colleagues and personal
experiences.

3. Human Involvement in Enterprise
Studies deal with implicit and explicit assumptions on the most effective ways to manage people
within an organisation
Studies led to the replacement of conventional directing management approach with human nature
based self-directing options.
Key contributor/pioneer;
Douglas McGregor

Douglas Murray McGregor (1906-1964)
Management Professor (American)
His research work focused on “the human side of enterprise”.
Made contrasting assumptions about the nature of humans in the work place.
These assumptions are the basis of Theory X and Theory Y
Practical application of Maslow’s theory

UNIT 4 - Modern Management Approach
THEORY
Started in the 1950’s as a result of growth in social-economics and scientific institutions.
Has the premises that the worker does not work for only money but their satisfaction and psycho-
social well-being.
Emphasises on non- financial award and focuses on the development of each factor of workers and
organization.
Defines modern organisations as complex systems.
Uses modelling techniques in analyzing and understanding the inter-relationship of management
and workers in all aspect
Approach includes the following three theories:
1. Systems management
2. Recent theorist
3. Contingency Thinking

1. Systems Management
Definition
System refers to a group of interacting units or elements with a common objective and purpose.
Units or elements can be people, hardware or components.
Systems can be classified as open or closed if the units or elements are mechanical or social.
Both systems operate within a boundary that can be apparent or perceived.
Open system approach views the organisation as an interdependent unit interacting constantly
with the external environment.
The system therefore has no apparent or rigidly defined boundaries.
Closed system management approach however views the organisation as independent of external
or environmental influences.
Boundaries are thus defined.

A. Open System
Definition
Refers to systems that interact with other systems or the outside environment.
For example, an organisations is an entity.
Takes inputs from the environment and transforms them.
Releases inputs as outputs with mutual effects on the organisation itself and the environment in
which the organisation operates.

Characteristics
The three major characteristics of open systems are:
1. Receive inputs or energy from their environment.
INPUT - Labour, Material, Finances, Info

2. Convert these inputs into outputs.
TRANSFORMATION - Management & production process
3. Discharge their outputs into their environment
OUTPUT - Products/services, profit/loss
Early contributors to open system theory:
Daniel Katz (1903-1998) Psychologist
Robert Khan (1918- ) Psychologist

Work of Early Contributors
Viewed organizations as open systems with specialised and interdependent subsystems
Processes of communication, feedback, and management linked the subsystems.
Argued that the closed-system approach fails to take into account how organisations are
reciprocally dependent on external environments.

B. Closed System
Operates within defined boundaries.
Assumes very little complexity.
More suited to mechanical operations and environment with very little human involvement.
Does not rely on feedback as it shuts the external environment.
Assumes a static environment and variable internal organisational parameters.

2. Recent theorists
Took a comprehensive view of the organization
Predicted the most likely conditions to produce organisations capable of meeting the competing
demands of their various stakeholders
Concerned with strategic management of organisation involving factors such as values, structure,
leadership, culture, etc.
Contributors – M. Porter & H. Mintzberg

Michael Eugene Porter (1914-)
Harvard University Professor with interests in Management and Economics.
His focus was on:
1. building competitive advantage
2. Developing corporate strategies
Developed factors that drive competitions known as “Porter’s Five Forces”.

A. Porter’s Five Forces
1. Existing rivalry between firms.
2. The threat of new entrants to existing markets.

3. The threat of substitute products and services.
4. Bargaining power of suppliers.
5. Bargaining power of buyers.

Henry Mintzberg (1939-)
A renowned international academic.
Research interest in business strategy and management.
Developed the “Theory on Organisational Form”.
Theory is based on Organizational configurations framework, a model that describes six valid
organizational configurations.

B. Organisational Configurations
1. Mutual adjustment
2. Direct supervision
3. Standardization of work processes,
4. Standardization of outputs
5. Standardization of skills (as well as knowledge)
6. Standardization of norms

3. Contingency Theorist
Social scientists that researched on workers behaviour and interactions.
Humanistic perspective based on the idea that in an organization there is no one best way in the
management process to successfully resolve any tailored circumstances.
Decisions made by managers must take into account all aspects of the current situation. – “it
depends” approach
Organizations, people, and situations vary and change over time.
The right thing to do depends on a complex variety of critical environmental and internal
contingencies.
Their approach suggests that the best leadership depends on the situation at hand.
No particular design or managerial action can suit all time and all situations.
Contributor – Fred Fiedler

Fred Edward Fiedler (1922-)
An industrial and organisational psychologist
He helped moved forward the research on traits and personal characters of leaders to leadership
styles and behaviour.
Introduced contingency leadership model
Effectiveness of leadership is a result of two factors, style and situation.

A. Contingency Theory
There is no one best way of leading.
A leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others.
Leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either when
transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them change.

UNIT 5 - Management Functions
Management is creative problem solving achieved through functions of management.
Functions of Management define the process of management as distinct from finance,
marketing, and other business functions.
The functions provide a useful way of classifying information about management.
Most basic management texts have been organized around a functional framework.
Main functions are
1. planning
2. organising
3. leading and
4. controlling.
Additional functions include;
Staffing, Motivating, Commanding, communicating, delegating, etc

1. Planning
A. Definition
Broadly defined as a concept of executive action that embodies the skill of anticipating, influencing,
and controlling the nature and direction of change
Deciding in advance what to do and how to do i.e a process which involves the determination of
future course of action.
Involves setting objectives and developing appropriate courses of action to achieve these
objectives.
Requires managers to be aware of the environmental conditions facing their organization and
forecast future conditions.
Planning therefore requires that managers be good decision-makers.
Bridges the gap from “where we are” to “where we want to go”.
Planning makes it possible for things which would not otherwise happened to occur .

B. Importance
1. Increases the organization's ability to adapt to future eventualities.
2. Ensures more effective use of organization's resources and increases the company
competitiveness in its industry.
3. Reduces unnecessary pressures of immediacy, mistakes and oversights.
4. Enables the identification of future problems and makes it possible to provide for such
contingencies.

C. Process
1. Setting objectives for the entire organisation.
2. Developing premises about future occurrence.
3. Identifying alternative courses of action to act upon them.

4. Evaluating alternative courses by to weighing the pros and cons of each alternative.
5. Selecting an alternative adoption and implementation.
6. Monitoring to ensure that objectives are achieved.

D. Types
i. Strategic
Analyzing competitive opportunities and threats, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the
organization.
Determine how to position the organization to compete effectively in their environment.
Has a long time frame, often three years or more.
Strategic planning generally includes the entire organization and conducted by top management.

ii. Tactical
Intermediate-range planning between 1-3 years
Designed to develop relatively concrete and specific means to implement the strategic plan.
Conducted by middle-level managers

iii. Operational
It is short term, from 1 week to 1 year
Generally, assumes the existence of objectives and specifies ways to achieve them.
designed to develop specific action steps that support the strategic and tactical plans.

2. Organising
A. Definition
Organising is the process of defining and grouping activities and establishing authority
relationships among them to attain organizational objectives
Involves developing an organizational structure and allocating human resources to ensure the
accomplishment of objectives.
Deciding how best to departmentalise, or cluster jobs into departments to effectively coordinate
efforts.

B. Importance
1. Helps organisations to reap the benefit of specialization.
2. Provides for optimum utilization of resources.
3. Helps in effective administration.
4. Provides channels for expansion and growth.
5. Achieves co-ordination among different departments.
6. Creates scope for new change.

C. Process
1. Identification and division of work in accordance with plans.
2. Creation of department to group employees with similar skills or works.
3. Linking of departments to operate in a co-ordinated manner.
4. Assigning of duties to employees on the basis of their skills and capabilities.
5. Defining hierarchal structure.

3. Leading
A. Leading - Definition
Influencing others toward the attainment of organizational objectives.
Effective leading requires the manager to:
1. motivate subordinates;
2. communicate effectively; and
3. effectively use power.
To become effective at leading, managers must understand their subordinates' personalities,
values, attitudes, and emotions.
Studies of motivation provide important information on how to engender productive effort.
Studies of communication provide direction on how to effectively and persuasively communicate.
Studies of leadership and leadership style provide information “qualities that make a manager a
good leader” and “most appropriate and effective leadership styles in certain situations”

B. Leadership – Definition
Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behaviour and
work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation.
Potential to influence behaviour of others or the capacity to influence a group towards the
realization of a goal.
Leaders are required to develop future visions, and to motivate the organizational members to
want to achieve the visions.

C. Leadership Characteristics
Inter-personal process that influences and guides workers towards attainment of goals.
It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with each other.
It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals.
Involves shaping and moulding the behaviour of the group towards accomplishment of
organizational goals.

D. Leadership Styles
Leadership is situation bound and the perfect/standard leadership style is the one which assists a
leader to get the best out of the people who follow him.
These styles include:

i. Autocratic
ii. Laissez-Faires
iii. Democratic/participative
iv. Bureaucratic

i. Autocratic Style
The leader has complete command and hold over their employees/team.
Speedy decision-making and greater productivity under leader’s supervision.
Greater employee absenteeism and turnover.
Works only when the leader is the best in performing or when the job is monotonous, unskilled and
routine in nature or where the project is short-term and risky.

ii. Laissez-faire Style
The leader totally trusts their employees/team to perform the job themselves.
Allows focus on key intellectual/rational aspect of his work.
Does not focus on the management aspect of his work.
The style works only when the employees are skilled, loyal, experienced and intellectual.

iii. Democratic Style
Team members are invited and encouraged by the leader in decision-making process.
The ultimate decision-making power rests with the leader.
Leads to satisfied, motivated and more skilled employees.
Leadership style is time-consuming.
Creates an optimistic work environment and also encourages creativity.

iv. Bureaucratic Style
There is strict adherence to the organizational rules, policies and procedures by the leader.
Gradually develops over time as a result of the philosophy, personality and experience of the leader.
Discourages creativity and does not make employees self-contented.
The style is more suitable when safe work conditions and quality are required.

E. Leadership power
The influence of a leader over his followers is often referred to as power.
There are 5 sources of power:
1. Legitimate – formal position or role
2. Coercive - sanctions or other negative action
3. Reward - control over desired resources
4. Expert – professional knowledge, skill
5. Referent - charisma or strong relationship

4. Controlling
A. Definition
Controlling ensures that expected performance does not deviate from initial standards.
The process completes the sequence of management process and consist of 3 steps:
1. establishing performance standards;
2. comparing actual performance against standards; and
3. taking corrective action when necessary
Performance standards are often stated in:
1. monetary terms such as revenue, costs, or profits units produced,
2. number of defective products
3. levels of customer service.
The measurement of performance can be done in several ways, depending on the performance
standards,
Effective controlling requires
1. the existence of plans,
2. a clear understanding of where responsibility for deviations from standards lies.
Two traditional control techniques are
1. budget and
2. performance audit.

B. Features
Controlling affects only future happenings but not the happened. The past performance is
measured for taking future corrective actions.
Every manager in an organisation has to perform the control function. This may be quality,
inventory, production, or administrative control.
Control is a continuous process, it follows a definite pattern and time-table, month after month and
year after year on a continuous basis.

C. Importance
1. Control system acts as an adjustment in organisational operations.
2. Controlling checks whether plans are being observed and suitable progress towards the
objectives is being made or not, and if necessary any action to control the deviations.
3. Controlling is required for monitoring adherence to policy frameworks and verification of
the quality of various policies.
4. Controlling allows exercising authority and forming superior-subordinate relationship.
5. With the presence of authority or control the individuals will work properly and exhibit
better performance to reach the targets set for them.
6. Control system ensures the organisational efficiency and effectiveness. When Proper system
exists the organisation effectively achieves its objectives.

5. Other Functions of Management
A. Staffing
Management process of acquiring, developing, employing, appraising, renumerating and retaining
right type of people at the right positions and time in the organisation.
It is the function by which managers build an organisation through the recruitment, selection, and
development of individuals as capable employees.
Staffing is ‘putting people to jobs’.

B. Communication
Communication is the process of creating, transmitting and interpreting ideas, facts, opinions and
feelings.
It is a process that is essentially a sharing one i.e. a mutual interchange between two or more
persons.
A manager must have four key skills in communication, which are listening, discussing, advocating
and writing.

C. Delegation
It is the assignment to another person of the formal authority and accountability for carrying out
specific tasks i.e transfer of legitimate power.
While both authority and accountability include an element of responsibility, the manager can
never shed responsibility by delegation.
Responsibility is the manager’s overall function.
Managers can however make subordinates responsible to them for their actions.

D. Directing
Giving instructions, guiding, counselling, motivating and leading the staff to achieve organisational
goals.
Directing is a key managerial function performed by the manager along with planning, organising,
staffing and controlling.
Directing is a continuous process initiated at top level and flows to the bottom through
organisational hierarchy.

Unit 6 – Relevance of Organisations
Definition & Need for organisation.
Organisation structure - definition, achievement & forms.
Organisation chart - definition, types, purpose and limitations
Span of control – definition, factors & types.
Organisational relationships - types

1. Definition
Several definitions exist:
“A body set up to meet a set of needs.”
“An arrangement of human and physical resources based upon the need to control and integrate the
activities of individuals and groups.”
“The structure of an enterprise resulting from the division and grouping of work into functions,
subfunctions and jobs.”

2. Need for organisations
• Preserve and extend knowledge, a process that is vital to civilization.
• Store and develop knowledge and pass it on to the next generations continuously.
• Provide careers, work and livelihood
• Efficiently organised and controlled organisations bring satisfaction and self-fulfillment to
employees.
• Preserve and extend knowledge, a process that is vital to civilization.
• Store and develop knowledge and pass it on to the next generations continuously.
• Provide careers, work and livelihood
• Efficiently organised and controlled organisations bring satisfaction and self-fulfillment to
employees.

3. Organisation Structure
A. Definition
“An arrangement of lines of authority and communication within a firm and allocated duties and
responsibilities.”
“A sum total of ways in which labour is divided into distinct tasks and responsibilities and coordinated
along defined lines of communication”
“It is the supporting framework designed for planning and executing of activities of a firm.”

B. Achievement
1. Creation of hierarchies and work groups.
2. Mechanism for allocating tasks and responsibilities.
3. Coordination of activities.

4. Setting up of control span.
5. Centralising and decentralising activities.
6. Determining the extent of individual responsibilities.

C. Forms
Organization structures are created on the basis of arrangement of activities in the organisation.
The three main structural forms in the organisation are:
i. Traditional
ii. Divisional
iii. Adaptive/Matrix

i. Traditional
Based on functional division and departments
They are characterised by authority lines for all levels in the management. These include:
1. Line – line of command from top to bottom
2. Line and staff – top to bottom line structure and staff structure for support.
3. Functional – based on function or profession.

ii. Divisional
Based on the different divisions in the organization.
Structure is further grouped into:
1. Products – different types of products.
2. Market– specific markets of operation.
3. Geographical – location.

iii. Adaptive
Designed as to cope with the unique nature of undertaking and the situations in the organization.
There are two types:
1. Project – suitable for undertaking periodic specialised work and development of a unit
2. Matrix – combines the merits of project structure and functional specialization with full
time specialized units capable of handling more than one project at a time.

4. Organisation Chart
A. Definition
“A diagram showing the pattern of authority within an organization.”
“A diagram showing the formal structure of an organisation and the interrelationships of its parts,
positions and jobs.”
Shows managers and their sub-workers
Shows the relationships between organisation members.


B. Purpose
1. Define system of accountability of a firm.
2. Determine employee status within the management hierarchy.
3. Facilitate organisational design.
4. Preparation of management succession plan.
5. Show lines of communication.
6. Show span of control of superiors or management staff.

C. Types
i. Hierarchical:
Organization is divided into different levels with top to bottom line of command.
ii. Matrix:
People with same skill are grouped and report to their respective managers.
iii. Flat or Horizontal:
Few or no levels are used in small or individual unit organizations.

D. Limitations
• Social relationships that develops within the organisation are not shown.
• Relationships shown are often simplistic and do not reflect actual complex relationships.
• Easily becomes outdated and changes are often resisted.
• Does not show management style adopted.
• De-motivates workers who feel their ranks are lower than expected.

5. Span of Control
A. Definition
The number of employees or immediate subordinates controlled by and reporting to a superior.
The number of subordinate employees directly accountable to a manager
Two basic spans exist
1. Wide span
2. Narrow span
B. Factors
1. The nature of subordinates’ work.
2. Skill, capabilities, qualifications, experience of subordinates and manager.
3. Availability and use of ICT.
4. Subordinates knowledge of formal work rules and procedures.
5. Management style and organisation approaches.
6. Depth of organisation hierarchy.


C. Wide Span
Has more than six horizontal blocks of work functions – flat structure with few levels
Subordinates are well trained and enthusiastically carry out instructions.
There is high team spirit and superiors are always in touch with the base of the organization.
Effective for simple tasks and in organisation with excellent communication.

D. Narrow Span
Has a maximum of six horizontal blocks of work functions - tall structure with many levels
Superiors are able to focus and give full attention to the needs of immediate subordinates.
It facilitates and enhances specialisation of function, easy vertical communication, and effective
coordination of subordinates’ work.
Employees aspire to rise in status.

6. Oragnisational Relationships
A. Direct
The relation exists between a superior and subordinates
Instructions given by superior are expected to be carried out by subordinate
Direct line of authority
Exist at any level within the organisation.

B. Lateral
Exists among employee on an equal level of responsibilities.
They are answerable to the same superior
Relation promotes collaboration and coordination on matter of mutual benefit.
It is a reciprocal relation.

C. Functional
Exists between a specialist and any member of the organisation.
There is an indirect line of authority in other department.
Direct line of authority exist within the specialist department.
It is a professional advisory relation.

D. Staff
Occurs at higher levels of management.
Implies no authority.
Carries only an advisory responsibility.

Unit 7 – Management Theories
1. Theory of hierarchy of needs
2. Hygiene motivation theory
3. Employee motivation theory
4. Maturity/Immaturity Theory

1. Hierarchy of Needs
A. Background
Developed by Abraham Maslow from investigations into human behavior.
Five level/sets of goals called needs.
1. Basic/physiological,
2. Security/safety,
3. Belonging/Social,
4. Ego/esteem, and
5. Self-actualization/self-fulfillment.

1. Physiological needs - hunger, thirst, shelter
2. Safety - protection against danger /deprivation.
3. Belonging - desire to belong to a group, give and receive friendship and associate with people.
4. Esteem - the desire for self-esteem and self-respect, need for recognition.
5. Self actualisation - urge by individuals for self-development, creativity and job satisfaction.

B. Theory
“The needs and wants of a person drive him/her, motive and produce a never-ending sequence of
replacement of lower by higher needs”.

C. Implications
Reward systems aimed to satisfy an individual's lower level needs - Outmoded
Satisfaction of the individual's higher level needs for esteem and self-fulfillment- Recent

D. Comments
Maslow’s comments
Creative people are motivated by self-fulfillment needs even if other needs are not satisfied.
People with narrow life experience may have lower levels of aspirations.
Satisfied needs lead to new wants and continue even when lower need become unsatisfied.
The need to maintain high ideals outweigh any other needs.

2. Hygiene-Motivation
A. Background
Developed by Frederick Herzberg from research on human relations and motivation
2 theories of motivation.
1. Hygiene theory: includes the work and organizational environment
2. Motivation theory: involves what people actually do on the job.

B. Theories
i. Hygiene Theory
“Factors exist within the organsation that do not lead to higher levels of motivation but without them
there is dissatisfaction”.
Factors are physiological needs and can be satisfied with money.
Working conditions, salaries, status, job security, etc.

ii. Motivation Theory
“Factors exist within the organsation that result from internal instincts in employees, yielding
motivation rather than compliance.”
Factors are psychological needs and can be fulfilled by activities that lead to growth.
Achievement, Recognition, Growth / advancement, Interest in the job, etc.

C. Comments
Both these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must be done simultaneously.
Treat people as best you can so they have a minimum of dissatisfaction.

Use people so they get achievement, recognition for achievement, interest, and responsibility and
they can grow and advance in their work.

D. Implications
Jobs should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee.
Employees who show high levels of ability should be given increasing responsibility levels.
If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then automation should be
considered or replace the employee with one the require a lower level of skill.

3. Employee Motivation
A. Background
Developed by Douglas McGregor from studies on the behaviour of individuals at work.
Formulated 2 model on how employees behaved at work.
The assumptions are known as:
1. Theory X,
2. Theory Y

B. Theory X
“The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can”.
Comments
Workers must be controlled and threatened before they will work hard enough.
The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is unambiguous, and desires
security above everything.
Implications
Theory gives rise both to "tough" management with punishments and tight controls.
Ignores financial rewards and the opportunity to self-fulfillment.
Employee have limited opportunities and behave in the expected fashion.

C. Theory Y
“The average human being is neither lazy nor inherently unproductive and his behaviour at work
depend on how he is treated by his manager.”
Comments
Workers naturally expend physical and mental effort at work
Workers will direct themselves to work if they are committed to the goals of the organisation.
Implications
The average worker learns, under proper conditions, to accept but to seek responsibility.
Workers have the imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems.
Conditions of modern industrial life has led to partial utilisation of the intellectual potentialities of
the average employee.

D. Comments
The potential of employees should be recognised for organisational effectiveness.
Theory Y is useful for managers and professionals and conducive to participative problem solving.
Employees will contribute more to the organisation if they are treated as responsible and valued
employees.

4. Immaturity/Maturity
A. Background and Theory
Developed by Chris Argyris from the examination of industrial organizations.
Determine what effect management practices have had on individual behavior and personal growth
within the work environment.
“Seven personality changes should take place in the personality of individuals if they are to develop
into mature people over the years.”

B. Personality Changes
1. Move from a passive state - state of increasing activity.
2. Develop from a state of dependency upon others - state of relative independence.
3. Behave in only a few ways - capable of behaving in many ways.
4. Have erratic, casual, and shallow interests -develop deeper and stronger interests.
5. Very short time perspective involving only the present, - increased time perspective to include
the past and the future.
6. Subordinate to everyone - move to equal or superior positions with others.
7. Lack of self-awareness - self-awareness and self-control

C. Comments
Personality changes reside on a continuum and that the "healthy" personality develops from
"immaturity" to "maturity”.
Changes are only general tendencies, but they give an indication on the matter of maturity.
Norms of the individual's culture and personality inhibit and limit maximum expression and
growth.
Few employee, if any, develop to full maturity.

Unit 8 – Introduction to Construction Management
1. Construction management
2. Construction Manager
3. Code of Ethics
4. Responsibility
5. Job Description
6. Skills and knowledge requirements
7. Career opportunities

1. Construction Management
The study and practice of the managerial and technological aspects of the construction industry
Includes construction, construction science, and construction technology),
Contractual arrangement where one party to a construction contract serves as a construction
consultant, providing both design and construction advice.

2. Construction Manager
Supervises and directs operations on a construction project to make sure it is completed safely, on
time and within budget.
Sometimes referred to as site managers or site agents.
Has full responsibility for the whole project – on small sites.
May be in charge of a particular section – on large site.

3. Code of Ethics
i. Client Service.
Serve clients with honesty, integrity, candor, and objectivity and provide competent service.
ii. Qualifications and Availability.
Accept assignments for which you are qualified and assign staff to projects in accordance
with their qualifications.
iii. Standards of Practice.
Provide services consistent with the established and accepted standards of the profession.
iv. Fair Competition.
Represent project experience accurately to prospective clients and offer services that you
are capable of delivering.
v. Conflicts of Interest.
Endeavor to avoid conflicts of interest and disclose conflicts which may impair your
objectivity or integrity.
vi. Fair Compensation.
Negotiate fairly and openly with clients in establishing a basis for compensation.
vii. Release of Information.

Make statements that are truthful and keep information and records confidential.
viii. Public Welfare.
No discrimination and violation of law in the performance of Services.
ix. Professional Development.
Continue to develop professional knowledge and competency and contribute to the
advancement of the profession.
x. Integrity of the Profession.
Avoid self-interest and uphold the standards of the profession with honour and dignity.

4. Main Responsibilities
i. Coordinate the entire construction process, from initial planning and foundation work to
completion/commissioning.
ii. Act as intermediary between the clients and workers, the architect and subcontractors, and
the project and any regulatory personnel.
iii. Ensure that the construction process is within budgetary, time and quality and safety limits
acceptable to BOTH industry and Client.

5. Job Description
i. Discuss plans with architects, surveyors and buyers before construction work starts.
ii. Plan work schedules for the job.
iii. Prepare the site by employing staff, installing temporary offices and scheduling delivery of
materials.
iv. Work closely with the site workforce during construction.
v. Monitor progress, costs and check quality.
vi. Make sure the work meets legal requirements and Building Regulations.
vii. Report regularly to the client.
viii. Main point of contact on site for subcontractors and the public.

6. Skills and Knowledge
i. Excellent people skills to work with staff.
ii. Ability to motivate your team.
iii. Excellent organisational and planning skills.
iv. Ability to take on responsibility and make decisions.
v. Good mathematical and IT skills.
vi. In-depth knowledge of construction and building methods.
vii. An understanding of Building Regulations.
viii. Knowledge of health and safety requirements.

7. Career Opportunities
i. Construction and building companies and specialist subcontractors.
ii. Central and local government departments.
iii. Utility companies and larger organisations like major retailers and manufacturers.
iv. Contract management or consultancy.
v. Teaching or support services, such as health and safety inspection, quality control, etc.

READING LIST
1. Cole, G. and Kelly, P. (2015), Management Theory and Practice 8th Edition, Cengage Learning
EMEA, UK.
2. Schermerhorn JR (2011). Introduction to Management,11th Edition, J Wiley & Sons,
Australia
3. Taylor, FW (2003), The Principles of Scientific Management, Dover Publications Inc, UK
4. Calvert, RE, Cole, DCH, and Bailey, GJ (2011), Introduction to Building Management 6th
Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, USA

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