1. Biological, Cognitive and Learning
approaches to explaining initiation,
maintenance and relapse, and their
applications to smoking and gambling
Addictive Behaviour

2. Initiation Maintenance Relapse
Addiction
A repetitive habit pattern that
increases the risk of disease
and/or associated personal and
social problems
Often experienced
subjectively as a „loss of
control‟.
The behaviour continues
despite attempts to abstain
or moderate use

3. Behavioural Explanation
In groups identify key words that you
associate with the behavioural
approach to Psychology
How can we apply these terms to
addictive behaviour?
i) Social learning theory
ii) Classical conditioning
iii) Operant conditioning

4. Behavioural explanation
(Initiation – smoking)
Observation of smoking behaviour
• Vicarious reinforcement (e.g. role model receiving reward)
Imitation
• Expectation of reward
Direct reinforcement (e.g. more friends, new
social group)
Self-efficacy (confidence in ability to smoke
increases)
Smoking addiction developed
Be sure that
you make notes
about how this
explicitly links
to smoking
No link = no
marks!
A01

5. Behavioural explanation
(Initiation – smoking)
• Morgan and Grube (1991) investigated how peers affect the
initiation of cigarette smoking, drinking alcohol and drug use.
They found that whilst peers were influential in the initiation of
drug use, through both example and approval; the influence of
the best friend was stronger and remained more influential than
that of other friends.
• They found that the most important factor in the initiation of
drug use was the presence of a best friend who has an addictive
behaviour (best friends are important in helping us to develop
and maintain our self-concept).
This is a strength because it demonstrates that with the influence
of another individual, particularly one that is already considered a
role model (someone the individual identifies with), an individual can
learn to begin smoking
A02

6. Behavioural explanation
(Initiation – smoking) A02
Lader & Matheson
(1991) found that
children of smokers
were twice as likely
to smoke
Murray et al (1994) found that if parental
attitudes were firmly against smoking then the
child is 7x less likely to start smoking
This links role models to preventing behaviour,
make sure your linking sentence states that it’s
evidence of how influential others are in an
individual’s decision making
Mayeux et al (2008) found a
positive predictive validity in
boys between smoking at age 16
and popularity 2 years later.
However….

7. Classical conditioning –
learning through association
What scenarios might a smoking addict
associate with smoking behaviour?
Behavioural explanation
(Maintenance – smoking) A01
Being
at a
bar?
Break
time
at
work After
dinner?
Being
around
friends
that
smoke?

8. • The addiction becomes associated with certain
environmental factors or „cues‟ until those factors
produce a „high.‟
Other environmental cues may also become associated
with the addictive behaviour and may therefore serve
to maintain the behaviour (through association). So, if
the person usually meets their friends in a “bar” then
any time the person is in a bar, they may want to
“smoke”.
Behavioural explanation
(Maintenance – smoking) A01
Real life application
Once the habit has been acquired, it is
maintained because the person doesn‟t want
to experience any unpleasant withdrawal
symptoms
i.e. not having cigarette associated with
unpleasant consequences

9. Heather and Greeley (1990) suggested that “cue exposure theory” offers a good
explanation of the strong cravings that people often experience once they have been weaned off
their addictive substance. This is because the cues associated with the addictive behaviour
are still available in the environment.
• Drummond et al (1990) proposed a treatment approach based on the idea that the cues
associated with drug-taking are an important factor in the maintenance of a drug/alcohol
habit.
Cue exposure involves presenting the cues without the opportunity to engage in the drug-taking
behaviour leading to stimulus discrimination. This works on the idea that the previous
association will be extinguished; which will reduce cravings for a drug when the individual is
exposed to that particular cue.
• White and Hiroi (1993) found that rats preferred locations where they had previously
received injections of amphetamines, suggesting that this “place preference” is learned by
the process of association. There would therefore be an expectation associated with this
preferred place which would affect any rehabilitation of any drug user. This shows how
difficult it would be to give up the cravings – if the person/ rat is still in same
environment.
Behavioural explanation
(Maintenance – smoking) A02

10. Behavioural
Explanation
IDEA‟s /
A03
Approaches:
Debates:
Issues:
Ethics:
A03

11. Operant conditioning –
learning through reinforcement
Addictions provide positive reinforcements („highs‟) and negative
reinforcements (withdrawal). Both of these serve to strengthen the
addictive behaviour and increasing the chances that it will occur again.
Behavioural explanation
(Relapse – smoking) A01
if smoking results in the person feeling relaxed, more confident or because
the behaviour gains the approval of friends and so smoking is maintained
due to these desirable consequences (positive reinforcement)
Smoking may be maintained as a result of negative reinforcement (i.e., the
reward is the removal of an unpleasant consequence). Therefore smoking
may be maintained due to the fact that smoking may remove an unpleasant
consequence i.e., nicotine withdrawal symptoms.

12. Behavioural explanation
(Relapse – smoking)
A02
West (2006) suggested that the
process of operant conditioning in
developing and maintaining an
addiction does not require
conscious awareness. This
explains why addicts frequently
experience a conflict between
the conscious desire to restrain
themselves and the motivational
forces that push them to
continue. As a result the smoker
can relapse due to operant
conditioning (want for positive
reinforcement and the desire to
not experience negative
reinforcement)
Robinson & Berridge (1993) point out that
although many people may take addictive
drugs at some time in their lives, relatively
few become addicts. This indicates that
there must be other contributing factors
that result in a behaviour becoming an
addiction rather than just experiencing
positive consequences for the behaviour
LINK TO SMOKING!!
Operant conditioning explanations of
addiction propose that people become
„hooked‟ on specific activities because when
they engage in that activity it leads to some
desired consequence. However, in real life
these positive consequences are much more
likely to be occasional rather than
consistent. LINK TO SMOKING!!

13. Behavioural
Explanation
IDEA‟s /
A03
Approaches:
Debates:
Issues:
Ethics:
A03