Sea power 2, session 5, founding a maritime power

Maritime Power
1763-1851
And the Age of the Democratic Revolution

Maritime Power
session v
The Founding of America

“In Maritime Supremacy, I suggested that we, the liberal western nations,
are the heirs of [Sea Power]: …our beliefs and the present dominance of
those beliefs throughout much of the world are the result of…the global
distribution of sea and land masses which has conferred strategic
advantage on powers able to use and dominate the seas….the first
maritime power in the modern era was the 17th century Dutch Republic;
the British superseded the Dutch in the 18th century and were in turn
superseded by the Americans in the 20th century.
“During their periods of dominance these three powers were
fundamentally different from rivals whose power was based upon
territorial dominion. The difference was merchant government.
[emphasis added—jbp]
Peter Padfield, Maritime Power and the Struggle for Freedom.(2006), p. 1.

The loss of all British North America save Canada was certainly a blow. But of all
the European Powers who fought in the war, none emerged in better economic shape
than did Britain. And her final victory over de Grasse at the Saints “re-established the
perception of British naval ascendency lost since the Seven Years War,” (Padfield,
Maritime Supremacy, p. 277). Britain emerged from the war with a chastened sense
of the need to abandon salutary neglect towards her empire and so began the
purposeful stewardship which would make her the greatest of the Imperial Powers.
Her merchant government nurtured the Industrial Revolution which gave her ‘The
Septre of the World,’ by the mid-nineteenth century, (Padfield, Maritime Power, chap
13, p. 351, ff.).
But, of course, Britain’s loss was our gain. The Mother Country had given us a
taste for the ‘Rights of Englishmen’ and the reality of liberty. Now it was up to us to
see what we would make of our independence. And what our example would do to
spread the Age of the Democratic Revolution.
jbp
Losses and Gains

Sandwich
America’s Final Battles
The Battle of the Saints, April 12. 1782
A World War Ends
Founding a Future Maritime Power
Topics for Today’s Presentation

Sandwich
John Montague, Fourth Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS
Thomas Gainsborough, 1783

More Chart Work
St Kitts & Nevis

More Chart Work
St Kitts & Nevis
Montserrat

14
The Saints, 1782, and the
Founding of the United States of
America
Padﬁeld, Supremacy, p. 271.
“DE GRASSE RETURNED to the WI in the winter of 1781 with every French ship of the line in
American waters, recovered St Eustatius and other Dutch possessions seized by Rodney,…”

14
America
American waters, recovered St Eustatius and other Dutch possessions seized by Rodney, and
early in 1782 took the British islands St Christopher [St. Kitts], Nevis,• and Montserrat • against
bold but vain attempts at intervention by a smaller British squadron under Hood….”

American waters, recovered St Eustatius and other Dutch possessions seized by Rodney,• and
early in 1782 took the British islands St Christopher [St. Kitts], Nevis,• and Montserrat • against
bold but vain attempts at intervention by a smaller British squadron under Hood.
“ Meanwhile in European waters in 1781 the Brest fleet had joined the Spanish at Cadiz, after
which the combined Bourbon fleet of forty-nine ships of the line had covered an expedition
through the Straits to lay siege to the British garrison on Minorca; subsequently the great fleet
steered N for the English Channel. The British home fleet numbered only twenty-seven of the
line;• nevertheless Lord North’s cabinet,• encouraged by Sandwich’s professional advisers that
‘an inferior fleet of coppered ships under a judicious commander will keep a superior one that is
not so in awe,’ had ordered the fleet out to seek the enemy….the combined [enemy] fleet, struck
by the usual sickness, divided without accomplishing anything and returned to its separate home
bases….”
14
America

,op. cit., pp. 271-272.
“…home bases.
“Subsequently Sandwich’s intelligence revealed preparations in Brest to reinforce and supply
de Grasse. A plan for the relief of Minorca was put aside, and in early Dec Kempenfelt was sent
out with twelve of the line from the home fleet to intercept the convoy. He sighted it 150 miles
off Ushant, but the covering force was nineteen strong and he was unable to do more than cut out
a dozen merchantmen and transports. A few days later a severe gale drove the French back to
Brest; the convoy was not to reach de Grasse until the following Mar 1782. Yet once again, a
British squadron had been baulked by superior numbers of the enemy….”
14
America

,op. cit., pp. 271-272.
“…the enemy.
“The small corps of professional officers on whom Sandwich relied for advice now devised a
radical strategy to bring the war to a conclusion in the next campaigning season. It rested on the
so-far untested theory that a small but coppered fleet • in home waters could avoid being brought
to action by a numerically superior but largely uncoppered enemy, thereby remaining ‘in being’
and making invasion too hazardous to attempt. The plan was to reduce the home fleet to just
twenty of the line, in order to concentrate overwhelming superiority in the WI to decide the
issue there….”
14
America

14
The Saints, 1782…
op. cit., p. 272.
“…issue there. To prevent trade falling to the combined fleet in the Channel, convoys would be
re-routed N around Scotland. It was a desperate strategy, contrary to all precedent and risking
much to the chances of wind and weather. That it was conceived at all indicates the extraordinary
pressure to which the navy had been subjected • by Vergennes’ success in maintaining the
Bourbon alliance and keeping clear of Continental distractions.…”

14
The Saints, 1782…
op. cit., p. 272.
Bourbon alliance and keeping clear of Continental distractions. It was not to be tested, however,
for in Mar,• reports reaching London of de Grasse’s capture of St Kitts coincided with the
news that the garrison on Minorca had surrendered;…”

14
The Saints, 1782…
op. cit., p. 272.
news that the garrison on Minorca had surrendered;• Lord North’s administration fell and •
Sandwich was replaced at the Admiralty by Adm Keppel.…”

14
The Saints, 1782…
op. cit., p. 272.
news that the garrison on Minorca had surrendered;• Lord North’s administration fell and •
Sandwich was replaced at the Admiralty by Adm Keppel.
“Sandwich suffered savage criticism for his conduct of the naval war; yet his failures—most
notably, for its consequences, the loss of Cornwallis’ army at Yorktown—seem minor compared
with the disasters which might have been expected with such a weight of powers ranged against
Britain on her own. As he put it in his own defense, ‘notwithstanding our inferiority of force, we
have not been brought to disgrace’; on the other hand, the vital Baltic trade had been secured,
practically all important East and WI convoys had got through,…”

“…got through, Dutch shipping had been blockaded in
port and Dutch fisheries eliminated, the British position
in India had been strengthened and the French East
Indies squadron under • the redoubtable Pierre André
de Suffren, one of the most brilliant, and certainly the
most aggressive, of French Admirals,• had been (1)
held to a draw in a succession of dour encounters;…
14
The Saints, 1782…

14
The Saints, 1782…
op. cit., pp. 272-273.
“…dour encounters; (2) Gib had been reinforced and
supplied; and (3) the navy had been steadily expanded.
When Sandwich left office there were over 100 of the line
in commission, and for the first time in a war Britain had a
small numerical advantage over the combined fleets of
France and Spain. Above all, (5) the British fleet was
superior in quality, with every ship coppered—against
about half the French fleet and just one Spanish liner—and
most equipped with carronades which could discharge a
terrifying weight of shot at close quarters.
“This was Sandwich’s legacy. He was a man of charm,
sound sense and integrity, with a talent for selecting the
right men for important posts….He was also by any
measure an outstanding First Lord of the Admiralty; his
good stewardship was to be demonstrated in the first great
sea battle under the new administration.
“It took place among the Leeward Islands on 12 Apr
1782, off the Îles des Saintes—‘the Saints— a small group
just S of Guadeloupe. ”

America’s Final Battles
Continental Ship Confederacy, a purpose-built frigate
in our dwindling navy

5:
The War of the
American Revolution, II
The War Dies out in the Colonies
“The British capitulation at Yorktown practically ended the war in the colonies. Greene,
reinforced after the surrender of Cornwallis, succeeded in clearing South Carolina by the end of
the year, confining the British to Charleston,• while Washington lamented the departure of the
sea power that might have made the success complete.…”
Sea Power, p. 96.

5:
The War of the
“…success complete.
“To the British the loss of a second entire army was stunning, but an aroused Britain might
have made good the loss and continued the war.• However the disaster discredited the North
ministry, and that proved decisive.• Early in 1782 Lord Germain,• who alone in the cabinet had
been in whole-hearted agreement with the King’s policy of coercion, resigned his office. At the
end of Feb the House of Commons passed a resolution ‘That it is the opinion of this House that
the further prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America…will be the means
of weakening the effort of this country against her European enemies and tends…dangerously to
increase the mutual enmity so fatal to the interests of both Great Britain and America.’12 .…”
Sea Power, p. 96.
______
12 Quoted in Capt. W.M. James RN, The British Navy in Adversity, (London, 1926), 318..

“… and America.’ Three weeks later Lord
North announced the resignation of his
ministry, and George III seriously considered
abdicating. The Marquis of Rockingham, who
had earlier been responsible for the repeal of
the Stamp Act, formed a new government
[with his secretary Edmund Burke as
Quartermaster General of the Forces] friendly
to America and at once sent an emissary to
Paris to discuss peace terms with Franklin,• but
not till November was the preliminary treaty
signed.•
5:
The War of the
X
op. cit., pp. 96-97.

“… and America.’12 Three weeks later • Lord North announced the resignation of his ministry,
and George III seriously considered abdicating. The Marquis of Rockingham, who had earlier
been responsible for the repeal of the Stamp Act, formed a new government [with his secretary
Edmund Burke as Quartermaster General of the Forces] friendly to America and at once sent an
emissary to Paris to discuss peace terms with Franklin,• but not till November was the
preliminary treaty signed.•
“The Continental Navy played very little part in this final phase of the war. Indeed, it had
very nearly ceased to exist. At the beginning of 1781 it consisted only of the Trumbull of the
1775 program,• the Confederacy and the Alliance of the 1776 program, the frigate Deane and the
sloop Saratoga. op. cit., pp. 96-97.

Final Operations of the
Continental Navy
5:
The War of the

5:
The War of the
Final Operations of the Continental Navy
“… sloop Saratoga. Sailing from the Delaware on Aug 1781, the Trumbull lost her topmasts in a
storm before encountering HMS Iris, formerly the American Hancock, to which she was forced to
strike after a stubborn resistance. The Confederacy, Deane, and Saratoga, under Commodore
Samuel Nicholson, cruised in the WI in the early part of the year. On their return they became
separated off the Delaware Capes. The Confederacy encountered two British frigates and
surrendered, while the Saratoga foundered at sea.
“Only the Alliance, commanded by Commodore John Barry,• survived the war. At the
beginning of 1781 he was ordered to take Washington’s aide, Col John Laurens, to France on an
urgent mission. On his return voyage Barry captured two armed British vessels—a ship and a
brig—after a sharp engagement. In the latter part of 1782 he made creditable cruises off
Bermuda and Newfoundland, during which he took several prizes. In the spring of 1783 Barry in
the Alliance successfully brought money and a newly purchased vessel from Havana after
fighting off a superior British force that attempted to intercept him.
“The relative failure of the Continental Navy stemmed not merely from the disadvantages of
semi-blockade of its home ports and superior enemy forces at sea….”
op. cit., p. 97.

“… at sea. The difficulty or impossibility of finding crews not infrequently delayed or prevented
the sailing of Continental vessels. Another handicap was lack of effective organization, efficient
management, and a real high command. The Maritime Committee proved so unsatisfactory that
in Oct 1779 [after the Penobscot disaster] Congress abolished it and created in its stead a Board
of the Admiralty. But great difficulty was experienced in finding commissioners for the Board,
and it was discontinued in 1781. Naval administration was then vested in an Agent of Marine,
but none was appointed, so that almost by default the function was exercised by Robert Morris, •
who had been executive for the Continental Congress and had recently been appointed to the
unenviable position of Superintendent of Finances. Thus the Navy remained the stepchild of the
Revolution, principally for lack of ‘a naval counterpart to Washington.’.”
Ibid.
5:
The War of the
Final Operations of the Continental Navy

But what of the other ‘Father of the USN’?
In June 1782, Jones was appointed to command the 74-gun USS America, but his command fell through when
Congress decided to give America to the French as replacement for the wrecked Le Magnifique. [As a
midshipman, I read the new Jones bio by Samuel Morison which detailed the political intrigues around Jones’
slighting.] As a result, he was given assignment in Europe in 1783 to collect prize money due his former hands.
At length, this too expired and Jones was left without prospects for active employment, leading him on April 23,
1787 to enter into the service of the Empress Catherine II of Russia [rumors that he was one of her numerous
beyond counting lovers are doubtless untrue] ….
Jones avowed his intention, however, to preserve the condition of an American citizen and officer. As a rear
admiral aboard the 24-gun flagship Vladimir, he took part in the naval campaign in the Dnieper-Bug Liman …
against the Turks, in concert with the Dnieper Flotilla commanded by Prince Charles of Nassau-Siegen. Jones
repulsed the Ottoman forces from the area, but the jealous intrigues of Nassau-Siegen (and perhaps Jones's
own ineptitude for Imperial politics) turned the Russian commander Prince Grigory Potëmkin against Jones and
he was recalled to St. Petersburg for the pretended purpose of being transferred to a command in the North
Sea.… Whatever motivated the Prince, once recalled he was compelled to remain in idleness, while rival
officers plotted against him and even maliciously assailed his private character through accusations of sexual
misconduct. In April 1789 Jones was arrested and accused of raping a 12-year-old girl .… But the Count de
Segur, the French representative at the Russian court (and also Jones' last friend in the capital), conducted his
own personal investigation into the matter and was able to convince Potëmkin that the girl had not been raped
and that Jones had been accused by Prince de Nassau-Siegen for his own purposes…
On June 8, 1788, Jones was awarded the Order of St. Anne, but he left the following month, an embittered
man. —Wikipedia
[Destitute, he remained in Paris where he died at the age of 45 and was buried in a pauper’s grave until….]

Four years later, France's revolutionary government
sold the property and the cemetery was forgotten.
The area was later used as a garden, a place to
dispose of dead animals and where gamblers bet
on animal fights.
In 1905, Jones's remains were identified by U.S.
Ambassador to France, Gen. Horace Porter, who
had searched for six years to track down the
body…. Brought to the United States aboard the
USS Brooklyn escorted by three other cruisers…
seven U.S. Navy battleships joined the procession
escorting Jones's body back to America. On April
24, 1906, Jones's coffin was installed in Bancroft
Hall at the United States Naval Academy, following
a ceremony in Dahlgren Hall, presided over by
President Theodore Roosevelt who gave a lengthy
tributary speech.•
On January 26, 1913, the Captain's remains were
finally re-interred in a magnificent bronze and
marble sarcophagus [beneath] the Naval Academy
Chapel in Annapolis.
—Wikipedia

The Battle of the Saints, April 12. 1782
unknown British painter, 1783

Where are les Îles des Saintes?

5:
The War of the American Revolution, II

The Battle of the Saints
April 12, 1782
“Washington had been eager to follow up the success at Yorktown with an attack on
Charleston, but de Grasse felt that his commitments to the Spaniards precluded his cooperation.
On 4 Nov he sailed for the WI with his 27 of the line and de Barras’ seven. On arriving at Fort
Royal in the latter part of the month he found that the French governor of Martinique had taken
advantage • of Hood’s absence to surprise and recapture St. Eustatius with a part of Rodney’s
booty…”
Sea Power, p. 97.

5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782“…Rodney’s booty.
“While awaiting supplies for the Jamaica expedition, de Grasse used his time to advantage.
After being frustrated by the weather in an attempt on Barbados, he turned in early Jan to St.
Kitts. Although Hood, who had followed de Grasse from America to the WI, appeared on the
scene before the island was completely in French hands, he was unable to prevent its fall in Feb.
Meanwhile other French expeditions had captured minor islands from the British, who now
retained only St. Lucia, Antigua, Barbados and Jamaica.• Having lost the war in N America, they
were well on the way to losing it in the WI.
“By Apr de Grasse was ready for the descent on Jamaica, largest and most valuable of the
British WI possessions…”
Sea Power, p. 97.

“…WI possessions. The task facing him was not an enviable one. He had first to sail to Santo
Domingo to join a Spanish force,…”
op. cit., pp. 97-98.
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

“…WI possessions. The task facing him was not an enviable one. He had first to sail to Santo
Domingo to join a Spanish force, but he would be hampered by a convoy of 150 ships, some of
which carried the artillery for the projected expedition.• Hood had been joined by Rodney with
twelve of the line fresh from England, [Sandwich’s daring strategy!!] making the British fleet
slightly superior to the French.…”
op. cit., pp. 97-98.
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

“…the French. With the British based at St. Lucia,
immediately S of Martinique, and with their frigates
constantly watching Fort Royal, de Grasse had little
opportunity of escaping undetected.
“At daybreak on 8 Apr de Grasse saw his convoy safely
out of port and then put to sea with his fleet of 33 of the line
and four frigates. By noon Rodney was at sea with 36 of the
line and 20 frigates, and by evening the two fleets were
within sight of each other.
“That night the French fleet lay becalmed under the lee of
Dominica. When dawn revealed the British to leeward, de
Grasse signaled his convoy to run into Guadeloupe, while the
fleet formed a line of battle to cover its retreat. During the
forenoon the British van under Hood progressed sufficiently
to catch a little of the NNE breeze, coming around the
northern end of the island and thus threatened the most
leeward of the French vessels.…”
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

“…French vessels. De Grasse therefore put his fleet on the port tack in reverse order and, taking
care to remain out of reach of the British carronades,• engaged Hood briskly at about half
cannon range, while the British center and rear lay becalmed, helpless to intervene. Four of
Hood’s ships were considerably injured, and the division as a whole suffered such damage and
casualties that Rodney subsequently transferred it to the rear to recuperate. One French ship had
to be sent into Guadeloupe for repairs….”
op. cit., p. 98.
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

to be sent into Guadeloupe for repair.
“While the action was in progress, de Grasse had sent word for the convoy leave Guadeloupe
for Santo Domingo, and by evening it was out of sight….” op. cit., p. 98.
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

to be sent into Guadeloupe for repairs.
“While the action was in progress, de Grasse had sent word for the convoy leave Guadeloupe
for Santo Domingo, and by evening it was out of sight. But since the copper-sheathed British
fleet might easily overtake it, de Grasse remained in Dominica Channel through the 9th, keeping
to windward of the British, in order to give his convoy ample time to escape, while the British
lay to, making repairs. On the 10th the French worked to windward in the Saints passage, N of
Dominica, with the British in pursuit.
“Up to this time things had gone well for the French….” op. cit., p. 98.
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

“…the French. Their convoy was now safe, and the fleet was withdrawing successfully. But
during the night the Zélé collided with another vessel, forcing the latter to retire to • Basse-Terre
and causing the Zélé to fall behind so that she and her escort at dawn were in danger of capture.
With his fleet already reduced to 31, de Grasse was unwilling to lose two more vessels.
Sacrificing his lead, he reversed course to cover his laggards. The leading British ships fell back
to take their places in line, so that de Grasse was able to save his two ships without fighting.
“That night the Zélé crowned her wretched career by colliding with the Ville de Paris….”
Ibid.
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

“…the French. Their convoy was now safe, and the fleet was withdrawing successfully. But
during the night the Zélé collided with another vessel, forcing the latter to retire to • Basse-Terre
and causing the Zélé to fall behind so that she and her escort at dawn were in danger of capture.
With his fleet already reduced to 31, de Grasse was unwilling to lose two more vessels.
Sacrificing his lead, he reversed course to cover his laggards. The leading British ships fell back
to take their places in line, so that de Grasse was able to save his two ships without fighting.
“That night the Zélé crowned her wretched career by colliding with the Ville de Paris. It was
her 14th collision in 13 months, and her fourth since leaving Fort Royal. This time she lost her
bowsprit and mizzen, so that she had to be taken in tow for Guadeloupe by a frigate. De Grasse
now had only 30 ships to face Rodney’s 36.
“Dawn of 12 April found the French fleet in considerable disorder, scattered between
Dominica, the Saints, and Marie Galante….”
Ibid.
5:
The War of the

April 12, 1782

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ABOUT 7:55-FIRE OPENED
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
• “The Ville de Paris, which had been delayed by
the accident, was 10 or 15 miles from those
ships farthest to windward in the ENE breeze.

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
• “Two miles to leeward of the flagship plodded
the Zélé, towed by her frigate….”

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
the Zélé, towed by her frigate.
• “Rodney, seeing the opportunity to force a
battle, sent four of his fastest ships in pursuit of
the Zélé….”

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
the Zélé.
• “When de Grasse saw his ship and the frigate
threatened, he made the gallant decision to turn
back in their support….”

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
the Zélé.
back in their support.
• “With eight or ten days’ sailing ahead of him,
he could not permit his stragglers to be picked
off without finding his fleet seriously depleted.

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
the Zélé.
back in their support.
• “With eight or ten days’ sailing ahead of him,
he could not permit his stragglers to be picked
off without finding his fleet seriously depleted.
• “Already he had twice succored trailing vessels
without serious difficulty.
• “Therefore a little before six o’clock he
ordered his fleet to form line of battle in
reverse order on a port tack and advanced on a
SSW course to meet the British….”

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
• “…meet the British. But in his haste to save
his threatened vessels de Grasse did not
allow his fleet to form up properly, for it was
scattered over 12 to 15 miles.
• “The battle started before the first four ships
of the van could reach their positions, and
the French line remained a series of bunches
and gaps.
• “Rodney had in the meantime recalled
his chasers and ordered line of battle on the
starboard tack.

April 12, 1782
Ibid.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
• “…meet the British. But in his haste to save
his threatened vessels de Grasse did not
allow his fleet to form up properly, for it was
scattered over 12 to 15 miles.
• “The battle started before the first four ships
of the van could reach their positions, and
the French line remained a series of bunches
and gaps.
• “Rodney had in the meantime recalled
his chasers and ordered line of battle on the
starboard tack.
• “With the British advancing on a
northeasterly course, the two fleets
converged at an angle.
• “A little before eight the head of the French
line crossed the line of advance of the
British, thus winning the windward
position….”

April 12, 1782
op. cit., p. 99.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
• “…Windward position. The last ships of the
French van division opened fire on the leading
British ships just before 0800….”

April 12, 1782
op. cit., pp. 99-100.
ZÉLÉ
I
N
FRENCH
ENE
BRITISH
CapduCapuchin
DOMINICA
• “…Windward position. The last ships of the
French van division opened fire on the leading
British ships just before 0800.
• Soon afterward Grasse ordered his van to fall
off more to the W in order to maintain contact
with the British line after passing the point of
convergence.
• “De Grasse realized that on proceeding
upon its present course his fleet would pass
into the lee of Dominica with its false airs and
calms.
• “Accordingly he made two attempts within the
first hour of the battle to wear his fleet onto the
same tack as the British, but since the majority
of his ships were already engaged within pistol
shot, to have worn would have exposed them to
a severe raking, and his captains refused to
attempt the maneuver….”

“Ordinarily the passing of two fleets on
opposite tacks had no significant results, but
this occasion was an exception, for the battle
was largely decided at this stage. In the first
place, the extremely light airs made the
passage slow and greatly protracted the
exposure to enemy fire. In the second place,
the range was extremely close. The British
close-hauled to bring the lines within easy
pistol shot, and the French, occupying the
windward position, could not fall off to a
great distance, as they would ordinarily have
done.…”

April 12, 1782
op. cit., p. 100.

“have done.
“The closeness of the action was particularly disadvantageous to the French because the
English were well equipped with carronades,• while the French had none. Their effect was
murderous aboard the crowded French vessels, which carried some 5,000 troops in addition to
their regular crews. The carronades were well seconded by the British long guns,• the
effectiveness of which had been vastly increased by the gunnery reforms of Rodney’s fleet
captain, Sir Charles Douglas [“…a mechanical genius”—Dictionary of Canadian Biography].
The old rule had been, ‘two or three quick broadsides in passing’…”
Ibid .

April 12, 1782

“have done.
their regular crews. The carronades were well seconded by the British long guns, the
captain, Sir Charles Douglas [a mechanical genius—Dictionary of Canadian Biography]. The
old rule had been, ‘two or three quick broadsides in passing’ but now • special tackle enabled
British gun crews to train their guns up to four points [45º] ahead or astern of the beam.• The
result was that a British ship could fire two or three broadsides both before and after the guns
of a French ship could be brought to bear, and while they were opposite [abeam], the British
were able to fire a great deal more rapidly.
“The greater rapidity of British fire was effected by a series of small improvements initiated
by Sir Charles.…”
Ibid .

April 12, 1782

“have done.
their regular crews. The carronades were well seconded by the British long guns, the
captain, Sir Charles Douglas [a mechanical genius—Dictionary of Canadian Biography]. The
old rule had been, ‘two or three quick broadsides in passing’ but now • special tackle enabled
British gun crews to train their guns up to four points [45º] ahead or astern of the beam.• The
result was that a British ship could fire two or three broadsides both before and after the guns
of a French ship could be brought to bear, and while they were opposite [abeam], the British
were able to fire a great deal more rapidly.
“The greater rapidity of British fire was effected by a series of small improvements initiated
by Sir Charles. ‘Wedges’ or inclined planes, and heavy springs and weights in the breeching
absorbed the recoil of the guns and made their return to battery easier.…”
Ibid .

April 12, 1782

“battery easier. Flannel-bottomed cartridges and the use of wet wads eliminated the whole
process of worming •.…
Ibid .

April 12, 1782

“battery easier. Flannel-bottomed cartridges and the use of wet wads eliminated the whole
process of worming.… Formerly, after a gun was loaded, the gun captain trickled a small stream
of powder from a horn at his waist into the touchhole, then called up a boy with a slow-burning
match,• and lit off the gun….”
Ibid .

April 12, 1782

Re-enactors at Fort Ligonier, PA in 2008 ﬁre a howitzer the old-fashioned way.

“…the gun. Sir Charles invented a quicker and safer method. He had ‘perforated goose quills’
filled with powder in advance. The gun captain simply took a quill from his pocket, inserted it in
the touchhole, and then fired it with a flintlock similar to that of a musket.….”
Ibid .

April 12, 1782

“…a musket. Sir Charles was not exaggerating when he said after the battle that the British fire
had been ‘so quick and so well directed, and extending so far to the right and left, that the
French cannot comprehend how they came to lose so many and we so few.’13
“At any rate, it is evident that the French incurred heavy casualties and severe damage at this
stage of the battle. In particular they suffered from the fire of the great three-deckers at the center
of the British line….”
Ibid .

April 12, 1782
______
13 Barham Papers, I, 280-81. The quality of French gunnery, on the other hand, had fallen off seriously during the war
as the corps of skilled seaman gunners was more and more diluted by drafts from the army to keep up its strength.

French 74 Glorieux in better days. She would become
HMS Glorieux the day after the Battle of the Saints.

“British line. Worst hit was the Glorieux, which was
staggered by the broadsides of the • Duke and came
reeling down toward Rodney’s • Formidable. At just
this moment…• the wind veered four points toward
the S, filling the British sails from the stern, but
striking the bows of the already close-hauled French.
Most of the French vessels swung to starboard (toward
the British) in an attempt to keep their sails filled and
to preserve steerage way. This tended to place them in
a line of bearing and to force them down upon the
British. Others, being taken aback, filled on the
opposite (stbd.) tack. Thus the French line, already
badly formed, simply disintegrated.
“One of the ships falling onto the starboard tack
was immediately astern of the disabled Glorieux.…”

April 12, 1782
Glorieux
Duke
(Formidable)
Ibid .

“British line. Worst hit was the Glorieux, which was
staggered by the broadsides of the • Duke and came
reeling down toward Rodney’s • Formidable. At just
this moment…• the wind veered four points toward
the S, filling the British sails from the stern, but
striking the bows of the already close-hauled French.
Most of the French vessels swung to starboard (toward
the British) in an attempt to keep their sails filled and
to preserve steerage way. This tended to place them in
a line of bearing and to force them down upon the
British. Others, being taken aback, Thus the French
line, already badly formed, simply disintegrated.
“One of the ships falling onto the starboard tack
was immediately astern of the disabled Glorieux. This
coincidence opened a great gap in the French line on
the starboard bow of the British flagship.…”

April 12, 1782
op. cit., pp. 100-101.

“…British flagship. As the disabled Glorieux drifted down upon the Formidable, Rodney sent
his physician below decks to tell the gunners to depress their guns in order to hole her near the
waterline. Since this action deprived us of the one reliable witness, it can never be known
whether the maneuver which followed was at the suggestion of Sir Charles Douglas, as some
have asserted, or on Rodney’s own initiative—if, indeed, it was not either inadvertent, or
inescapable in order to clear the Duke, which was nearly afoul of a French ship ahead. At any
rate, the Formidable swung to starboard through the gap • in the French line. There was no
signal for the maneuver—that for close action to starboard was still flying….”

April 12, 1782
op. cit., p. 101.

“…British flagship. As the disabled Glorieux drifted down upon the Formidable, Rodney sent
his physician below decks to tell the gunners to depress their guns in order to hole her near the
waterline. Since this action deprived us of the one reliable witness, it can never be known
whether the maneuver which followed was at the suggestion of Sir Charles Douglas, as some
have asserted, or on Rodney’s own initiative—if, indeed, it was not either inadvertent, or
inescapable in order to clear the Duke, which was nearly afoul of a French ship ahead. At any
rate, the Formidable swung to starboard through the gap • in the French line. There was no
signal for the maneuver—that for close action to starboard was still flying….
“Despite the lack of a signal, British ships almost simultaneously • cut through the French
line at two other points.• The next five ships astern of the Formidable followed
Rodney…..Rodney’s penetration had caused the four or five ships astern of the gap to become
badly bunched. The Duke, which had been just ahead of the Formidable in the British line, also
ported her helm and passed through the French line…firing both broadsides into the clustered
French as she went. But she was unsupported and was soon surrounded by several vessels of the
French rear, which came up at once. She was forced to strike but was fortunate that the French
had no opportunity to take possession….”

April 12, 1782
op. cit., p. 101.

14
America
“…Rodney had no intention of going through, or as it is celebrated in naval historical
literature ‘breaking,’ the French line. His cardinal rule for holding the enemy to close action
was to keep downwind, since, as he had told Sandwich after the Moonlight Battle [Rodney’s
victory at Cape St. Vincent, 1780] , ‘when the British fleet take the lee gage, the enemy cannot
escape.’ Thus, although de Grasse’s fleet was broken by the wind shift into groups caught
between tremendous volumes of British fire, most of these separated groups passed downwind
and, after sustaining a battle described by Rodney’s surgeon as ‘one peal of thunder and blaze of
fire from one end of the line to the other,• for the best part of the day’ were able to withdraw and
make their escape….”

“…Rodney had no intention of going through, or as it is celebrated in naval historical
literature ‘breaking,’ the French line. His cardinal rule for holding the enemy to close action
was to keep downwind, since, as he had told Sandwich after the Moonlight Battle [Rodney’s
victory at Cape St. Vincent, 1780] , ‘when the British fleet take the lee gage, the enemy cannot
escape.’ Thus, although de Grasse’s fleet was broken by the wind shift into groups caught
between tremendous volumes of British fire, most of these separated groups passed downwind
and, after sustaining a battle described by Rodney’s surgeon as ‘one peal of thunder and blaze of
fire from one end of the line to the other,• for the best part of the day’ were able to withdraw and
make their escape. Five shattered prizes were left with Rodney, their bloodied decks were
shambles of smashed timber and tangled rigging, over turned gun carriages, broken bodies and
pieces of what had been bodies, and between decks the mangled carcasses of sheep and cattle
among the human remains….”

14
America
Padﬁeld, Supremacy, pp. 276-277.
“…human remains.
“Last to surrender, at sunset, was de Grasse’s great flagship, the Ville de Paris, although no one
could climb aloft to strike her flag as the masts were pierced and tottering, their supporting
rigging cut away by shot. She had lost some 400 killed and 600 wounded; the French admiral was
almost the only man standing on the quarterdeck amid the dead and wounded. A British officer who
went aboard to accept his sword found himself over his shoe buckles in blood at every step. The
horror of the battle and its aftermath was increased by swarms of sharks alongside the ships
attacking the bodies of the dead as they were cast overboard; one officer estimated the number of
sharks at 1,000….”

14
America
Padﬁeld, Supremacy, pp. 276-277.
“…human remains.
“Last to surrender, at sunset, was de Grasse’s great flagship, the Ville de Paris, although no one
could climb aloft to strike her flag as the masts were pierced and tottering, their supporting
rigging cut away by shot. She had lost some 400 killed and 600 wounded; the French admiral was
almost the only man standing on the quarterdeck amid the dead and wounded. A British officer who
went aboard to accept his sword found himself over his shoe buckles in blood at every step. The
horror of the battle and its aftermath was increased by swarms of sharks alongside the ships
attacking the bodies of the dead as they were cast overboard; one officer estimated the number of
sharks at 1,000.•
“Brought aboard Rodney’s flagship the next day, de Grasse expressed admiration for what he saw,
commenting that his own service was a hundred years behind; he was referring to the discipline, order
and cleanliness aboard and the advances in great gunnery, for French warships were as well designed,
often better, and he told Rodney he thought his own fleet had been superior, being composed entirely
of large ships of 74 guns and upwards, whereas Rodney had ten of only 64 guns.
“The Battle of Chesapeake Bay, or Virginia Capes, had been the turning point of the American war;
the Saints marked the turning point in the world war; it re-established the perception of British
naval ascendancy lost since the Seven Years War, saved Jamaica, at least for the present
campaigning season, threw the French service into an orgy of recrimination and self-doubt, and
undermined Vergennes’ belief in the possibility of a successful outcome….”

A World War Ends
Benjamin West's painting of the delegations at the Treaty of Paris: John Jay, John Adams,
Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and William Temple Franklin. The British delegation refused
to pose, and the painting was never completed.

“The change in British ministry in the spring of 1782 brought Howe to the Channel fleet,
where he was ably • seconded by Kempenfelt. This happy combination marked another period of
British tactical progress, for Howe gave his subordinate a free hand to draw up signals for the
fleet. Kempenfelt’s first book contained all of Morgue’s signals plus a good many innovations,
but the significance of his flags still depended upon their location [i.e., upon which mast or jack
staff the flag was flown]. It was not till summer, when preparations were being made for the
relief of Gib, that he composed a book based on a numeracy system with signals arranged in a
logical order. Issued for the entire Channel fleet by Howe, who had earlier had no scruples about
setting aside the Admiralty instructions in favor of his own, this book marked the end of the
Fighting Instructions far more truly than the ‘breaking of the line’ by Rodney.•
“In the summer of 1782 France and Spain again assembled a great fleet • [against which
Sandwich had correctly risked a minimal defense with his strategy of gambling on a WI
concentration], but after cruising fruitlessly in the Channel, it returned to Spain to assist in the
siege of Gib….”

The War of the American Revolution II
Europe, 1782
Sea Power. p. 104.

“…of Gib. The Spanish and the French had concentrated a huge force, supported by heavily
protected floating batteries, for an assault on the Rock in the autumn, but the British fired the
batteries with red-hot shot and eventually beat off the attack.…”

Europe, 1782
Ibid.

“…the attack.
“Howe had been ordered to relieve Gib. During his fitting out Britain suffered an irreparable loss.
At the end of Aug the Royal George, Kempenfelt’s flagship, was being slightly careened for repairs
to her bottom. Officers, crew and visitors were aboard, and the Adm was at his desk when the rotten
bottom fell out. The ship went down so suddenly that, although she was at dockside, a thousand
persons were lost, including Kempenfelt.…”
Europe, 1782
Ibid.

“…including Kempenfelt.
“Howe arrived off Cape St Vincent in early Oct with a convoy and 34 of the line. Despite the
presence of the Allied fleet of 46, he pressed on and delivered his supplies without being
seriously challenged until he returned to the Atlantic. Then the French made a distant attack on
hs van and the Spanish on his rear, but it was a half-hearted affair. Obviously the Allies had no
desire to come to grips. The moral effect of this relief of Gib was as great as that of a victory.
The success was due not only to Howe’s courage and the seamanship of his captains, but also to
the tactical flexibility conferred by Kempenfelt’s new signal system.”

Europe, 1782
Ibid.

“The brightest chapter in the French naval history of the war was written in the Far East, too
far from the main current to affect the French navy greatly and too remote to influence the terms
of the peace. There France proved that in Suffren18 she possessed an admiral of genius,…”
The War in the Far East: Suﬀren
Ibid.
______
18 Pierre André de Suffren Saint Tropez, usually known as the Bailli de Suffren, a title bestowed upon him by the
Knights of Malta.•
Bust of Suffren
by Jean-Antoine Houdon, n.d.

“…of genius.
“Since the Seven Years War the British had established virtual control over Bengal. When the
French entered the war in 1778, the British took Pondicherry,• which was ill-supported by the
small French naval force in India.…”
Ibid.

“…in India. With the Dutch entry, they seized the Indian port of Negapatam and the Ceylonese
port of Trincomalee, which provided the only good harbor near southeastern India.…”
Ibid.

“…southeastern India.
‘Sent to India in the spring of 1781, Suffren
fought five major battles with Sir Edward Hughes,
• the able commander of the British Indian fleet.
Suffren’s plans, which often provided for doubling
on the enemy’s rear, show a thorough
understanding of concentration,…”
Ibid.
Bust of Suffren
by Jean-Antoine Houdon, n.d.
The War of the
American Revolution II

“…of concentration, but bitter experience showed him that his captains were either unwilling or
unable to execute such tactics; the instrument was simply not equal to his purpose.
Consequently, not one of the battles was tactically decisive; not a single ship of the line was
captured by either side. Nonetheless, they were among the bloodiest, most fiercely fought battles
of the war, for Suffren, fully appreciating that sea power was the key to the war in India, had as
his objective nothing less than the annihilation of the British naval forces.
“Although he failed to achieve that aim, Suffren by his sound sense of strategy, his energy,
and his timing did in fact reap some of the benefits of control of the sea. After his first battle
with Hughes,• Suffren established relations with the ruler of Mysore, France’s principal ally in
India.…” op. cit., pp. 104-105.
The War of the

Suffren’s First
Battle, off Sadras

“…in India. After his second,• he received orders to retire to Mauritius • for repairs and refit, but
realizing that the French position in India would collapse if his fleet were withdrawn, he
disregarded the orders and continued the campaign.…”
op. cit., pp. 104-105.
The War of the

Contemporary Dutch portrayal of Suffren’s second battle.

Location of
Mauritius
The Indian subcontinent
is concealed by the expanded
detail of the Mauritius
Island Group

“…the campaign. Repairing his ships quickly after a devastating third battle,.…”
op. cit., p. 105.
The War of the

“…the campaign. Repairing his ships quickly after a devastating third battle, he captured
Trincomalee before the British could react, and subsequently fought a drawn battle to retain it.
…” op. cit., p. 105.
The War of the

“…retain it. This fifth fight was also a tactical draw, but it was a French strategic victory, for
Suffren was left in a position to raise the siege of Cuddalore.…”
op. cit., p. 105.
The War of the

“…of Cuddalore.…”
“Soon after this battle, news of the signing
of peace in Europe brought an end to
hostilities in India. On his return voyage
Suffren put in at Port-Louis, Île de France,
where the populace gave him a hero’s
welcome. At Table Bay he was paid similar
honors by the inhabitants of Cape Town and
by the captains of nine British vessels which
had also put in there on their return voyage. In
France he was honored by king, officials, and
people. In Apr 1784 he was made Vice
Admiral of France, an office created especially
for him, while the States General of Holland
bestowed on him a sword of honor • and struck
a medal commemorating his service to that
country.…”
op. cit., p. 105.
The War of the

Statue of Suffren
in Saint Tropez.
—sculptor unknown, n.d.

These tables demonstrate the close attention which naval historians have
given to these five battles. Also the uncompensated labor which one of them
has performed @ —Wikipedia

14
America
op. cit, pp. 277-278.
“…successful outcome. In Aug, British peace proposals were brought to Versailles by de Grasse
—a subtile touch by the leader of the new administration, Lord Shelburne—-and early the next
month Vergennes [began] serious negotiations.
“For both sides financial strain after five years of prodigious naval expenditure lay at the root
of the desire for peace. Great Britain fighting alone against practically the entire naval world was
spending over £20 million annually. Taxes…had been raised…but the difference had been funded by
borrowing, pushing the national debt up to £240 million, almost double its size at the start of the war,
over three times the level at mid-century before the Seven Years War; debt charges now consumed
66% of tax revenue.
“The Bourbon powers wear in worse condition. They…were less able than Britain to borrow on
sustainable terms [interest rates on the national debt: France 8-10%; Spain 20%; Britain 3%]….

“The treaty of Paris closed a war in which Britain had been defeated. In America she had lost
entire armies at Saratoga and Yorktown, and with them the desire to continue the conflict. In the
WI she had seen her holdings steadily diminished. In the Med she had lost Minorca. In India
Suffren was inclining the balance toward France. And at home, Ireland had taken advantage of
England’s embarrassment to present a demand for virtual independence, backed by an effective
army of ‘volunteers.’
“That Britain fared no worse than she did at the peace table was due in part to the exhaustion
of her opponents, in part to her success in dividing them, and in part to her timely defensive
successes at Saints’ Passage and at Gib. It was, in fact, Britain’s retention of Gib that made peace
difficult, for a secret article of the Franco-Spanish treaty of alliance bound France to continue the
war till Gib should be taken. The French Foreign Minister,• Vergennes, desperately searching for
something that might be offered Spain in place of Gib, suggested that Spain might have the
American territory between the Appalachians and the Mississippi. The Americans regarded this
as a betrayal of their interests which justified their proceeding with independent negotiations.
Britain thus scored a diplomatic success by dividing her opponents.…”
The War of the
The Treaty of Paris
Sea Power. p. 104.

‘…her opponents.
“The terms of the provisional treaty between Britain and the U.S., signed 30 Nov 1782, were
remarkably favorable to the Colonies when it is considered that Britain still held NYC,
Charleston, and Savannah. The Colonies received full independence and a territory stretching
westward to the Mississippi with the northern boundary following the Great Lakes substantially
as at present and a southern boundary marked by Florida. [Notice that Britain’s American Indian
allies as well as those who had sided with us are not even consulted in this transfer.] Since the
treaty of alliance with France forbade a separate peace, the Americans preserved the letter of the
treaty by providing that these terms should not take effect until the conclusion of peace between
Britain and France.
“It was not until the beginning of Jan 1783 that provisional articles were settled, ending
hostilities between Britain and France and Spain. Spain fared well, considering her indifferent
participation in the war. She kept Minorca and, as compensation for her failure to take Gibraltar,
she received back Florida, which she had ceded to Britain in 1763 and upon which she had
established only a partial hold in the war.…” Ibid.
The War of the
The Treaty of Paris

‘…the war. France, which had borne the brunt of the war, in a sense paid for the gains of her
allies by receiving almost nothing herself. In the WI, St. Lucia, which she had lost to the British
in 1778, was restored, and she retained Tobago, which she had captured in 1781; her other WI
conquests were returned to Britain. In Africa she recovered her former possessions of Goree and
Senegal, and in India she retained her previous holdings.
“Britain’s principal concessions were in North America, where she retained only Canada. All
her WI possessions were restored except Tobago, and in India she actually improved her position
somewhat at the expense of the Dutch, who had to make a separate peace. Nonetheless, the loss
of the colonies, by far her most valuable possessions [a bit of presentmindedness here, part of
Parliament’s problem was the Sugar Bloc in the Lords who cared far more for their WI holdings
than for the rebellious Americans], was so serious that to contemporaries it seemed to mark the
end of Britain’s greatness as an imperial power. Principally because of opposition in the British
Parliament, the definitive treaty of peace was not signed until Sept 1783.”
Sea Power. pp. 105-106.
The War of the
The Treaty of Paris

op. cit, pp. 279-280.
“The overall loser, it appeared, was Great Britain; this is how the war is depicted. Yet she was
the only belligerent to emerge without serious financial difficulties—merely a much larger debt
—and with her economy flourishing. Although she had lost an estimated 3,386 merchant ships
during the course of the war, and her overseas trade had fallen by a third, within a year of peace trade
was back almost to pre-war levels and thereafter it expanded at an unprecedented rate of about 6% a
year; by 1790 it was over 50% greater than in the best of pre-war years. In part this was due to the
usual impetus given to the shipbuilding, armament and metal industries by the demands of war
—copper sheeting was a notable example—but the main causes lay in proliferating technical
invention and enterprise…a veritable revolution in industrial methods. [Industrial Revolution]
“Between the end of the Seven Years War and the end of the American war, textile production had
been boosted…’spinning jenny’ (1768).•[&] water power…James Watt …steam
power….construction of canals….Agriculture had been stimulated to provide for the growing
urban population….
“The parallels with the Golden Age of the United Provinces are evident: constitutional government
dominated by a wealthy elite dedicated to the needs of trade, in most cases involved in merchant
enterprise, and utterly convinced of the supreme importance of a dominating navy;…
14
America

op. cit, pp. 280-281.
“…dominating navy; low interest rates and the availability of credit, enabling the country to fight
a war against all her serious rivals combined and at the same time find capital to invest in new forms
of manufacture, agriculture and transport; a commercial society served by a free press, relishing the
liberty to discuss new ideas and exploit new inventions. The characteristics were all of a piece, both
symptoms and causes of merchant trading power. And the powerful energies released were to be
seen even in such a strictly hierarchical service as the navy, epitomized in the rapid adoption of the
carronade • and the myriad practical advances in great gunnery which had so impressed de Grasse
after his defeat at the Saints.
“One manifestation of resurgent trading power was the recapture of North American markets. In
the five years after the war, British exports to her former colonies averaged 90% of their pre-war
value; thereafter they exceeded it.• For Vergennes, who had rationalized his war as the need to cut
Great Britain down to size by depriving her of the wealth she derived from her American monopolies,
this was surely the bitterest blow.• Nor did France gain from a treaty to lower trading tariffs which she
concluded with Britain in 1786; her industries, which had been starved of capital and held back by the
rigidities of a society in thrall to officialdom at every level, could not compete. British industry
became the chief beneficiary of the treaty. British textiles even began to dominate markets in the
Levant which had been French preserves for a century.…”
14
America

op. cit, pp. 281-282.
“…a century.
“The resulting economic malaise in France was matched by a deepening financial crisis.
While in Britain a new prime minister,• William Pitt, son of the great strategist of the Seven Years
War, increased taxes and introduced a sinking fund [a fund established by an economic entity by
setting aside revenue over a period of time to fund a future capital expense, or repayment of a long-
term debt.—Wikipedia] to reduce the national debt,• Necker’s successors presided over a steady
increase in the debt inherited from the American war. The causes lay, as always, in total resistance to
fiscal reform by those benefiting from the system….By 1787 the French debt approached the size of
the British debt, but interest charges were almost double. By the same year the balance of foreign
trade moved sharply into deficit. This combined financial and economic crisis sparked the train of
events which would lead within two years to the French Revolution.
“Extraordinarily, progress towards this volcanic solution to the financial problems of the French
Crown and the old order of society was hastened by naval expansion. The navy minister,• Castries,
believed the peace signed in 1783 a mere truce before the next outbreak of hostilities, and planned to
increase the battle fleet to a permanent force of eighty of the line. His successor carried the project
forward to such effect that the revolutionary government inherited seventy-three of the line, mainly of
recent construction, all coppered, equipped with carronades and other British innovations…the
largest France would have in the sailing era…”
14
America

op. cit, p. 282.
“…sailing era.
“The reasons for the build-up defy rational explanation. There was no money to commission
such a force if it came to war; nor were there sailors to man it, as demonstrated by extreme
difficulties in obtaining men for the smaller fleet of the American war. Meanwhile loans taken out to
fund the program and the huge quantities of timber and naval stores sucked into the country had
exacerbated both financial and economic crises. Since Spain, in similar financial straits, increased
her navy by some 30% in the same period, it can only be concluded that both Bourbon powers were
transfixed by the British navy and British merchant greed, and anticipated the younger Pitt attempting
similar colonial expropriations to those achieved by his father. Ultimately, through war and peace, it
seems it was British naval and commercial dominance that forced the violent overthrow of Louis
XVI and the reorganization of French society.”
14
America

Founding a Future Maritime
Power

op. cit, pp. 282-283.
“AS THE FRENCH monarchy tottered to ruin, constitutional changes of great historical significance
occurred in North America. The thirteen former British colonies had ended the war as a loose
confederation of independent states, economies shattered and levels of personal income sharply
reduced, but enjoying constitutions enshrining the rights of their peoples to freedom, equality of
opportunity, the possession of property, the pursuit of ‘happiness’ and government by legislatures
elected for limited terms by adult male suffrage with very limited property qualifications. Each state
issued its own currency and levied taxes. The Continental [Confederation—created in 1781 by the
Articles of Confederation] Congress had no tax-raising powers, and for the most part the states wished
to keep it so: having just rid themselves of the British yoke, they had no desire to raise a powerful
continental government in its place.…”
14
America

op. cit, pp. 282-283.
‘…its place.
“However, lack of central control carried heavy financial and economic penalties.• Robert
Morris, a Philadelphia merchant born in England, whose financial operations for Congress funded the
war, had attacked the problem in 1781 by establishing a Bank of North America on the lines of the
Bank of England. His estimate of the war debt in 1783 was ‘above 30 millions of dollars.’ [Part of
America’s rebellion against things British, preferring coffee to tea, was choosing Spanish silver
dollars • over British pounds as the national currency.] Much of this was held in congressional
promissory notes or certificates, but the inability of Congress either to levy taxes or to enforce
requisitions on individual states for their share of the debt caused great uncertainty and the
depreciation of the notes and contributed to lack of credit throughout the confederation.…”
14
America
Spanish & American
silver dollars

“Not worth a continental!”
The paper money which led to
hyperinflation, which Morris was
able to tame.

14
…and the Founding of the
United States ofAmerica
op. cit, p. 283.
“…the confederation. Paper money issued by Congress during the war had lost practically all
value, wiped out savings and ruined thousands. On top of this, immediately after the war a buying
spree for the British manufactures unavailable for so long led to a balance-of-payments crisis,
further inflation and deepening recession. To Morris, subscribers to the Bank, and the commercial
and moneyed classes (especially those whose businesses and contacts extended between states and
overseas), creditors of Congress and those who had entered the revolution with a vision of the
limitless opportunities for a unified American future, it was evident that confidence and credit could
be restored only by the creation of a central authority with powers to levy taxes, fix duties and
regulate the economy. In 1787 a Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia to address the
problem.…”

14
op. cit, p. 283.
“…the problem.
“The delegates, electing George Washington to the chair, dismissed the idea of amending the
articles by which the states had bound themselves to fight the British, and instead set about drafting a
new constitution for a federal republic.• The outlines were not difficult, since all states had a common
British heritage and [most] used similar systems of election to a two-tiered legislatures requiring
different property qualifications for their members, and all adhered to Locke’s principle—accorded
the status of divine revelation—of preventing arbitrary or tyrannical government by separating the
legislature from the executive and the judiciary. Once compromise had been agreed between the
smaller and the larger states on the number each would send to the federal chambers, the only
substantial problem dividing the delegates was, as earlier with the Declaration of Independence, was
slavery.…”

op. cit, pp. 283-284.
“…was slavery.
“Here no compromise was possible. In the hot southern states, Negro slaves were believed to be a
necessity to work the plantations, and they existed in great numbers, constituting a part of the
wealth of the plantation owners. In New England and the middle states the land was worked by
farmers and free laborers, and not only were there fewer slaves but it was feared that the introduction
of more could result in a black rebellion; for this reason, MA, PA, NJ and MD had imposed
supposedly prohibitive duties on the import of slaves even before the war. There was also the moral
dimension. In the two most important of these states, MA and PA, the God-fearing descendants of the
Pilgrim Fathers and the Quakers had come to deplore slavery and the slave trade—indeed this was
probably a consensus view among the educated of all states.…”
14

op. cit, pp. 283-284.
“…all states.
“Certainly in Europe the leading figures who established the intellectual climate—Voltaire,
Montesquieu, Rousseau, Adam Smith, Horace Walpole, Samuel Johnson— had all denounced the
institution and traffic in slaves. Dr Johnson’s views were so violent he had once proposed a toast
‘to the next insurrection of the negroes of the WI.’ In a volume of his great Encyclopédie published
in 1765 Diderot had included an essay declaring the traffic in slaves a violation of religion, morality,
natural law and human rights.…”
14

op. cit, p. 284.
“…human rights.
“Religious denunciations, particularly from the Quakers, had made more impression.• The Quakers
had inspired John Wesley, founder of the Methodist movement taking the gospel to the masses in
Britain,…”
14

op. cit, p. 284.
“…human rights.
“Religious denunciations, particularly from the Quakers, had made more impression.• The Quakers
had inspired John Wesley, founder of the Methodist movement taking the gospel to the masses in
Britain, to write what proved to be the most influential sustained attack on the trade, Thoughts upon
Slavery (1774), and Quaker pressure had provoked a House of Commons debate on the subject in
the year of the American Declaration of Independence, 1776. No legislation had ensued; the practical
merchant and WI interest [the Sugar bloc] was too strong. It was the same in all countries involved.
The vital interests of the French government coincided with those of the Chambers of Commerce of
Bordeaux, Nantes, and La Rochelle, and Louis’ ministers—as deaf to Jesuit and papal condemnations
of slavery as to the shafts of the Enlightenment philosophes—encouraged the trade by all means and
in that year of the American Constitutional Convention, 1787, raised the bounty paid for each slave
landed on the further shore to 160 livres ( over £7).
“It was only in North America that religious and moral disgust had provoked action, aided
perhaps by the apprehension of the consequences of increasing the proportion of blacks in
society. Again the Quakers had been at the forefront, persuading the PA legislature in 1780 to pass
an act decreeing that Negroes and mulattoes born after that date would be free, thereby
ensuring the gradual abolition of slavery. ‘We esteem it a peculiar blessing,’ the preamble ran, ‘that
we are enabled this day to add one more step to universal civilization by removing as much as
possible the sorrows of those who have lived in undeserved bondage.’…”
14

op. cit, pp. 285-286.
“…undeserved bondage.’ In 1783 the Supreme Court of MA had ruled that the Declaration of Rights
which affirmed men equal constituted a declaratory abolition of slavery. Other New England and
middle states had followed suit.
“The great southern planters refused to bow to moral concern. They stood as firmly for the
enjoyment of their style and retention of their property as the nobles and clergy in France—and
in the next century were to meet a similar reckoning. The question thus became whether the new
republic would embrace all the former colonies or whether GA and SC, divided from the rest by the
slave issue, would go their separate ways. Desire for unity overrode the northern conscience. A
proposal to ban the import of slaves to the continent was dropped [rather, postponed to 1808], and,
while the word ‘slavery’ was excluded from the final draft of the constitution, the condition was
recognized in a clause on interstate fugitives from justice, including ‘persons held to Service or
Labor.’•
“Thus the constitution of the United States was born. [there follows a description of the provisions
of Articles I and II]….As in the British [‘unwritten’ or, better, ‘uncollected’] model developed since
the arrival of ‘Dutch William’ in 1688,the separation of powers was intended to prevent tyranny but
not to lead to deadlock and ineffective government. However, the federal structure of the proposed
republic had more in common with the United Provinces of the previous century than with the highly
centralized British model, and internal powers left with the individual states [division of powers]
provided further checks on the center.…”
14

op. cit, p. 286.
“…the center.
“By the third article, judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court [‘and such inferior courts as
Congress may from time to time establish.”] The fourth…. The fifth…. [those who desire a thorough
examination of the Constitution are referred to my We the People, session iii, The Document at this
site].
“In the subsequent public discussion and pamphlet war over whether the constitution should be
ratified by the states, there were striking similarities with the fierce debates in the English Parliament
at the time of the foundation of the Bank of England soon after William’s ‘Glorious Revolution.’
Then the landed classes feared the merchant/financial interest would take over government and
preside over a rising spiral of deficit financing for its own advantage, raising taxes to service the ever-
mounting debt and spreading government into ever greater areas of English life. Their fears had not
proved exaggerated. It is doubtful if Americans, who had just thrown off the shackles of the resulting
mighty fiscal-military machine, recognized the precedents, but it was again the great landowners,
joined by small farmers and small businessmen, a great many in debt to their wealthier fellows
[debtors=anti-Federalists], who provided the opposition to the proposed federal constitution,
discerning behind it the design of the commercial and moneyed interest and fearing tyranny by an
aristocracy of merchant wealth.”
“No doubt the motives of those in favor of the constitution [the Federalists] were not so self-
interested as they were painted by the opposition: there was boundless idealism and optimism for a
republic created on a clean slate with all history and the latest Enlightenment ideas as guides,…”
14

14
…and the
America
op. cit, pp. 286-287.
“…as guides, granting power not to hereditary nobles, but to the people. For all that, the ‘Federalists’
were concentrated in the seaport cities and were led by wealthy men of business and finance who
attracted to their cause the professional, skilled and unskilled classes dependent on commerce and
even those farmers outside whose livelihoods were bound up with city and international markets.
Indeed, the dispute over the constitution was characterized by a member of the NY ratifying
convention as ‘between navigating and non-navigating individuals.’ It was the ‘navigating
individuals’—whose concerns, it will be recalled, had sparked the original rebellion against British
rule, and who had influence over the press and in the legislatures—who eventually won the vote in a
surprisingly low turnout, and the new constitution was ratified by the [9 states, 2/3rds rounded up]
majority in 1788. The next year [ratified 15 Dec 1791] ten amendments [the Bill of Rights]…”

14
…and the
America
op. cit, pp. 286-287.
“…ten amendments [the Bill of Rights] were passed to give American citizens statutory rights which
the British had acquired in common law or by Acts of Parliament: freedoms of religion, speech and
the press; rights of peaceable assembly; security against unreasonable searches and seizures; trial by
jury; the right not to be a witness against oneself, nor to be oppressed by excessive fines, excessive
bail or ‘cruel and unusual punishments.’ [also treated extensively in my We the People series]
“ So the liberalizing inspirations of the great trading cities of the United Provinces,
transferred to England under William of Orange and speed under the shelter of British trading
and naval supremacy to the North American colonies, were inscribed in the [written]
constitution of the infant United States of America.…”

op. cit, pp. 286-287.
“…of America.
“So too, but without formal adoption, were the commercial and colonizing compulsions. The
establishment of land-speculating companies, often subscribed on both sides of the Atlantic, and the
westward migration of settlers had preceded the American Revolution; in those colonies where the
Crown set limits [the Proclamation Line of 1763 set limits on all the colonies] , it had contributed to
the desire for independence. Native tribes such as the Cherokee and the Creek in the south • had
already ceded vast tracts of territory as payments for trading debts they could never otherwise have
met, and with the coming of war these had allied with the British to prevent further encroachment. It
might be said that they were the true losers [unrepresented] at the Peace of Versailles. Yet in the
long run, whatever the outcome in 1783, it is impossible to imagine any native tribes long
resisting the expansionary forces and materially powerful system—not to mention the smallpox
and syphilis—of the white men and women who had arrived on the commercial tide from
Europe. Ruthless exploitation of less materially endowed peoples and their land and every
living creature within their power was as much the mark of trading strength and merchant
power as were liberal values.
“Of these values, freedom was sovereign. All Americans prided themselves on enjoying the
greatest freedom to be found anywhere on earth, and none more so than the frontier peoples,
…”
14

op. cit, pp. 287-288.
“…frontier peoples, described early the following century by an English gentlewoman,•
Frances Trollope, as the ‘I’m-as-good-as-you population’ clawing its way through the vast
continent, ‘by far the greater part of which is still in the state in which nature left it.’ This
freedom was demonstrated in extreme individuality, informality, indifference to rank or class
and, to curious or startled Europeans, often aggressive assertions of the ‘liberty’ Americans
enjoyed. Its effects were equally striking….”
14

op. cit, p. 288.
“…equally striking. That acute social observer Alexis de Tocqueville, • traveling to America
soon after Frances Trollope, wrote in his diary
Liberty does not carry out each of its undertakings with the same perfection as an intelligent despotism,
but in the long run it produces more than the latter. It does not always and in all circumstances give the
peoples a more skillful and faultless government; but it infuses throughout the body social an activity, a
force and an energy which never exists without it, and which brings forth wonders….
14

Ibid
“…forth wonders..
“That same activity animated the people of the coast and seaport cities. Freed from British
Navigation Acts, merchants developed new markets overseas, and their ships served them with
what Tocqueville was to describe as ‘a sort of heroism in their manner of trading,’ undercutting
British and European competition and outrunning their vessels with ‘clipper’ ships;• the merchant
fleet, spreading its sails in every sea, increased at a rate almost matching the growth of population
in the new Union.…”
14

op. cit, p. 288.
“…new Union.
“The next century would see the twin branches of merchant power in Anglo-Saxon hands
carry all before them, the British building a second overseas empire of unparalleled extension,
the Americans colonizing their own continent from coast to coast, both under the shelter of
British naval supremacy. Accurate prediction is not granted to many, least of all historians, but
Alexis de Tocqueville could see the future:•
Nations as well as men, always betray the most prominent features of their future destiny in their earliest
years. When I contemplate the ardor with which the Anglo-Americans prosecute commercial enterprise,
the advantages which befriend them, and the success of their undertakings, I cannot refrain from
believing that they will one day become the first maritime power of the globe. They are born to rule
the seas, as the Romans were to conquer the world.
14

5:

Summary
“In another respect the War of the American Revolution marked an enormous stride forward
for the RN. Evidence of greatly improved skill in the French navy jarred the British into re-
examining their own naval tactics. The battles of Ushant (1778) and of Grenada (1779)
demonstrated that General Chase was not a safe means of by-passing the restrictions of the
Permanent Fighting Instructions. Keppel’s exoneration following the Battle of Ushant notified
officers of the RN that henceforth professional judgement was to replace blind adherence to the
rules, and that even the Fighting Instructions and the well-ordered line might be discarded in
appropriate circumstances. Additional Instructions provided most commands of the RN with
signals for the various methods of massing, including breaking the line. Rodney’s battle against
de Guichen in 1780 demonstrated however that professional judgement could not be fully
exercised without adequate signals. By borrowing heavily from the French Marine, Kempenfelt
before the end of the war devised for the RN a complete system of tactics with a numeracy
system of signals for putting it into effect. The issuance of this work to the Channel fleet by Adm
Howe marked a new era in British tactics.…”
Sea Power, p. 107.

5:

Summary
“…British tactics.
“Thanks to Britain’s recovery in the last year of the conflict, the war cost her only part of her
empire, and she survived to re-assert her control of the seas. Not only had France lost her best
opportunity to humble her traditional enemy decisively, but she had suffered an economic strain
that was to be a major factor in the downfall of her Bourbon rulers.”
Ibid.

The war for American independence was finally over. It had lasted from “…the
[19]th of April, ’75,…” till 1783—more than eight years. It had been won by a
determined, courageous minority of the population.
In 1909 Carl Becker pithily observed that it was not only a war for ‘home rule,’
but also over ‘who should rule at home.’ The enduring experimental solution to that
question came in 1787.
Slavery, which liberal activist Jim Wallis has called ‘America’s Original Sin,’
was too deeply imbedded to be resolved by the new Constitution. But intellectuals
on both sides of the Atlantic were fascinated by the creation of republican
government in an area which had been considered too large and disparate for it.
Paris, the Continental focal point of the Enlightenment, watched the example of
their ally. The returning officers like Lafayette brought revolutionary ideas home.
The cost of the military aid raised ominous storm clouds.
But that’s another story…
jbp

Sea power 2, session 5, founding a maritime power

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (20)

Similar to Sea power 2, session 5, founding a maritime power

Similar to Sea power 2, session 5, founding a maritime power (11)

More from Jim Powers

More from Jim Powers (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Sea power 2, session 5, founding a maritime power