Noun

THE NOUN
1. NUMBER
COUNTABLE NOUNS
- the general rule of making up plurals is to add –s /-es to the singular form of the noun
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-es is used after –o,-s,-x,-z, -sh, -ch/tch,
e.g. vases, boxes, benches
A. 1. nouns ending -in ''- y'' and preceded by A VOWEL--->Y + -s
e.g. day-days; boy-boys
2.nouns ending in ''- y'' and preceded by A CONSONANT --->-Y-->-IE+-s
e.g. cry-cries; country-countries
3. -QU- is regarded as a CONSONANT group--->words like SOLILOQUY;
COLLOQUY--->SOLILOQUIES, COLLOQUIES
4. QUOTATION WORDS, PROPER NAMES ending in -y get –s
e.g. whys; the Hornbys
!!!!!!!!!exception: the two Sicilies, the Ptolemies
B. nouns ending in ''- o'' get either -s or -es when turned into PL.
1. The suffix -s will be added to:
a. NOUNS whose final -o is preceded by A VOWEL
e.g. bamboo-bamboos, nuncio-nuncios
cameo-cameos, oratorio-oratorios
cuckoo-cuckoos, portfolio-portfolios
embryo-embryos, radio-radios
folio-folios, scenario-scenarios

kangaroo-kangaroos, studio-studios
b. NOUNS ending in -o of FOREIGN ORIGIN
e.g. albino-albinos, magneto-magnetos
alto-altos, merino-merinos
canto-cantos, rondo-rondos
casino-casinos, soprano-sopranos
dynamo-dynamos, tango-tangos
concerto-concertos, solo-solos
libretto-librettos
c. ABBREVIATIONS
e.g. kilo (< kilogram)- kilos
photo (<photograph)- photos
piano (<pianoforte)- pianos
d. PROPER NAMES
e.g. Filipino-Filipinos
Eskimo-Eskimos
Romeo-Romeos
2. when the final -o is preceded by a CONSONANT, the suffix -es will be added
e.g. domino-dominoes, negro-negroes
echo-echoes, potato-potatoes
embargo-embargoes, torpedo-torpedoes
hero-heroes, veto-vetoes
mosquito-mosquitoes

!!!!!!!!!!!!!! there are some nouns ending in -o that may have both-s/-es for the
plural:
e.g. archipelago-archipelagos-archipelagoes, grotto-grottos - grottoes
banjo - banjos –banjoes, halo-halos - haloes
bravo - bravos – bravoes, lasso-lassos - lassoes
buffalo-buffalos-buffaloes, manifesto-manifestos - manifestoes
calico - calicos-calicoes, memento-mementos-mementoes
commando - commandos- commandoes , motto-mottos-mottoes
domino - dominos-dominoes, portico-porticos-porticoes
flamingo - flamingos –flamingoes, stiletto-stilettos- stilettoes
fresco - frescos-frescoes, tobacco-tobaccos - tobaccoes
ghetto-ghettos-ghettoes, tornado-tornados-tornadoes
volcano-volcanos-volcanoes , zero-zeros -zeroes
C. 1. most nouns in -F/-Fe get -s in the plural
belief-beliefs gulf-gulfs
grief-griefs muff-muffs
fife-fifes proof-proofs
cliff-cliffs roof-roofs
safe-safes cuff-cuffs
2. nouns which change -F/-Fe into –Ves when turned into the plural:
calf - calves life -lives leaf-leaves
elf - elves wife -wives sheaf-sheaves
half - halves loaf -loaves wolf-wolves

knife - knives self -selves thief-thieves
3. some nouns with the same ending which may have both endings:
hoof-hoofs -hooves beef-beefs-beeves
scarf-scarfs -scarves dwarf-dwarfs-dwarves
staff-staffs-staves handkerchief-handkerchiefs - handkerchieves
turf - turfs -turves wharf-wharfs-wharves
D. nouns ending in -TH get -s in the plural; the ending is pronounced /Os/
cloth - cloths heath-heaths
death - deaths moth-moths
faith - faiths sloth - sloths
birth - births smith-smiths
hearth - hearths length-lengths
month - months breath-breaths
or /0s/
bath-baths,
mouths,
paths,
oaths,
truths,
youths,
sheaths,
wreaths

!!!!!!!!!There are some nouns whose plural form -ths may be pronounced either /Os/ or /
0s/
oath-oaths
cloth-cloths/clothes sheath-sheaths
earth-earths truth-truths
lath-laths wreath-wreaths
!!!!!house-houses-->the only word in which the change [s-z] /haus/ /hauziz/
occurs
E. some nouns have IRREGULAR PLURALS:
1. man-men ox-oxen foot-feet mouse-mice
woman - women child-children tooth-teeth goose-geese louse-lice
2. a nr. of nouns get ''ZERO PLURAL''(they have the same form for SG-PL)
a. nouns referring to hunting/fishing:(''UNINFLICTED PLURALS'')
e.g. carp, cod, pike, mackerel, plaice(platica), salmon, trout, roe, eel, squid, turbot,
sardine
sheep, swine, deer, elk, chamois, game,
grouse, snipe, partridge
offspring, aircraft, hovercraft.
!!!!!!!!!!!! FISH-FRUIT-->get the plural ''fishes''-''fruits'' when the meaning is ''a variety
of...''
e.g. There are many fishes in the Black Sea.
3.NATIONALITY NAMES
e.g. Chinese - Chinese; Swiss-Swiss; Japanese-Japanese.

4. nouns expressing NUMBER or MEASUREMENT:
dozen,hundred,score,thousand,joke,brace,head,gross,hundredweight,couple,
stone(14 pounds)
e.g. ten thousand people
!!!!!!!!!!!! these nouns may occur in the PL when they
a)express an indefinite number(of + nouns)
NO NUMERAL!<---e.g. hundreds of pages, millions of dollars
b) when INDEFINITE INDICATORS of NUMBER as a few, many, several, some
precede the nouns hundred, thousand, million ,these nouns can have either a ZERO PL
or a REGULAR form
e.g. Many thousand books or Many thousands of books.
5. NOUNS that are part of COMPOUND ADJECTIVES denoting measure, quantity
also get ZERO PLURAL when preceding another noun:
e.g. a two-hour exam / a two hours' exam
a ten-month calendar
a three-day trip
a five-pound note
6. the PLURAL of COMPOUND NOUNS follows the pattern:
a. the FINAL ELEM. is made PL., especially if it's a ONE-WORD noun, but also
when the elements of the NOUN are not themselves nouns, or if BOTH elem. are
nouns
e.g. goldfields, housewife-housewives,
forget-me-nots, merry-go-rounds, good-for-nothings, grown-ups, go-betweens, touch-
me-nots,
fellow-travellers, boy-scouts, will-of -the-wisps, cat's eyes
b. when the FIRST ELEM. of the compound is a NOUN followed by a
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE/ADVERB/ADJECTIVE--->the NOUN takes the PL.

e.g. brothers-in-law
commanders-in-chief
editors-in-chief
justices-of-peace
lookers-on
passers-by
coats-of-arms
man-of-war--->men of war
courts-martial
c. when the compound is made up of a NOUN and an ADJECTIVE, the noun
generally gets the plural form(PLs with -s are often met)
e.g. knights-errant
poets-laureate
seargents-mayor
governors-general
d. when the FIRST elem. of a compound is one of the words : man, woman, gentleman,
knight, yeoman, both elements are made PL.
e.g. man-servant-->men-servants
woman-teacher-->women-teachers
gentleman farmer-->gentlemen-farmers
Lord-Justice-->Lords-Justices
Knight-Templar-->Knights - Templars
yeoman-farmer-->yeomen-farmers

F. some of the foreign nouns have been absorbed into -s -- having a normal -s plural,
others have preserved their foreign plural, and others have both -s and foreign
plurals:
1. LATIN
-us-->-i/ -ora/ -era
SG. ESH PL. FOREIGN PL.
bonus bonuses
campus campuses
circus circuses
genius geniuses genii
cactus cactuses cacti
focus focuses foci
fungus funguses fungi
nucleus nucleuses nuclei
radius radiuses radii
syllabus syllabuses syllabi
terminus terminuses termini
alumnus alumni
bacillus bacilli
stimulus stimuli
genus genera
colossus collossuses collosi
hippopotamus hippopotamuses hippopotami
iambus iambuses iambi

opus opera
corpus corpora
apparatus apparatuses
-A-->-AE
arena arenas
dilemma dilemmas
idea ideas
era eras
sonata sonatas
antenna antennas antennae
larva larvae
vertebra vertebras vertebrae
retina retinas retinae
flora florae
persona personae
uvula uvulas uvulas
alumna alumnae
fauna faunae
-UM-->-A
album albums
aquarium aquariums aquaria
curriculum curriculums curricula
forum forums fora

medium mediums media
memorandum memorandums memoranda
stadium stadiums stadia
addendum addenda
bacterium bacteria
erratum errata
ovum ova
stratum strata
compendium compendiums compendia
crematorium crematoriums crematoria
fulcrum fulcrums fulcra
sanatorium sanatoriums sanatoria
symposium symposiums symposia
ultimatum ultimatums ultimata
tympanum tympana
dictum dicta
vacuum vacuums vacua
medium media
spectrum spectrums spectra
reticulum reticulums reticula
residuum residua residua
candelabrum candelabra
-EX/-IX-->-ICES

apex apexes apices
index indexes indices
appendix appendixes appendices
matrix matrixes matrices
codex codices
2. GREEK
-IS--->-ES
analysis - analyses
axis - axes
basis - bases
crisis - crises
diagnosis - diagnoses
ellipsis - ellipses
hypothesis - hypotheses
oasis - oases
parenthesis - parantheses
thesis - theses
synthesis - syntheses
genesis - geneses
necropolis
iris - irides
-ON--->-A
demon - demons

automaton - automatons - automata
criterion - criteria
phenomenon - phenomena
etymon - etyma
oxymoron - oxymorons - oxymora
-A--->-ATA
miasma miasmata
dogma dogmata
lemma lemata
stigma stigmata
3. FRENCH
-EAU--->-EAUX
-IEU--->-IEUX
plateau plateaux
portmanteau portmanteaux
bureau bureaux
tableau tableaux
adieu adieux
beau beaux
chateau chateaux
rondeau rondeaux
flambeau flambeaux
!!!!!!!!!!!!-S-zero plural(in writing)-regular PL in speech: chamois, chassis, corps.

4. ITALIAN
-O--->-I
dilettante dilettanti
soprano sopranos
virtuoso virtuosos virtuosi
libretto librettos libretti
solo solos soli
tempo tempos tempi
solfeggio solfeggios solfeggi
bandit banditti
5.OTHERS
cherub cherubs cherubim
seraph seraphs seraphim
fellah fellahs fellaheen, fellahin
sphinx sphinges
larynx larynges
G. PLURALS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS
age - ages
air - airs
ash(scrum) – ashes
compass – compasses(reg.pl.)
- compasses
colour - colours (reg.pl.)

- colours
content(continut,capacitate) - contents(cuprins)
custom - customs(reg.pl.)
- customs
damage - damages
draught(current de aer) - draughts (reg.pl.)
- draughts
drawer - drawers (reg.pl.)
- drawers
effect - effects (reg.pl.)
- effects
ground - grounds (reg. pl)
- grounds
letter - letters(reg.pl)
- letters
manner - manners (reg.pl.)
- manners
minute - minutes (reg.pl.)
- minutes
pair -pairs (reg.pl.)
- pairs
premise - premises
- premises

quarter - quarters
- quarters
sand - sands
spectacle - spectacles
- spectacles
spirit - spirits
- spirits
dominoes - dominoes
- dominoes
force - forces
- forces
glass - glasses
- glasses
return - returns
- returns
casualty - casualties
honour - honours
rag - rags
- rags
respect - respects
direction - directions(reg.pl.)
-directions
office - offices

sport - sports
stump - stumps (reg.pl.)
- stumps
advice - advices
commodity - commodities(reg.pl.)
- commodities
energy - energies
expense - expenses
province - provinces (reg.pl.)
- provinces
*sometimes the two plural forms of nouns have different meanings:
die : dies - dice
formula : formulas - formulae
genius : geniuses - genii
index : indexes - indeces
medium : mediums - media
penny : pennies - pence
staff : staffs - staves
cloth : cloths - clothes
cherub : cherubs - cherubin
*many foreign words have now become completely naturalized and always take the
Esh Ph. ,such as
albums
areas

arenas
asylums
bonuses
choruses
chrysanthemums
circuses
demons
encyclopaedias
eras
ideas
museums
peninsulas
prospectuses
sonatas
solos
umbrellas
villas

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
A. a few nouns are used only in the SG being called SINGULARIA TANTUM :
advice,bread,business,furniture,income,information,knowledge,luck,luggage,meat,
money, nonsense, police, progress, remorse, weather
• NONE of these nouns can be preceded by the INDEF.ART ''a''/''an'' ,
• as some of them have a collective meaning, for SG--> A PIECE/ ITEM/ BIT of
e.g. a piece of advice
a loaf of bread
B. a number of nouns: PLURALIA TANTUM have only a plural form:
1. articles of dress:
braces,breeches,drawers/longjohns(indispensabili),jeans,pants,knickers,pyjamas,shorts,
tails, tights, trousers, slacks(pantaloni sport), stockings.
2. parts of the body
entrails, genitals, thews, vitals
3. names of diseases or illnesses:
measles, mumps, rickets, hysterics, rheumatics
4. tools and instruments consisting of two parts:
bellows(foale),binoculars,glasses,pliers/nippers,tongs,tweezers,pincers,scissors,spectacles
, scales, shears
5. names of games:
billiards,cards,bowls,dominoes,draughts,marbles,ninepins,skittles
6. names of sciences or subjects:

acoustics,astrophysics,athletics,aesthetics,ballistics,civics,cybernatics,diplomatics,dynami
cs,economics,ethics,electonics,gymnastics,hidrostatics,informatics,linguistics,mathematic
s,optics,phonetics,physics,politics,sonics,statistics,tactics,therapeutics
7. geographical names:
the Alps, the Carpathians
8. some nouns ending in -ings:
diggings, doings, savings, earnings, beginnings, goings-on,
parings,peelings,shavings,tidings,sweepings,winnings,fillings,takings,surroundings,
innings
9. some ADJs turned into nouns(by adding -''(e)s''):
antics,chemicals,commons,necessaries,news,odds,olympics,riches,theatricals,valuables
10.miscellaneous:
alms, annals, ashes, auspices, arms(weapons),arrears,
belongings, barracks,
clothes, contents, costs, credentials, colours, corps, customs,
damages, dregs, directions,
earnings, eaves, essential, expenses,
fireworks, funds,
goods, greens, grounds,
headquarters,
lodgings, looks,
manners, morals, outskirts, oats,
proceeds, pains ,particulars, premises, prospects, provisions(food supplies),
qualifications, qualms, quarters (lodgings),
refreshments, regards(good wishes), remains,

shortcomings(faults),slacks, supplies, sands, spirits, slums, soap-suds, stairs,
surroundings,
talks, thanks, travels, the tropics, trunks(''swimming trunks)
valuables,
whereabouts,
means, species, series,
golf-links,(gas)-works, wages, mews, stocks, gallows, shambles, crossroads
C. Letters , figures and abbreviations as well as other substantivized parts of speech
are made Pl. by adding the suffix -“S “, usually with an APOSTROPHE
E.g : You must cross your t`s and dot your I`s.
Such hats were in fashion in the 1950`s.
All the M.P.s were present.
We`ll listen to pros and cons.
*abbreviations made up of ISOLATED LETTERS make the plurals by
DOUBLING the letter.
c.(chapter) = cc.
p.(page) = pp.
MS(manuscript) = MSS
S.(the letter) = SS
*the plural of titles : Mr. - Messrs ( messieurs )
Miss - Misses
Madam - Mesdames

NOUN FORMATION
There are several ways in which we can form nouns:
1. by AFFIXATION
a. PREFIXES such as a-, ab-, abs-, ante-, anti-, arch-
e.g: amalgam, abjection, abstract anteroom ; antibody ;
antithesis ;
bi - ; by-,
e.g. biplane;by-pass,
co- /con-; counter- ;
e.g. co-host; concealment, counterattack ,
de-;dis-, di-
e.g. decentralization ; disability ; disadvantage ;dilapidation
ex- ;
e.g. ex-wife
fore-
e.g. forehead, forecast
il- ; im-; in- ;ir-
e.g.; illegality, impulse ; immature, inability
inter-
e.g. interlocutor, intercession

mal -, mis-,
e.g. malpractice,misunderstanding
non-,
e.g. non-entity, nonsense
ob-, over-,out-,
e.g. obtrusion, overcoat ; overdose, outbreat, outsider
post-; pre- ; pro- ;per-,
e.g. postgraduate ; preview, profusion,
re-,
e.g. reappearance
self-, super- ; sur- ; semi- ;
e.g. superman ; surface, semi-colon,semitone
trans-,
e.g. transhumance
un-, under- ;up-,
e.g. uncertainty, underdog ;upbringing, upgrowth
b. SUFFIXES which may be added to
1. VERBS : -ment ; -ion/-tion/-ation/-ition ; -sion ;(for vbs ended in D/T)
-ance/-ence ; -ing ; -ure ; -al ; -th ; -ity ; -ice, -age(for ABSTRACT NOUNS)
e.g : payment ; movement ; correction ; production ; information ;decision ; permission ;
performance ; building ; feeling ; seizure ;arrival, approval ; preference ; growth ;
prosperity ; service,shrinkage,leakage,bondage
: er/-or/-ar, -ant/-ent, -ee; -eer, (for NOUNS referring to persons,
machines)

e.g : reader ; actor ; food mixer ; boiler ; beggar ; liar ; assistant, student ; addressee ;
employee ; payee ; nominee ; referee ; trustee ; trainee ; auctioneer, profiteer,
racketeer ,mountaineer.
2. ADJECTIVES : -ence (adj. ended in -“ENT ), -ance(adj. ended in -“ANT ) ;
-“ty , -ity ; -ness ; -dom ; -cy (for ABSTRACT NOUNS)
e.g : silence ; absence ; distance ; importance ; nationality ; security ; happiness ;
illness ; freedom ; democracy.
3. OTHER NOUNS : -ism ; -hood ; -ship ; -ful ; (for ABSTRACT NOUNS)
e.g.: journalism; childhood; friendship; mouthful.
: -ist ; -er ; -ian, (NOUNS referring to persons,
machines)
e.g: artist ; pianist ;farmer ; villager, historian ;
: - ette; -let;-ling; (diminutives)
e.g. cigarette, kitchenette, booklet, leaflet, rivulet, droplet, duckling, gosling, yearling
2. by CONVERSION - from
a. ADJECTIVES – a native
- the English
- blue, red
- the old, the beautiful
- the blind, the deaf
b. VERBS – in expressions
e.g.: to have a drink, to go for a ride
- derived from past participles
e.g. the accused, the fallen
- derived from verbs by changing the stress from the second syllable to the
first

e.g. object - object, conduct - conduct, permit - permit, present -
present, record - record, compound - compound, progress - progress,
subject - subject
- derived from verbs or adjectives by changing one vowel of the original word
e.g. to sing – song deep - depth
to choose – choice strong - strength
to lose – loss long – length
to bleed – blood wide - width
to believe – belief broad - breadth
to bathe – bath new - novelty
to breathe – breath
to feed - food
to prove – proof
to live - life
c. By CONTRACTION
1. By aphaeresis (the loss of one or more sounds from the beginning of a word,
especially the loss of an unstressed vowel, thus producing a new form called
an aphetism (/ æf t z m/ˈ ɪ ɪ ᵊ )
Motor-car – car Tobacco – bacco Autobus – bus
Telephone – phone Example – sample Caravan – van
Periwig – wig Violoncello – cello history -- story
2. By syncope ( the loss of one or more sounds from the interior of a word,
especially the loss of an unstressed vowel)
Capitaine – captain market – mart madam – ma’am
Mathematics – maths pantaloons – pants knickerbockers – knickers
3. By apocope (the loss of one or more sounds from the end of a word, and
especially the loss of an unstressed vowel)

Debutante – deb dormitory – dorm examination – exam
Laboratory – lab gymnastics – gym memorandum – memo
Public house – pubvampire – vamp permanent -- perm
d. By abbreviation
BBC, FBI, NASA,UNO,VIP
*some compound nouns are made of TWO or MORE separate words :
* TWO NOUNS
e.g : chair leg ; grammar book.
* ADJECTIVE + NOUN
e.g : common sense ; blue print .
* a POSSESSIVE CASE + NOUN
e.g : lady’s maid ; artist’s model ; traveller’s check.
* NOUN + PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
e.g.: mother-in-law; editor-in-chief.
* GERUND + NOUN
e.g.: dancing-shoes; frying-pan ; boiling point.
!! only the -“ING form is stressed.
*OTHER PARTS of SPEECH.
e.g. forget-me-not, merry-go-round

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