Gramatica ii stephan preposições e conjunções

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II Prepositions and Conjunctions Prof. Stephan Hughes

Day 1
Introduction and schedule
Initial definition and categorization of prepositions
How prepositions are presented in teaching materials
A semantic description of the preposition
Lexical or Grammatical morpheme?
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II

Day 2
Conjunctions from derivatives to grammaticalized forms
Conjunctions as lexical morphemes
Linkers, linking words, connectors
Units of cohesion and coherence – sentence, paragraph and text level
Related processes: ellipsis, empty infinitives

Some prepositions Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II About Behind Concerning Like To Above Below Despite Near Toward Across Beneath Down Of Under After Beside During Off Underneath Against Besides Except On Until Along Between For Over Unto Among Beyond From Past Up Around But (except) In Since Upon At Inside Through With Within

Prepositions (Bordet and Jamet, 2010)
Discursive element –semantic value
Unit of meaning
Void of syntactic function
Primitive semantic unit
Functional element – syntactic value
Grammatical sign
Void of semantic autonomy
Primal grammaticalized unit

What is said about them
Connect a noun or pronoun to another word in a sentence
Adjectivize and adverbialize a word: one of the boys, enter through the window
Are spatially or figuratively derived from physical notions of space
Act as other parts of speech , i.e. noun or verb: down the sandwich with a glass of milk

What is said about them 2
Prepositions and conjunctions are grammatical signs, so they are indicators of the grammatical and supralexical meanings of the words in the structure in which they appear. “ (Zugun, 2003)

What can be inferred
These two groups, particularly the first extract meaning from the nouns, verbs, or adjectives or adverbs that accompany them.
In the case of phrasal verbs, not only do particles change the meaning of the original verb, but also transmit the meaning by themselves, leaving the verb with the job of modifying the action

Just one case of “away”
The problems won’t go away by themselves. You have to do something about them.
If only we could just wish our problems away .
I feel as if I have washed my fears away after that yoga session.
Some people believe they can will the troubles away with positive thinking.

How prepositions are highlighted
Defined morphologically, not syntactically
Presented by type: from most common to most complex
Assumed as having meaning, even when temporal or physical information is provided
Categorized within a larger umbrella group known as particles

Focus on Grammar Advanced
Conjunctions as an appendix; nothing on prepositions

Murphy’s Grammar in Use
Organization of principal closed prepositions and possible verb combinations

Cassell’s Student’s English Grammar
Reliable source with clear explanations

Setbacks
Unclear boundaries between simple and complex; weak and strong, grammatical and lexical (call for a continuum)
Dual identity: prepositions » adverbs, e.g. out, about, like, after, up.
Grammar and discourse dependency

Why treat them as semantic units?
Translatability, e.g. I’m in!
Direct and indirect equivalence, e.g. Are we on for tonight?
Teachability, e.g. He was up and about soon after the surgery.
Phrasal verbs, e.g. I whip my hair back and forth

The basis of translation
Translation means finding an equivalence between “two sound complexes based on their common link with the same notion”. (Copcaeg, 1998)
Instead of units of meaning, we could refer to units of notion or concepts . The latter is universal and less subjective than the former.

The challenge
Teaching prepositions calls for a presentation of concepts or notion, e.g. notions of space, time, manner and place and an analysis of how the speakers of that given language see these concepts.
Mastering prepositions seem to be an eternal thorn in language learners’ sides and thus a source of frustration for the learner in question.

Classifications
Simple
Empty
Weak
Light
Main
Abstract
Colorless
Fake
Lexical
Complex
Contentful
Strong
Dark
Secondary
Concrete
Colored
True
Functional

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II Lexical derivant Grammatical morpheme No intermediate or transitory stage

Theory of grammaticalization (Kurylowicz, 1965)
Affixes gain full-fledged status
Syntactic litmus test: the more prepositional, the more grammatical
closed class = advanced grammaticalization = desemanticization
Prepositions/adverbs fluctuate from lexical to grammatical and vice versa.
Loss of compositional meaning – separate elements, one meanining

If prepositions float between the two categories Would a process called re-semanticization take place when grammaticalized items assume new meanings, sometimes even redundant ? BETWEEN: BY- + TWEONUM (two people) Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II

How can we tell?
Like phrasal verbs, grammaticalized prepositions can be separated whereas lexicalized ones cannot
The longer the preposition, the lesser the grammaticalization: compare instead of with yet
unstressed words due to phonological attrition or erosion, e.g. OF

Contradictory?
The usage of lexicalized items turns the same into a closed or grammatical class.
This group, in turn, achieves or portrays new meanings.

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II On the one hand, prepositions are dependent _ or _ relation _ semantic continuity _ the lexical content _ the term they accompany, and _ the other hand _ the syntactic function they have In practice – grammaticalized or lexicalized ?

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II On the one hand, prepositions are dependent on or in relation of semantic continuity with the lexical content of the term they accompany, and on the other hand, with the syntactic function they have In practice

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II Linking devices Conjunctions Adverbs Relative pronouns Infinitives Auxiliaries Participles Discourse markers

Same sentence Two sentences
Although
Despite
Even though
Much as
Whereas
All the same
Even so
However
Nevertheless
- On the other hand

Conjunctions
Syntactic (grammatical) elements used to link ideas in a particular way so as to portray contrast, coordination, explanation, concession etc.
Elements that link ideas beyond the scope of the noun or prepositional phrase, i.e. sentence, paragraph and whole text

Questions to consider
Does animacy affect word order in conjunctions?
Are there any restrictions to relativization in English?
Are particles/discourse markers a lexical class? (Zwicky, 1985) If so, why the two together?

Adverbs vs Particles/Discourse markers
A dverbs can modify the entire sentence, e.g. Sadly, the starting time had to pushed back.
Particles refer to the whole sentence as logical arguments, e.g Not knowing what to do, I didecided to wait
Discourse markers can be created from adverbs and adverbials, e.g. Quite honestly, you need a better job.

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II Comment Linking The point in tme Comment Place Indefinite time Comment Adverb position

Position and Meaning of Adverbs

Sensibly
He (A) discussed the design with her (B).
A – It was wise B – In a sensible way

Honestly
(B)I don’t think the mayor is capable of answering the questions (A). (honestly)
A – In a honest way B – I’m telling the truth

Obviously
He (B) realized she wasn’t (A) well.
A- Of course she wasn’t B- Of course he did

Kindly
The pilots (B) agreed to speak to the journalists (A).
A – In a kind way B – it was kind of them

Discourse markers make a connection between
What is being said
What is being said
Speaker’s attitude
Speaker’s attitude
What was said
What is to be said
What was said
What theys saying

Using auxiliaries to avoid repetition
Short answers:
A: Should I revise for the test?
B: I think you should (revise for the test/do so)

Comments:
A: I thought the film was wonderful.
B: I didn’t (think so).

Subsequent responses:
A: I wish you’d lock the door when you come in.
B: But I did (lock the door)!

With more than one auxiliary:
A: He could have been lying.
B: Yes, he could/he could have been

Reduced infinitives
To give continuity to thoughts expressed
A: Haven’t you done the washing-up?
B: No, I’m just about to

Reduced infinitives
To respond politely
A: Are you coming for a walk?
B: No, I dont want to, thanks

Reduced infinitives
To comment:
She’s less moody that she used to be.

Some useful resources
Cassell's Students' English Grammar
Ways to Grammar
Murphy's English Grammar
Practical English Usage
A Student's Grammar of the English Language

Gramatica ii stephan preposições e conjunções

by Stephan Hughes

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