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Lexicography
- 1. BY MS. SADIA IRSHAD PhD, Scholar, The Department of English THE ISLAMIA UNIVERSITY OF BAHAWALPUR
- 2. INTRODUCTION
- 3. Introduction TWO VIEWS A branch of applied linguistics A discipline in its own right
- 4. Definitions Samuel Johnson(1755): first English lexicographer “art or practice of writing dictionaries” David Crystal (1987) “the process of compiling dictionary” “the art and science of dictionary-making” Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary “the theory and practice of writing and editing dictionary”
- 5. History of lexicography not a new discipline developed to the present stage by passing through various phases Earlier dictionaries had a practical aim BILINGUAL OR POLYGLOT WORD-LISTS to help travellers, missionaries, traders GLOSSARIES to help people understand dialectal, technical or rare terms
- 6. History Glossai in 5th BC to explain words in authors as Homer Anglo-Saxon Glosses in 8th century, English words were written between Latin lines. only random word-lists were produced
- 7. HistoryPROLIFIC PERIODS Compilation of Arabic dictionary in 8th c Invention of printing press Dictionary by Academia Della Crusa in 1612 Polyglot dictionary appeared in 17th c Comparative philologists compiled historical dictionaries in 18th c In 19th c pictorial, specialized, dialectal etc. encyclopedia In 20th c lexicography was developed as a scholarly subject under the influence of linguistics
- 8. History of English lexicography R. Cawdrey (1604): A Table alphabeticall explains “hard words” S. Johnson (1755): Dictionary Citations from literature. Full vocabulary coverage. N. Webster (1828): American Dictionary of the English Language A nationalistic adventure. Webster’s debt to Johnson. “consulting the opinions of some gentlemen in whose judgment I had trust” (seeking agreement on definitions – convention) J. A. H. Murray et al. (1884-1928): OED Historical principles. Interaction with literary, medieval and Indo- European scholarship. Isaac Funk (1894): Funk and Wagnall’s Standard Dictionary of the English Language. put the “most important current definition” first. Merriam Webster’s Second New International Dictionary (1933)
- 9. Lexicography is accretive One dictionary builds on another. William Dwight Witney (1891): The Century Dictionary “neither in meaning nor in form is language to be dominated by its past” Clarence Barnhart (1947): American College Dictionary (1947) Jess Stein and Laurence Urdang (1966): Random House Dictionary Patrick Hanks (1971): Hamlyn Dictionary (UK) Arthur Delbridge (1981): Macquarie Dictionary (Australia) All these dictionaries attempt to “put the modern meaning first”. (Without corpus evidence, it is hard to decide what is the “modern meaning”.)
- 10. Some 20th-century English dictionaries W. Geddie (1901): Chambers 20th-Century Dictionary A vast ragbag. Many rare Scottish dialect terms. Some witty definitions, e.g. “éclair, a confection long in shape but short in duration” H. W. Fowler (1911): Concise Oxford Dictionary A distillation of OED. Interesting approach to sense groupings. P. Hanks (1979): Collins English Dictionary Coverage of technical vocabulary and names. Guidance on usage. P. Hanks and J. Pearsall (1998): New Oxford Dictionary of English Corpus-based and citation-based. Distinguishes core senses from subsenses. Major vocabulary surveys, e.g. of languages, flora and fauna, technology etc. Syntactic information. Corpus-based guidance on usage.
- 11. Lexicographer Person devoted to lexicography Dr. Samuel Johnson (1755) in the Dictionary of English Language defines “A writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge who busies himself in tracing the original and detailing the significance of words.”
- 15. Theoretical lexicography A scholarly discipline Focuses on analyzing and describing semantic relations of lexicon of the dictionary Developing theories of dictionary components and structures Linking data in the dictionaries Also referred to as metalexicography and lexicology A branch of linguistics pertaining to inventory (stock) of words in a particular language
- 17. Lexical semantics Semantics usually involved in lexicological work is called lexical semantics Studies semantical relations between words Homonymy e.g band, bowl Polysemy Homograph e.g bow, conduct Synonymy Antonymy Homophone
- 18. Phraseology Studies compound meanings of two or more words Studies whole meanings of phrase Idioms Proverbs Phrasal verbs
- 19. Etymology History of lexicon Etmology of words gives information about the historical changes and development e.g thou to you
- 20. Practical lexicograpphy involves several activities, the compilation of really crafted dictionaries require careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects: Need analysis Profiling the intended users (i.e. linguistic and non- linguistic competences) identifying their needs Defining the communicative and cognitive functions of the dictionary
- 21. Lexicon acquisition Questionnaire Corpus based Building on existing dictionaries Lexicography is accretive Danger of mindlessly copying errors and out-of-date information The reading program: research to find millions of citations But not a balanced corpus Directed reading research – specialist areas Searching corpus data: low yield for new words high yield for phraseology, collocation, usage Trawling the internet. Problems: sorting the “new words” from the corpus many “new words” are in fact multiword expressions They are hard to find by web crawling programs
- 22. Structuring lexicon information Stating relation of data categories Choosing lemma forms for each word or part of word to be lemmatized Collection of data categories may be language specific or application specific Selecting and organizing the components of the dictionary
- 23. Structuring lexicon information Choosing the appropriate structures for presenting the data in the dictionary (i.e. frame structure, distribution structure, macro-structure, micro- structure and cross-reference structure) Selecting words and affixes for systematization as entries Selecting collocations, phrases and examples Defining words Organizing definitions
- 24. Structuring lexicon information Specifying pronunciations of words Labeling definitions and pronunciations for register and dialect, where appropriate Selecting equivalents in bi- and polylingual dictionaries Translating collocations, phrases and examples in bi- and polylingual dictionaries Designing the best way in which users can access the data in printed and electronic dictionaries Table structure Tree or graph structures
- 25. L1 dictionaries and their users Words and their histories Research: getting the words in Macrostructure: the lexical item Words, multiword expressions, idioms, affixes Abbreviations? Names? Microstructure: Lemma, pronunciation, meaning, use, ... The future of L1 dictionaries Print? CD-Rom? On-line? Hypertext links?
- 26. Writing lexicon entries Writing systems Time Method Ancient Type writer Old Text processor More recent Database, tables Recent Toolbox Advanced Graph editors
- 27. Sorting lexicon entries Purpose Rhyming Radicals e.g homonym, synonym Building on existing dictionaries Lexicography is accretive Danger of mindlessly copying errors and out-of-date information The Oxford reading program: 150 years of research to find millions of citations But not a balanced corpus Directed reading research – specialist areas Searching corpus data: low yield for new words
- 28. Johnson (1755) ALCHYMY, 1. the more sublime and occult part of chymystry, which proposes, for its object, the transmutation of metals, and other important operations. There is nothing more dangerous than this licentious and deluding art, which changeth the meaning of words, as alchymy doth, or would do, the substance of metals, maketh of anything what it listeth, and bringeth, in the end, all truth to nothing. Hooker. O he sits high in all the people’s hearts; And that which would appear offence in us, His countenance, like richest alchymy, Will change to virtue, and to worthiness. Shakesp. J. Caesar. Princes do but play us; compared to this, All honours mimick, all wealth alchymy. Donne.
- 29. Johnson (1755) ALCHYMY, 2. A kind of mixed metal used for spoons, and kitchen utensils. The golden colour may be some mixture of orpiment, such as they use to brass in the yellow alchymy. Bacon. White alchymy is made of pan-brass one pound, and arsenicum three ounces; or alchymy is made of copper and auripigmentum . Bacon’s Physical Remains They bid cry, With trumpets regal found, the great result: Tow’rds the four winds, four speedy cherubim Put to their mouth the sounding alchymy, By herald’s voice explained. Milton’s Paradise Lost, book 2
- 30. New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) alchemy … the medieval forerunner of chemistry, based on the supposed transformation of matter. It was concerned particularly with attempts to convert base metals into gold or find a universal elixir. figurative A process by which paradoxical results are achieved or incompatible elements combined with no obvious rational explanation: his conducting managed by some alchemy to give a sense of fire and ice.
- 31. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 6th edition (2000) alchemy noun [U] 1 a form of chemistry studied in the Middle Ages which involved trying to discover how to change ordinary metals into gold. 2 (literary) a mysterious power or magic that can change things.
- 32. Comparison In Johnson Literary style of definition writing Citations from literature, especially poets Reliance on scientific and technical authority Very full coverage of the vocabulary Few concessions to make things easier for the reader In modern A verbless phrase or a full sentence Defining the ‘essence’ of something, or characterizing what it typically is. How much technical detail to put in, and how to present it? The role of examples. How to express changing beliefs, scepticism (e.g. about alchemy). How to relate figurative extensions to the ‘literal’ meaning (e.g. alchemy = a former science, but also apparent magic; alcohol = strong drink as well as a chemical)
- 33. Updating lexicon entries New words are added New meanings of existing lexicon Narrowing of meaning Broadening of meanings
- 34. Archiving lexicon entries Historical principles place the earliest meaning of a word first camera, noun [Latin camera ‘vaulted room’] 1686. 1. a small room. 2. the treasury of the papal curia. 3. a darkened box or room with a screen in it, onto which an image is projected (camera obscura).... 4. an apparatus for taking photographs or making films. … Synchronic principles place the current meaning first. camera, noun. an apparatus for taking photographs or making films. [from Latin camera ‘small room’] camera obscura, noun. a darkened box or room with a screen in it, onto which an image is projected. ... [Latin: ‘dark room’]
- 35. Archiving lexicon entries • The synchronic/historical distinction affects many words. field: enclosed land. [Old English feld ‘open country’] kind: considerate and friendly. [Old English: ‘noble, well-bred’] magazine: 1. periodical publication. 2. holder for cartridges on a gun or revolver. [Arabic: ‘storehouse’ ] sock. [Latin soccus ‘light shoe worn by a comic actor’] size: dimension, magnitude. [from assizes ‘session of a local law court’: a size loaf was a loaf of court-approved dimensions] • Today’s exploitation may become tomorrow’s norm.
- 37. Conclusion Lexicography involves theory and practice of dictionary making The purpose is to answer all of everbody’s questions about words, without knowing in advance what the questions are going to be. The lexicographer must consider the needs, expectations, and limitations of the dictionary user. Coverage (in addition to core vocabulary) slang and neologisms (journalists love them!) technical vocabulary for a technological world names of famous people and places A dictionary entry can tell a story.