Martin otundo research paperDETERMINANTS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMMES FOR ORPHANS AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN IN TAITA TAVETA COUNTY, KENYA

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DETERMINANTS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF CASH TRANSFER
PROGRAMMES FOR ORPHANS AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN IN
TAITA TAVETA COUNTY, KENYA
MARTIN OTUNDO RICHARD
A Research Proposal Assignment Submitted To School of Human Resource
Development In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirement For The Award Of a
PhD In Project Management In the Jomo Kenyatta University Of Agriculture
And Technology.
July, 2015.

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DECLARATION
This research proposal is my original work and has not been submitted to any other university or
institution of higher learning for examination.
MARTIN OTUNDO RICHARD
REG NO: HD417-C005-0151/2015
Signature ............................................................. Date .......................................................
This research proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as the University
Supervisor.
PROF. NAMUSONGE
HEAD OF SCHOOL OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
Signature…………………………………. Date …………………………………………

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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my lovely dad (Martin Otundo) for being a wonderful friend to me.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my gratitude to Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture And
Technology for giving me the opportunity to undertake this course. To my unit lecturer,
Prof. Namusonge; thank you for guiding me through the entire unit proposal assignment.
I wish to thank my colleagues (Ben Mumia and Patric Gatatha) who were a source of
encouragement thus enabling me to go through this assignment. Last but not least, I wish
to thank God almighty for his health, provisions and protection throughout the times,
seasons and moments of study for this degree.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................vii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................................ix
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………......1
1.1 Background to the Study………………….……….…………………………………………..1
1.2 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………………….………..7
1.3 Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………………..8
1.4 Objectives of the Study……………………………………………………………………......8
1.5 Research Questions…………………………………………………………...……………….9
1.6 Research Hypothesis…........................................................................................................9
1.7 Significances of the Study.....................................................................................................10
1.8 Basic Assumptions of the Study.........................................................................................10
1.9 Limitations of the Study......................................................................................................11
1.10 Delimitations of the Study...................................................................................................11
1.11Definition of Significant Terms..............................................................................................12
1.12 Organization of the Study.....................................................................................................12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW…...................................................................13
2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................13
2.2 The Influence of Financial Resources in the Implementation of Cash Transfer for OVC..…13
2.3 The Influence of Management in the Implementation of OVC CT Programmes……………17
2.4 The Influence of Stakeholders in the Implementation of CT-OVC Programmes…………...22
2.4.1The Government as a Stakeholder in OVC-CT Programmes……………………………....22
2.4.2 Donors as a Stakeholder……………………………………………………………...…….24

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2.4.3 Politicians as Stakeholders……………………………………………………………..….25
2.5 The Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors in the Implementation of OVC Programmes……..26
2.5.1 Socio Cultural Definition of a Child and a Family as a Determinant Factor………………27
2.5.2 Stigma and its Influence on OVCs Programmes Success……........................................…23
2.6 Conceptual Framework…………….………………………………………………….……..31
2.7 Summary of Literature Review……………….……………………...………………………32
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY….....................................................33
3.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................33
3.2 Research Design...............................................................................................................29
3.3. Target Population................................................................................................................33
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure..................................................................................34
3.5 Data Collection Instruments………………………………………………………………....34
3.6. Data Collection Procedure......................................................................................................35
3.7. Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments.................................................................35
3.7.1 Validity of instruments.........................................................................................................35
3.7.2 Reliability of the instrument.................................................................................................36
3.9. Data Analysis .........................................................................................................................36
3.10 Ethical Considerations……...................................................................................................36
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................37
APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................44
APPENDIX 1 Letter of Transmittal..................................................................................44
APPENDIX 3 Respondents Questionnaire…………………….......................................45

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LIST OF FIGURES PAGE
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework………………………………….……………………..31

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LIST OF TABLES PAGE
Table 3.1 Target Population…………………………………………………………….…..34

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
GoK Government of Kenya
HACI Hope for African Children Initiative
ILO International Labour Organization
KAIS Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
OVC Orphans and Vulnerable Children
PLWHA People Living With HIV/AIDS
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children‘s Fund
WHO World Health Organisation

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ABSTRACT
According to UNICEF, in 2007, an estimated 145 million children between the ages of 0 and 17
years were orphaned, while in 2014, over 198 million children below the age of 18 years were
orphaned, having lost one or both parents. According to UNICEF (2013) the number of OVC
who include street children, forced child labourers, sexually exploited children, children forced
into marriage and those with disabilities is immense and continues to increase drastically.
Children may be made highly vulnerable because of natural disasters, complex emergencies like
civil conflicts, extreme poverty, according to the draft Social Protection Strategy paper, a
household is said to be ―extremely poor‖ when ―its entire income is below food poverty line‖
(Republic of Kenya, 2009b) or epidemic disease - particularly HIV/AIDS. In this note, the
purpose of this study therefore is to find out the determinants of implementation of cash transfer
programmes for orphans and vulnerable children in Taita Taveta county, Kenya
.The study is guided by four objectives that seek to; examine the influence of financial resources
in the successful implementation of Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable
Children in Taita Taveta County, determine the influence of management in the successful
implementation of Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita
Taveta County, examine the influence of stakeholders in the successful implementation of Cash
Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County, establish the
influence of socio-cultural factors in the successful implementation of Cash Transfer
programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County, Kenya. The
objectives also form the themes in literature review. A descriptive survey design research design
will be adopted for the study. In the study a stratified random sampling will be done in
accordance to the characteristics the elements in the population possess. The research targets
managers/owners of women run SMEs in Mombasa County. The target population is about 964
but a population sample of 97 will be used. A pilot study will be conducted to check the
instruments reliability and validity. Data will be collected using a structured questionnaire which
will be administered personally, via e-mails, enumerators and pick them after they had been
filled. Data will be coded and analyzed using the SPSS. The data will be analysed and the
variables correlated to check the relationship of data. A regression model will also be fitted to
check the changes in the dependent variable that can be explained by variations in the
independent variables

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Convention on the Rights of the Child states that every child has the right to the enjoyment of the
highest attainable standard of health and the right to a standard of living adequate for the child‘s
physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development. In this way, the Convention recognizes
that children have a wide range of needs – including, love, safety, nutrition and play – that are
fundamental in and for them. The inattention to any of these needs puts a child at a disadvantage,
limiting his or her opportunity to grow physically, cognitively, socially and emotionally
(UNICEF, 2010).
According to UNICEF, in 2007, an estimated 145 million children between the ages of 0 and 17
years were orphaned, while in 2014, over 198 million children below the age of 18 years were
orphaned, having lost one or both parents. According to UNICEF (2013) the number of OVC
who include street children, forced child labourers, sexually exploited children, children forced
into marriage and those with disabilities is immense and continues to increase drastically.
Children may be made highly vulnerable because of natural disasters, complex emergencies like
civil conflicts, extreme poverty, according to the draft Social Protection Strategy paper, a
household is said to be ―extremely poor‖ when ―its entire income is below food poverty line‖
(Republic of Kenya, 2009b) or epidemic disease - particularly HIV/AIDS.
In his report entitled, ‗The Orphans of Today,‘ Chant (2010) argues that, the major cause of
OVC emergence especially in Sub Saharan Africa, Russia, developing Asia etc. is HIV/AIDS
which has led to an increase in the number of orphans. AIDS is more than a health issue and
there are so many negative socio-economic problems which include the growing number of
OVC‘s experience. Of over the 47.5 million children that are orphans in sub-Saharan Africa,
11.6 million have been orphaned due to AIDS (UNICEF 2013) while of over the 42 million
orphaned children in Asia,15.01 million are as a result of HIV/AIDS(UN, 2012) .
As a result, child headed households are a common occurrence and children are no longer
children because of HIV. According to Alex Hurrell, Fred Mertens and Luca Pellerano (2011),
around 145 million orphans in Sub Saharan Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean has

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lost one or both parents. This seems to be in agreement with president Obama‘s first speech
during his acceptance as the president of the federal republic of America that the major challenge
in the world is the number of children taking over the parenting roles due to the death of their
parents and next of kinsmen due to various illnesses that could be prevented or controlled.
According to the United States Government (2010), these numbers are alarming thus leading to
the implementation of the various social protection programmes to tame and improve the lives of
the OVC.
Globally, the greatly affected country in Asia for example that has attracted both conditional and
unconditional cash transfer programmes for the vulnerable groups especially the children and
orphans is Philippines. According to Shibuya & Taylor (2013) with an estimated prevalence of
17.3%, Philippines has the Asia‘s most severe HIV/AIDS epidemic, posing a serious challenge
to the country‘s economic development. According to the UNAIDS (2012), the country has over
1.8 million OVCs and this attracted the introduction of the CT programmes for this group in
1999.Since its introduction, the CTs in Philippines have been influenced by a number of factors
for effective success. Studies by various scholars have come up with factors for success or failure
of the CT for OVCs in the area. For example, the financial resources have been central as the
major determinant of success of these programmes (Williams, 2010), socio-cultural factors like
gender classification and religion have been of significance (USAID, 2010), proportions of
demographics and levels of education (UNESCO, 2010), community awareness, management
etc.
In the Sub-Saharan Africa, OVC programmes were officially adopted in the 20th
century when
the HIV/AIDS scourge became rampart and real. In the small Swazi country in the southern parts
of Africa for example, the number of OVCs is almost half the total number of children in the
country (Mustapha, 2010).With the HIV preference of 26.67%, the numbers of deaths have been
alarming, putting the country at a hang balance of adopting ways of combating the street
children, OVCs, abused children etc. According to Epidemic Update 2009, average Swazi life
expectancy fell by half between 1990 and 2007, mostly due to the epidemic. A 2009 study by
UNICEF and the CDC found one-third of females aged 13 to 24 experienced sexual violence
before the age of 18. In the 2010 SDHS, 5 percent of children between the ages of 2 and 4 were
HIV positive, and in 2011, children under 15 were estimated to account for nearly one out of

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every five new cases of HIV. HIV/AIDS is also responsible for 47 percent of under-5 mortality
in Swaziland, reversing hard-won child survival gains. The National Children‘s Coordination
Unit estimates there are approximately 130,000 orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in
Swaziland. According to the 2007 SDHS, only 22 percent of children below 18 years of age live
with both parents, and nearly one-third do not live with either parent; thus a need for structured
CT programmes to protect these people. The implementation of such programmes however were
restricted by a number of factors that included, lack of sufficient financial resources from the
strained national budgets, political polarization, poor financial management, poor leadership and
many more (Kingdom of Swaziland, 2013).A study by UNICEF (2011) has closely linked the
factors and issues surrounding CT programmes in Swazi to the SA republic.
According to the National Center on Family Homelessness (2012), with an estimated 5.5 million
people living with HIV in South Africa, the AIDS epidemic is creating large numbers of children
growing up without adult protection, nurturing, or financial support. Out of South Africa‘s 18
million children, nearly 21% (about 3.8 million children) have lost one or both parents. Despite
the magnitude and dire consequences of the growing number of OVC in South Africa and
elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, there is insufficient documentation of the strategies deployed to
improve the wellbeing of these children. Global partners have recently signed on to a number of
commitments specific to orphans and vulnerable children through various programmes like the
CCTs or UCTs. The 2005 Group of Eight summit in Gleneagles, Scotland, committed to
providing access to HIV prevention, treatment, and care for all who need it by 2010 (Save the
Children UK/UNICEF, 2013). Furthermore, they committed also to work with partners in Africa
to ensure that all children left orphaned or vulnerable by AIDS or other pandemics are given
proper support (UK Government, 2013). The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and
Malaria (GFATM) is a major financer responding to HIV, including programs for orphans and
vulnerable children (OVC) implemented with HIV funds. In June 2010, the Global Fund
reported that programs funded by it have provided 4.9 million basic care and support services to
orphans and vulnerable children. However, the implementation of these programmes have
depended on factors like financial resources, political good will, social cultural groupings of
issues in the community, leadership of the various programmes and many more.

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In Uganda, a report on OVC programmes by the ActionAid (2011) shows that OVC are among
the poor people who find it hard to meet the needs of their daily lives, sometimes because they
lack the means or lack capability of doing so. This sometimes leads to deprivation and/or
destitution. In order to rescue people from or prevent them from deprivation and destitution,
public and private institutions implement social protection interventions (UNAIDS and UNICEF,
2011). According to The Hague Global Child Labour Conference (2010) an initiative therefore
qualifies to be a livelihood-based social protection intervention if it provides the means of
bringing the most vulnerable groups into the development process through protection, prevention
and promotion to ensure their immediate and future livelihoods. Livelihood-based social support
for OVC should institute and implement interventions to reduce vulnerability of the OVC and
their households. ActionAid, who lobbied for universal access to treatment during the Gleneagles
Summit, continues to provide support for children affected by AIDS in Africa and more notably
in Uganda. World Vision International also advocates for the needs of orphans and vulnerable
children and recommends the development of national orphans and vulnerable children strategies
and plans of action, supported by sufficient resources from national and international partners
(UNAIDS and WHO, 2013).
A report by the UNAIDS(2013) has shown that the government of Uganda has partnered with
various international bodies, local NGOs, CBOs, FBOs and many more to provide support for
the ever increasing number of OVC and other groups under 18 especially in the northern parts of
the country. However, the implementation of these programmes since 2008 have faced a number
of issues like the political opposition especially in Kisa Bisikye‘s Kampala dominated city, lack
of sufficient financial resources from both the national government and other stakeholders, poor
government policies from president Museven‘s leadership that are seen to be dictatorial in
nature, corruption, poor methods of identification of the needy groups and many more (Ugandan
Government, 2012).
Across our country Kenya, both CCTs and UCTs date back to the George W Bush‘s orders and
leadership (Republic of Kenya, 2012). A report by USAID (2012) shows that, in response to this
growing crisis of global deaths from HIV/AIDS, President George W. Bush on November 8,
2005, signed into law the Assistance for Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children in Developing
Countries, Kenya included.

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According to the Act (Public Law 109-95) were issues like, landmark legislation that is requiring
the U.S. Government (USG) to devise a single, comprehensive strategy for addressing critical
needs among the developing world‘s collective of highly vulnerable children. In the face of the
growing OVC population, it is essential that additional opportunities made possible via the
Global Fund be identified to ensure OVC are appropriately prioritized in grant processes
(Pfleiderer and Kantai, 2010). PEPFAR based in the USA is working with partner governments
to strengthen the capacity of families and communities to provide quality family-based care and
support for OVC. PEPFAR is working closely to integrate OVC programming with other USG
efforts and multilateral efforts around education, food and nutrition, and livelihood assistance as
part of a robust, comprehensive response to the needs of OVC. Congress maintained the
requirement to direct 10% of PEPFAR program funds to OVC activities. This 10% earmark
reflects the importance of PEPFAR's role in mitigating the impact of HIV/AIDS for the millions
of children and adolescents living in affected communities.
The National Plan of Action for Orphans and Vulnerable children Kenya 2007-2010 states that, a
greater number of children are vulnerable due to poverty, disease, abandonment, natural
disasters, and civil unrest and other causes. In the face of the growing OVC population, the
Kenya National AIDS Strategic Plan 2009/10–2012/13 (KNASP III) state that, in 2008, there
were an estimated 110,000, 0 to 14 year old orphaned children living with HIV and about 34,000
new child HIV infections each year. HIV/AIDS has resulted in increased numbers of orphaned
and vulnerable children (OVC) in Kenya .The 2003 KDHS shows an estimated 11 percent
(1.7m) of all Kenyan children less than 15 years had been orphaned compared to nine percent in
1998(UNAIDS, UNICEF and USAID, 2014).
Other studies by Mugaisi (2014) shows that the socio-economic and political challenges facing
the country have brought worrying trends as 46% of the country‘s about 40 million people are
living below the poverty line thus exposing them to various needs. He continues to show that,
there is a rapidly growing number of orphans and vulnerable children, half of which have
resulted from HIV/AIDS, frequent drought and the recent unprecedented post-election violence
following the disputed 2007 general election. Social protection programmes for the country‘s
poor and vulnerable population have become increasingly important both economically and
politically due to these issues that are endless. Categories of the population that have been

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identified as being more prone to poverty in Kenya are the Orphans and Vulnerable children
(OVC), people with disability (PWD), the elderly, the urban poor and street families, people
living with HIV/AIDS, victims of natural disasters like floods and drought and internally
displaced persons (IDPs).( MGCSD,2010). Traditional social protection mechanisms are failing
due to the enormous economic hardships which majority of households in Kenya face. This has
given rise to increased number of destitute and or vulnerable children. Kenya has an estimated
2.4 million Orphans and Vulnerable children, half of which have resulted from death of parents
due to HIV and AIDS (Githae, 2014). Majority of orphans are taken care of by elderly
grandparents and some by fellow children due to the deaths of their parents with no relatives or
other guardians ready to take care of these orphaned children (Mugaisi, 2014).
Kenya‘s Cash Transfer to Orphans and Vulnerable Children (CT-OVC) Programme started as a
pre-pilot project at the end of 2004 covering 300 OVC households in 3 districts namely Kisumu,
Garissa and Kwale (GOK, 2010).According to the Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey
(KIHBS 2005/2006), this was scaled up in June 2006 to cover 30,000 OVCs in 5,000 households
in 7 districts. A third phase was launched in 2008. By mid-2009, the CT-OVC programme was
already in 47 districts covering 75,000 households. By 2011, the targeted number of OVCs was
300,000 with 150,000 households (GOK, 2013).However, the programme has never been an
easy ride since it has for a long time been faced by challenges like lack of sufficient financial
resources, the ever increasing numbers of OVC, lack of proper identification process for the real
OVC in various parts where the programmes operate, politicization of the process, corruption
etc.
A report by World Bank, UNICEF and PCD (forthcoming) shows that, in Taita Taveta, the
poverty index stands at 54% below the poverty line. It was for this reason that the CT-OVC
Programme was introduced in the various districts in the county in 2007 targeting 215
households in three of the district‘s sixteen Locations. About 1,000 OVCs were covered. There
was a scale up of the programme in 2009 in six new Locations capturing 2679 households and
approximately 8,000 OVCs. The main aim of the program was to keep orphans and vulnerable
children within their families and communities and to promote their development, although
factors like financial resources scarcity, lack of proper identification of the OVC, politics and
many more greatly influenced the implementation of this programme (WERK, 2014).

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1.2 Statement of the Problem
There are an estimated 42 million people living in Kenya, of whom 16.9 million are children
under 18 years of age (Republic of Kenya, 2013). Over 53% of Kenya‘s population lives under
the poverty line, which means that 8.6 million children are in urgent need of support. An
estimated 12 % of all Kenyan children less than 18 years of age and 2.4 million are orphans. Due
to the ongoing tragedy of poverty, fragmented development, and HIV/AIDS, increasing numbers
of Kenyan children are growing up without adequate support, care, and protection. Orphans may
suffer additional vulnerability compared with other children, for example in nutrition and access
to education (World Bank, 2015). Many of these children are deprived of their basic needs due to
high levels of poverty. Nearly half of the population lives below the poverty line, out of which
19% are children. Kenya‘s rural areas in particular struggle with a very high poverty rate (GoK,
2010).
Every 14 seconds, a child in Africa becomes an orphan when this happens, the burden of care
falls to elderly family members and the oldest sibling left behind all of them trapped in poverty
children as young as 10-13 years old are the sole providers for their families (Odekunle, 2010).
Due to fear and misinformation surrounding HIV/AIDS, the children whose parents have died
are frequently subjected to stigmatization by their community. Girls often have to drop out of
school to care for younger siblings and may be forced to sell their bodies for food boys
commonly become street children, turning to alcohol and drugs to numb the pain and hunger in
their lives (Obayi, 2011).
Stakeholders like government and doors usually have the objective of helping to improve the
livelihood of the locals either through direct participation or providing funding. Unfortunately
funds provided by these stakeholders are short term, few and do not factor into the whole
funding mechanism policies that ensure that such projects become sustainable after donor funds
have been withdrawn (Pfleiderer and Kantai , 2010). According to the Republic of Kenya (2011),
Social Protection Strategy is a reality whose time has come. Ikiara (2010) notes that, the growing
numbers of OVC has raised social, economic and political pressure to introduce various social
protection programmes in the country including non-cash and cash transfer initiatives. Social
protection programmes have gained greater recognition and importance in public expenditure
than was the case in the 1980s and 1990s (Pfleiderer & Kantai, 2010). Common difficulties faced

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by orphans as property dis-inheritance, hidden costs of free primary education, lack of food,
separation of siblings, sexual abuse and low transition rate to secondary level even when they
perform well at the primary level examinations have forced the government to introduce the CT
programmes.
However, some studies available across the country have highlighted a number of factors that
have influenced the implementation of these programmes in various parts of the country. Some
of the studies done in the Kenyan Cost for example in relation to OVC CTs include: Factors
influencing the provision of cash transfer to orphans and vulnerable children in Malindi District,
Kilifi County (Mugaisi, 2014), Determinants influencing sustainability of orphans donor funded
project of church based organization in Kenya‘s Coast (Imunya, 2010), An assessment of factors
that influence the management of quality care to orphans and vulnerable children: a case of
community based organizations in Kwale district-Kenya ( Kanuu, 2009) etc. According to
Mugaisi for example, factors influencing the provision of CT for OVC in Malindi district
include: management, education, stakeholders and socio-economic factors. Some of these factors
mentioned above forms the grounds for this research and the fact that no one single research has
been done in Taita Taveta county or either of its former districts concerning the OVC CT
programmes implementation, it will be worth carrying out this study.
In this relation, this study aims at examining the determinants of successful implementation of
Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County, Kenya.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to examine the determinants of implementation of Cash
Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County, Kenya.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
This study shall be guided by the objectives below:
i. To examine the influence of financial resources in the successful implementation of Cash
Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County,
Kenya.

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ii. To determine the influence of management in the successful implementation of Cash
Kenya.
iii. To examine the influence of stakeholders in the successful implementation of Cash
Kenya.
iv. To establish the influence of socio-cultural factors in the successful implementation of
Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County,
Kenya.
1.5 Research Questions
The study will be guided by the following research questions:
i. How do financial resources influence successful implementation of Cash Transfer
programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County, Kenya?
ii. How does management influence the successful implementation of Cash Transfer
iii. How do stakeholders influence successful implementation of Cash Transfer programmes
for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County, Kenya?
iv. How do socio-cultural factors influence successful implementation of Cash Transfer
1.6 Research Hypothesis
The study will be guided by the following research hypothesis:
i. Financial resources have a significant influence in the successful implementation of Cash
Kenya.
ii. Management has a significant influence in the successful implementation of Cash
Kenya.

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iii. Stakeholders have a significant influence in the successful implementation of Cash
Kenya.
iv. Social-cultural factors have an influence in the successful implementation of Cash
Kenya.
1.7 Significance of the Study
This study is intended to benefit a number of organizations which include; the government,
donors and NGOs. The Government has rolled out various programmes that touch on the well
being of the children, more so the OVC. Therefore it will be of great benefit to ministry of labour
by understanding the factors that will determine the success of these CT programmes. The
information also will be available for the donors, county government ministries and other
stakeholders.
The NGOs will benefit from this research more specifically those that have recently moved into
the social protection programmes. These NGOs will get the first hand information on the factors
influencing the implementation of the CT programmes with a specific bias to those touching on
OVC in Taita Taveta.
The project managers will gain an understanding of the determinants of successful
implementation of CT programmes for OVC and use the research findings to improve on their
own performance in managing these projects.
Researchers interested in this area will obviously benefit from the study. They will get available
information which they would utilize as they endeavor to further the study. It is worth noting that
this study area has not been widely researched and therefore, the study is significant in that it will
contribute to the literature.
1.8 Basic Assumptions of the Research
The basic assumption of the study is that the respondents and main informants will provide
correct and truthful information to questions and explanations sought by the research instruments
to be used.

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It is also assumed that the views of the respondents to be used for the study are representative of
the entire population, hence making generalization of the findings possible.
1.9 Limitations of the Study
This study may be hindered by poor road network and rains; this may be curbed by travelling
early in the mornings as it normally rains in the afternoon. The likelihood of the quality of the
information not being entirely efficient due to respondents‘ fear of sharing information might be
encountered. However, this can be countered by giving respondents written assurance that data
collected shall be used only for research purposes, strict confidentiality will be observed and that
a respondent shall, upon request, be given a copy of the findings of the study.
1.10 Delimitations of the Study
The study shall delimit itself by concentrating on the determinants of successful implementation
of Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children. The geographical scope will
be selected from the orphanages and only vulnerable families within Taita Taveta County. The
research will targeted the management/head of orphanages/guardians of projects that directly
touch the orphans or vulnerable children, Assistant chiefs, orphans in schools/out of schools and
headteachers in Taita Taveta County.
The researcher may find it convenient doing the research since he has been ailing from Taita
Taveta County and he is familiar with most of the organizations that support orphans and
vulnerable children in this area and this would make it easier for him to obtain the required data
from the target population.
The researcher will use a consent form seeking the acceptance or rejection of the respondents to
participate in the study and this will assure the respondents of their voluntarism in participation
in the research. The researcher is set to interview by administering questionnaires to school
heads and managers of various organizations with knowledge on cash transfer and provision to
orphans and vulnerable children and this will improve the integrity of the research in terms of
quality.

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1.11 Definitions of Significant Terms
A child- According to the UNHCR (1989) a child is defined as every human being below the age
of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, the majority is attained earlier. The
Children‘s Act (2001) defines a child as any human being under the age of 18.
Cash Transfer - Is the provision of small predictable sums of money to ultra poor families with
children to alleviate household poverty. They reduce overall inequality and poverty and improve
income (UNICEF, 2010).
Cash Transfer Initiatives-are initiatives that provide cash assistance to households caring for
OVC while encouraging OVC human capital development.
Orphan- A child whose mother or father or both are dead (MGCSD, 2012).
Stakeholders- Individuals/groups/firms/organizations that have either direct or indirect influence
in the provision of cash transfer to orphans and vulnerable children. They include the religious
leaders, teachers, the guardians, government, NGOs, politicians, among others.
Vulnerable Child- child whose welfare is exposed to risk factors due to death of its parents, is
living with chronically ill parents, comes from an extremely poor family, is living in households
that have taken in orphans or is physically or intellectually disable.
1.12 Organization of the Study
This research proposal is organized in three chapters. Chapter one is the introduction which
includes the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives
of the study, research questions, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the
study, research questions, research hypothesis, significance of the study, delimitations of the
study, basic assumptions and the definition of significant terms. Chapter two of the study
consists of the literature review with information from other articles which are relevant to the
researcher. Chapter three entails the methodology to be used in the research.

13
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This section summarizes the literature that is already in existence regarding the determinants of
successful implementation of Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children.
It examines how financial resources influence the provision of cash transfer to OVC in Taita
County. Also, the chapter examines the influence of management in the provision of cash
transfer to OVC in Taita County. Equally, the chapter brings out the role played by stakeholders
and socio-cultural factors in the provision of cash transfer to OVC in Taita County. The
discussions have been done in sub-headings taking the format of 2.2, 2.3, 2.3 and 2.5.
2.2 The Influence of Financial Resources in the Implementation of Cash Transfer for OVC
According to the Employment Act, Laws of Kenya (2011) for development projects to be
successful, they require a sound financial base arising from reliable sources of funding, financial
systems to facilitate accountability and cash flow projections and development of marketable
products/services to generate excess incomes over the expenditure of the project. Project
financial systems refer to accounting procedures, records and financial statements showing
performance and cash flow statements, projections that determine financial sustainability of
donor funded projects.
CT programmes for example that do not deliver clear and equitable financial or economic
benefits, which are apparent to the stakeholders and the target groups, they are most unlikely to
be successful after donor funding is withdrawn (OECD, 2010). In his study on the role of
financial resources on the lives of projects, Ettyang (2012) for instance looks at health service
and argues that without proper financing, the various users will not pay for government health
services (either directly or through taxes) if the services are poor, or their expectations or benefits
are extremely limited; making the project‘s success a dream. Better financial analysis is often
required particularly in the formulation of economic sector programs and projects before
Implementing since a good number of them depend on funds for their daily activities success.

14
According to Abebe (2010), the most disturbing issue in CT programmes today (both conditional
and unconditional) is the finances. In this regard, he argues that the sources of funding for these
programmes, the amounts for the programmes and the modes of payments have been the core of
discussion for the success of their implementation. In relation to this, is Barnett and Hustedt
(2011)‘s argument in their work, ‗Improving Public Financing for Early Learning Programmes.
Preschool Brief no 23. New Jersey,‘ that focused of three financial issues for success of these CT
that targeted the OVC under the ages of 7 years. They strongly argued that, for any success of a
CT programme that targets the under 7 in the developed and developing countries, issues
regarding to financial sources, the amounts to be spent and the modes of payment of this cash
should be greatly emphasized.
Mark and Kelly (2011) in their research on the Success of Student Centred Funding and its
Implications for Colorado OVC found out that, up to 89% success of the programme that was
unveiled by the government in about 23 years ago depended on the sources of financial
resources, the amounts allocated to the various organs handling the money, how the money was
dispatched to the beneficiaries and how monitoring and evaluation for accountability was done.
In their social research in the non-formal settlements of Colorado, they interviewed 167
respondents from the responses, 104 argued in favour of the government funding and that of
other stakeholders like NGOs as a central success factor, 35 argued that the government had
employed electronic modes of payment that checked on the issues of fraud and corruption while
the remaining favored the fairly sustainable amounts given to the vulnerable groups as a success
factor. A similar study by Mbozi (2011) argued that in Zambia, the financial resources from the
government for long have limited the implementation of all the % security programmes in the
country since the money given by the government is very little and takes time to be disbursed.
The payment channels have also been faulted by the fact that, almost 67% of the funds are
manually channeled through the local leaders and this makes the whole process a sham.
In Kenya, the CT for OVC was strongly introduced via the Hon.Kibaki government in
2004/2005 and it targeted particular districts like Garissa, Kwale and Kisumu that were found to
be having high numbers of OVC due to the HIV endemic. Previously, such similar services were
in existence in the country up to 1999 but they were normally done by the donors through the
office of president Moi and other bodies like FBOs, NGOs and other CBOs (Republic of Kenya,

15
2012). Kenya‘s OVC-CT programme started in 2004 on a pre-pilot phase (Government of
Kenya, 2011); the project then covered 500 OVC households in three districts Kisumu, Garissa
and Kwale (Ministry of Education, 2011). One of the key objectives of pre-pilot phase was to
provide lessons on a number of key aspects of the planned programme including setting targets,
selection procedures and estimation of implementation costs. In relation to financing, a look at
government budget allocation to CT-OVC programme indicates that government allocation to
the programme had expanded almost 12-fold between 2005/06 and 2008/09, from approximately
US$ 800,000 to over US$ 9 million respectively (Ikiara, G.K, 2009).Currently, the government
sources are limited since they stand at US$ 14million against the number that has grown to over
2.4 million OVC in all the sub-counties in the 47 counties covered by the programme.
According to UNICEF (2011a) there are two sources of financing the OVC programmes in
Kenya that have had a great influence to the success implementation of the programme in the
country. On the external funding perspective, since 1990s external agencies have assisted the
provision of CT for OVC in Kenya. They include UNICEF, Agha Khan Foundation and World
Bank among others. Donor support has also taken the form of grants channeled through local
NGO, such as religious bodies involved in provision of ECE for OVC. According to UNESCO
(2015), the greatest source of external assistance in recent years has been the World Bank OVC
project of 2007-2014. The project targeted OV children from birth to eight years and focused on
teacher training and capacity building for service delivery.
While donor assistance plays vital role in the provision of OVC finances there are shortcomings
such as hindering the GOK to have full control over prioritization in finances. The development
of a national strategy which is sustainable in the long term has been neglected. Secondly each
donor tends to assist in the spheres of their own interest which may not necessarily reflect
national priorities for ECE (GOK, 2012), a factor that has also brought a number of conflicts in
the success of these programmes. In realization of the much attached conditions to funds from
the donors, the government of Kenya started the programme whereby it got funds from its budget
and channeled it through the ministry of Gender and Social Work (currently known as Ministry
of Labour and Social Work headed by Hon. Kazungu Kambi) (GOK, 2014). However, Allemano
and Argall (2009) argue that the major hindrance facing the programme as unveiled by the
government is the issue of the national government allocating them only 1% of the national

16
budget that is shared among the 5 net programmes thus limiting the operations due to limited
funds.
As per payment mechanism, Kenya unlike Brazil, Mexico, Cuba, India, and SA has been paying
very skimpy amounts to the OVC in either monthly basis or 3 months basis when the allocations
have been delayed by both the national government and the allocating bodies. In Brazil for
example, the OVC in the Rio De Generio slums get up to US$.110 per month. The money for the
cash transfer programme in Kenya is currently paid per household of eligible children in the
household at the rate of 1500/= per month irrespective of the number of OVC. Thus, if there are
1, 2 or more orphans in a household, the payment received is the same amount –Ksh.1500 per
month per eligible household. Eligible children are aged from less than 1 to a maximum of 18
years. When children reach 18 they are removed from the programme and are expected to fend
for themselves. This has made the programme a challenge in its implementation.
Channels on payment of the OVC have not only limited the programmes according to Chernet
(2011) but have also been a mock. In India for example, the payment was through the Post Banks
that in most cases couldn‘t reach the poor people in the remote homes (Emiliana, Alexandra and
Chelsea, 2011), prone to corruption, misappropriations and embezzlements (MGCSD, 2011) and
takes long time to reach the beneficiaries thus limiting the value of the money. This has been true
to the Kenyan situation whereby the CT for OVC is channeled through the post offices, through
the chiefs and the assistant chiefs/Wazee wa Mtaa who in the final case lead to delayed payments
of up to 3 months (Otieno and Colclough, 2009), misappropriate up to 56% of the funds or
embezzle through dubious means/corrupt deals up to 59.02% of the funds, making the whole
process a sham. Studies by WERK (2014), USAID (2010) and MGCSD (2010) shows that the
government‘s support for the OVC in Kwale, Kilifi and Taita Taveta has been promising but the
effectiveness has been at only 45.12% due to issues like corruption by the local assistant chiefs
who are used to identify the OVC, the little cash allocated to the kids at Ksh. 2591 (GOK, 2014),
and the loopholes in payment that involve manual payments that lead to corruption and air
allocation of the funds meant for the orphans. Thus, the insurgence of such factors and other
related issues has led to the study since no any other study has been done in Taita Taveta to look
at the issue of finances and OVC programmes implementation success.

17
2.3 The Influence of Management in the Implementation of OVC CT Programmes
According to Mugaisi (2014), the management performs a number of roles as far as the CT-OVC
program is concerned as follows: Selecting and identifying the needy households, formulating
and coming up with policies that govern the cash transfer programs, allocating resources and
finances, and, monitoring and evaluating the overall achievements or failures of the programs.
With well-structured management, the OVC projects are a song of success while the poor
management will always mess-up with the whole issue and beyond.
In his work entitled Leadership Styles, Garud (2012) states that, for any successful completion of
a project, the management should be in the fore front in providing the required leadership and its
bureaucracy properly defined. The structure of the management should clearly be defined, their
roles be well underlined and the styles of leadership well defined. The roles the managers
perform are the essentials in any programme/project survival. According to the Obama (2010),
children need protection from all kinds of vulnerabilities ad all the managers involved in OVC
programmes must be clearly identified in both the developed and developing countries, their
roles defined and their activities be of the highest production as much as possible so as to help
the disadvantaged child in the world have hope.
In India and Pakistani for example, after the inter territory wars between the two countries, the
number of OVC increased between 2003 to 2009 and the two governments identified experts
within the ministries of Gender, Education, Social Work and the Ministry of Health who could
handle the CT money and all the projects related to the various CTs in these countries especially
the OVC programme (UNICEF 2011b). The UNICEF (November 2014) argues that, due to the
improved management of the programmes in these two countries, international bodies have been
pumping in finances for the support of the programme for the last 5 years since it has been all a
success, making the government‘s contributions from the national budget relieved. Plenty
literature is available and it has shown that proper direction from the managers handling the
OVC funds leads to the success of the programmes. This is exemplified by (United Nations
2010) that carried the success of the OVC programmes in Sweden and USA due to proper
leadership, (US Conference of Mayors, 2010) that ricocheted Brazil and SA for their remarkable
success leadership in OVC, (Subbarao and Coury, 2014) who wrote on the success of Ethiopia.

18
However, due to the forest of literature available on the role of management in ensuring success
of OVC programmes in the world, the researcher will limit himself to works touching on the
country. In Kenya, the major manager of the funds in is the ministry of labour and social work
headed by Kazung Kambi. This management has for long time received money from the
government, whose fold has been almost doubling in every budget year but the allocation by the
ministry to the orphans has been shrinking every year due to personal issues between the
minister and the OVC section (World Bank. 2015; UNICEF, 2015), thus limiting the success
story of the programme.
Top from the ministry, the structure in Kenya has tasked its officials, chiefs, assistant chiefs and
local Wazee wa Mtaa as the core managers who are in charge of identifying the OVC,
recommending their names and forwarding them the information on CT. Mugaisi (2014) argues
that, the targeting mechanism used by the program is based on geographical locations, the
community, and individual selection, therefore, these geographical locations, communities and
individuals could be effectively and efficiently identified and reached through a very qualified
and trusted group of leaders or managers.
According to USAID (2013), since the CT-OVC programme was and still is entirely aimed at
providing efficient and effective support to orphans and vulnerable children, the programme
chose to zero in on the Kenyan geographical location into manageable portions that were
allocated to given individuals/groups that had the firsthand knowledge of the target population.
Therefore, districts were selected based on the prevalence of HIV (Government of Kenya,
2013a) and other technical criteria, such as whether the district would receive donor support
(Government of Kenya, 2013b). The community based targeting process is led by members of
the community called the Location OVC Committees (LOCs) who are in charge of identifying
households within selected geographical areas based on eligibility criteria (Githae, 2014).
According to Republic of Kenya (2013c), household eligibility to cash transfer is determined by
these managers on two criteria; the residence of at least one OVC in the household or whose
main caregiver is chronically ill and has poverty characteristics.

19
According to Mugaisi (2014), characteristics of household members that have for a long time
been considered include the following: none of the adults in the household have attained a
standard 8 level of education; the caregiver of the household is not currently working or s/he is
working and not a farmer or laborer; or, the caregiver possesses less than two acres of land.
House infrastructure indicators include any of the following: the walls are made of mud/cow
dung or grass, sticks, or makuti; the floors or roof are made of mud or cow dung; or, the toilet is
a pan, bucket, or the household lacks a toilet (Ikiara, 2010). Household consumptions indicators
include any of the following: drinking water is sourced from the river, lake, pond or borehole;
the household uses firewood for lighting fuel; or, firewood or residue, animal waste, or grass is
used as cooking fuel. Household asset indicators include any of the following: the household
lacks property in the village or elsewhere; two or less zebu cattle; no hybrid cattle; five or less
goats; five or less sheep; no pigs; or no camels (Rafael, 2008).
The LOCs are instructed to visit all households that appear impoverished and have children. The
LOCs then complete a form that lists the basic eligibility conditions to determine whether the
household meets the eligibility criteria. Once the fieldwork is completed, all members of the
LOC decide which households qualify or not by discussing the eligibility and needs criteria
collected in the targeting form (Julia and Amanda 2007).This preliminary eligibility list is then
sent to Nairobi for input into the program‘s Management and Information System (MIS). In
stage two of the targeting process, enumerators return to those households identified by the
LOCs as eligible and collect more detailed information on household demographic composition,
caregiver characteristics, and the proxy variables listed above. Because at times more households
are identified by the LOC than the budget can accommodate, the OVC Secretariat in Nairobi
prioritizes households based upon risk factors.
An additional ranking system is employed to identify families with greater vulnerability
(WorldBank, 2012).The management both at the local and the national level ( OVC Secretariat)
play a major role in identifying the households to be prioritized, the number of the households
and the amount of resources like money to be allocated to each household (GOK, 2014). The
ranking system first prioritizes child headed households (less than 18 years of age) and, among
them, households with more orphans or vulnerable children, followed by the eldest caregivers
and, within them, households with more orphans or vulnerable children. All the eligible

20
households are listed and ranked for each program location and then validated by a community
assembly. At this time, program officers explain the rules of the targeting system and announce
each name out loud in the established order according to priority criteria. Households are then
invited to apply for the programme (Coady, 2004).
The context and the needs of the children/orphans served must guide interventions, while
respecting the duties and rights of either living parents or guardians. Programs must implement
effective measures to prevent gender inequity, mitigate further degradation of family structures,
and reduce social marginalization and stigmatization. Care must be taken to ensure that services
and materials provided for OVC do not generate jealousy and conflict in their social groups and
families. Focusing interventions on the family unit and the community – and not only on the
affected child—is usually the best way to promote the best interest of the child (UNICEF, 2012).
In relation to the identification process, WorldBank (2012) notes that, issues of gender are
important in OVC programmes. Careful attention should be given in conceptualizing and
implementing OVC activities to ensure that differing needs of boys and girls are identified and
addressed appropriate to their developmental stage. Girls and boys living outside of caring
families often face additional discrimination and threats of violence, exacerbated for girls as they
reach puberty. Within HIV/AIDS-affected communities, the girl child often faces a
disproportionate level of risk and vulnerability for exploitation, physical and sexual abuse,
trafficking, HIV infection and burdens of caring for family members (UNAIDS, 2012).
Programs that provide community-wide cash transfers, microenterprise opportunities, old age
pensions or other targeted financial and livelihood assistance can be effective in supporting
orphans (USAID, 2010).For this to be achieved, an organized system for distributing and
allocating funds and other resources should be taken into account. In Uganda for example, after a
randomized clinic trial studied 268 adolescent orphans in their final year of primary school from
fifteen primary schools in Rakai District, it found that at ten months post-intervention,
adolescents who had participated in an economic empowerment intervention had significantly
better self-esteem and self-rated health measures than the control group. This was attributed to
the fact that sufficient funds were allocated for the exercise and other resources like food aid,
sanitary towels and even cloths (UNESCO, 2014).The major role of management is to provide

21
resources at the national or local level so that the groups involved can operate effectively and
efficiently so as to reach the OVC well (USAID, 2011).
A similar report has been given in Kenya by WERK (2014).According to the report, the
management that consists of the ministry of labour, the District Children Officers and the local
assistants/chiefs are purely charged with the responsibility of identifying the children, assessing
their needs and giving the recommendations on the amounts to be given. However, UNICEF
(2015) report shows that, the OVC management has failed in major counties like Garissa,
Kiambu, Kisumu and Homa Bay whereby the people involved in the selection process first are
corrupt (include non-existence names for their benefits), second, they are illiterate for the cases
of LOCs, third, they employ nepotism in identifying these OVC, they have no good will for a
number of OVC and many more. This has been a practical factor that has for long limited the
success of the programme.
According to World Bank (2012), the Kenyan coast has been disadvantaged in helping their
OVC due to tribalism, illiteracy, prejudice in every project spearheaded by the central
government and the religion. In Kisauni for example, despite the great number of OVC in the
area, the local leaders and other religious based organisations have rejected the CT programme
for the OVC more specifically during the 2007 and 2012 years since they viewed this as the only
way used by the central government to access votes from this opposition rich point. This has
been true in area like Kwale County (USAID, 2012), Kajiado and Narok (World Bank, 2012),
Kilifi, Taita Taveta and Mombasa counties (Mugaisi, 2014) and many more. The manager‘s lack
of expertise and the politicization of the ministry of labour starting with the minister who has
little education and knowledge on the OVC (World Bank, 2015) has left the implementation
process at the hands of the few individuals who has the knowledge thus hindering the whole
process.
A number of studies have been done across the country on the role of management‘s influence
on the implementation of OVC-CT programmes and the results have been that it has a significant
influence just starting with allocating of the resources (Mugaisi, 2014), monitoring and
evaluating the whole process of the project evolution and implementation (Stewart, 2012) and
identifying of the OVC (Tillery 2013, February 27). However, no study has been done in Taita
Taveta County, touching on management and the success of OVC programmes.

22
2.4 The Influence of Stakeholders in the Implementation of CT-OVC Programmes
DFID (Department for International Development) (2011) argue that, for any programme to be a
true story in the world, stakeholders must be put into consideration. According to the World
Bank (2014), a stakeholder is defined as a person, group or organization that has interest or
concern in an organization. The stakeholders therefore can affect and be affected by
organization‘s actions, objectives and policies. The key stakeholders in the provision of cash
transfer to OVC in Kenya include: the government and its agencies, UNICEF, DFID, NGOs, the
World Bank, politicians and other donors, suppliers, unions, and the community from which the
business draws its resources. However, not all stakeholders are equal (Government of Kenya,
2011).
2.4.1The Government as a Stakeholder in OVC-CT Programmes
According to GoK (Government of Kenya) and UNDP (UN Development Programme) (2010)
the CT-OVC Programme is a government initiative supporting very poor households that take
care of orphans and vulnerable children to enable them take care of those children to grow up in
a family setting. There are currently five CT programmes being implemented in Kenya with
close collaboration between the government and a group of key development partners, especially
UNICEF, DFID and the World Bank. The five CT programmes are currently known as the Net
Security programmes that include: the OPs-CT, PWEDs-CT, OVC-CT, and Hunger Safety Net
Programme and the WDC-CT (currently under Uwezo fund). The government is taking an
increasingly key role in the implementation and funding of these programmes, with the
development partners taking the lead in the provision of technical expertise and financing. The
government‘s share of the financial resources made available for the implementation of the CT
programmes has increased from a low level when the programmes were initiated to a point
where its contribution currently is virtually equal to that of the donors (World Bank, 2012).
According to (GOK, 2010), Kenya‘s OVC-CT programme started in 2004 on a pre-pilot phase.
The project then covered 500 OVC households in three districts Kisumu, Garissa and Kwale.
One of the key objectives of pre-pilot phase was to provide lessons on a number of key aspects
of the planned programme including setting targets, selection procedures and estimation of
implementation costs. Currently, the government of Kenya has spread the programme to all of its

23
sub-counties in the 47 counties and the allocation from the government has increased from the
previous US$ 9 million to the current over US$ 14 million.
In various interviews in the 47 counties on the role of the government in supporting the OVC
programmes in the counties, The County Integrated Development Boards have given positive
reactions. In Mombasa for example, the sharp increase by the government‘s funding of the OVC
programmes between 2007 and 2014 led some of the people interviewed to predict that the
government‘s share was likely to overshadow that of the donors in the coming few years. Budget
allocation to CT-OVC programme has, for instance, increased almost twelvefold between
2005/06 and 2008/09, from US $ 800,000 to over US$ 9 million and currently it is over 14 US$
million with the amount set aside for disbursement per a quarter a year being over US$ 4 million
(GOK, 2014).
According to Moore (2009), the OVC cash transfer program is currently the largest CT
programme in the country. The number of orphans and vulnerable children has emerged as a
major social crisis in the last two decades. Traditional social protection mechanisms, in the face
of rapidly increasing numbers of destitute or vulnerable children, have collapsed. Kenya has an
estimated 2.4 million orphans and vulnerable children half of which have resulted from death of
parents due to the HIV and AIDS crisis that has heavily afflicted both the rural and urban areas.
A large majority of the orphans live in extreme poverty with relatives or guardians with limited
means. Evidence from various parts of the country and neighbouring countries like Uganda,
Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi and Ethiopia show that poor, elderly grandparents have emerged as
the most important category of caretakers for the orphans in these countries (African Union,
2011).
In this note, the World Bank (2013) has indicated that the Kenyan government has tried its best
to enhance the success of the OVC-CT programme since its inception when it only operated in
three districts in 2004 to the level of the project operating in all the sub-counties in the newly
created county governments. Second, the Government of Kenya (2015) notes that, it has done
more than a milestone and is still on the process of increasing the budgetary allocations and
strengthening the bodies handling the OVC money so that they will achieve universal protection
and education for all the disadvantaged children in the country. Studies by Mugaisi (2014),
World Bank(2012), UNICEF(2013) in Kilifi‘s Malindi sub-county, Mombasa county and Taita

24
Taveta‘s Wundanyi have confirmed that the government‘s funding to the OVC programmes has
been on the rise for long now and has positively favored the implementation of these projects.
2.4.2 Donors as a Stakeholder
According to the Government of Kenya (2010), in 2004, the Emergency Plan of the USA
awarded funding to Pathfinder‘s USAID-funded COPHIA program to expand existing OVC
services through grants and capacity building of CBO partners in Kenya. Supplemental funding
was utilized for training on OVC issues (e.g., child counseling and pediatric HIV/AIDS), as well
as grants to support CBO direct service provision. Pathfinder just like other donors also received
assistance from corporate and private donors in order to supplement its strained budget then. For
example, Barclays Bank supported OVC in vocational training and provided youth with business
starter kits. In addition, the Citigroup Foundation (through Citibank) provided and still does
provide funds for equipment and travel allowances for trainers and trainees for a community
vocational training center aimed at making the OVC programmes in the country a reality. Private
donations from various donors –both local and international-also has been supporting the
building of classrooms for one community school in areas like Kiambu, Garissa, Homa bay,
Kisumu, Narok, Kajiado, and many more.
According to UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF and WFP (2012), at the CBO level, resources come
from a variety of sources including other international donors or NGOs, as well as from in-kind
community donations (e.g. food, clothing) for the OVC in the Kenyan coast, Also, bodies like
Plan International, the World Bank, UNICEF, UNDP, WFP, USAID and many more have been
giving funds for the support of the OVC implementation process in the counties in Kenya
especially those in the coats. In 2012/2013 for example, UNICEF, World Bank and WFP‘s
contributions to the OVC in coast province moved from Ksh.742 million in 2008/2009 to 1.2
billion KSH. This has greatly influenced the implementation of the OVC programmes in areas
like Malindi, Kilifi Township, Kwale, Tana Delta and many more (Government of Kenya, 2011).
According to the USAID (2010), the donors are the major funds providers besides the
government to OVC programs and therefore their increase means an increase in the amount of
resources. In 2004 for example, the Emergency Plan awarded supplemental funding to
Pathfinder‘s USAID-funded COPHIA program to expand existing OVC services through grants

25
and capacity building of CBO partners all over the sub Saharan Africa countries that were having
the cash transfer in OVC programs like Malawi, Kenya and South Africa thus improving the
implementation of the various programmes to a significant extent (Abebe, 2011).
2.4.3 Politicians as Stakeholders
Recent research by Mark and Kelly (2011) stresses the importance of politics and regional arcs
in understanding social protection policies and programmes, cash transfer programs and other
related programs with a focus on the political conditions necessary for the adoption and
sustainability of social protection programmes. For example, while electoral politics play an
important role in cash transfers targeting OVC in Latin America and parts of South Asia; this has
not been the case in Africa, thus affecting the success of these programmes.
Experience shows that effective cash transfer programmes require a supportive domestic political
environment for their initiation, expansion and financing. In many countries, cash transfer
programmes targeting OVC have been introduced by dominant political parties, with a key role
played by ‗executive champions‘ (UN, 2012). Studies have found that although fiscal constraints
are a key challenge to affordability in LICs, political factors and competing domestic policy
preferences tend to play a greater role in the degree of governmental support for transfers. Crises
often create the political space for developing cash transfer programmes for OVC especially
when the targeted orphans come from different politically important regions and the politicians
feel that some of their opponents are trying to use these programmes to undermine their
popularity and control (UNESCO, 2015).
Programmes have often been seen as a component of nation-building. Often, it is claimed that
economic elites and the middle class will oppose cash transfers and OVCs because they fear they
will lead to dependency and tax increases (UN, 2010). However, the interventions examined by
CPRC often prompted the evolution of political constituencies broadly supportive of direct cash
transfers. Political economy analysis from the 1997–1998 Asian economic crisis suggests that
civil society actors played a significant role in pushing for greater investments in social
protection responses and other programs that took care of the poor and disadvantaged in the
society (World Bank, 2012). To date, this appears to be an area that has been under-researched.
Good monitoring and evaluation and the publication of results helps to inform public debates and

26
support civil society engagement. In countries such as Mexico, independent and credible
evaluations have helped to ensure sustained social and political support, which have enabled
programmes to evolve and scale up over time. Evidence of success is critical for long-term
political sustainability. The political conditions required for sustainability of social protection
programmes are less daunting than for initial adoption, as coalitions of support for adopted
programmes and political pressure can build quickly.
Political trends coming as a result of political instability and divisions, conflict, violence,
insecurity, and restrictions on free movement were seen as key vulnerabilities leading to
increased rates of deaths thus increasing the number of orphans. In Kenya for example, during
the 2007/2008 election violence, most women and children were affected leaving them in a poor
state and more orphaned (GoK, 2011a). This is also true in Uganda‘s Kaberamaido district where
the population has suffered from multiple displacements and widespread loss of assets over a
lengthy period due to attacks by the Lord‘s Resistance Army (LRA) and cattle raids by the
Karamojongi. Community members recalled how ‗animals were stolen, leaving people in total
poverty and misery‘. Children were abducted, some people were killed and women were raped
by the Karamojongi. This has been true in the Kenyan coast whereby political polarization has
influenced the government‘s penetration with its projects for a long time now and the projects
have failed to a great extent due to wars closely related to politicization of a number of issues
including religion (GoK, 2014).
2.5 The Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors in the Implementation of OVC Programmes
According to Obama (2010), Businesses do not exist in a vacuum, and even the most successful
business must be aware of changes in the cultures and societies in which it does business. As
society and culture change, businesses must adapt to stay ahead of their competitors and stay
relevant in the minds of their consumers.
In a research entitled, ‗OVC Programming in Global Fund HIV/AIDS Grant in Kenya,‘ by
USAID. (2012b), sociocultural factors are said to be the larger scale forces within cultures and
societies that affect the thoughts, feelings and behaviors. According to the report, these factors,
though, in most cases neglected play a central role in determining the success of all the OVC
programmes around the country. Such factors include: Attitudes, Child rearing practices, Cross

27
cultural difference, Cultural deprivation, Cultural identity, Culture change, Discrimination,
Ethnic identity, Ethnic values, Face (sociological concept), Family structure, Kinship structure,
Power, Race, Racial and ethnic groups, Regional differences, Religious beliefs, Religious
practices, Reputation, Rituals, Taboos and many more that differentiates one community to
another. Owing to the fact of a number of factors that are linked to the society and culture, the
research will only focus on a number of issues.
2.5.1 Socio Cultural Definition of a Child and a Family as a Determinant Factor
According to UNESCO (2011), the major challenge facing the African continent today is the
definition of a child. While the UN (2010) universally defines a child as someone below the age
of 18 years, almost all of the African cultures differ with this; making it difficult for one to
selectively identify the deserving OVC for support without being taken as a biased person. In
the Basotho culture for example (just like it is in almost all the culture of the 42 tribes in Kenya)
it expects families to provide for their children until they gain independence either by getting
married, securing some jobs or any other means of raising an income (UNICEF, 2009).
Additionally, if a child loses either one or two of the parents, other members of the extended
families are expected to take over, but given the household economic situations, most of these
families cannot cope (UNICEF, 2008).This has left almost 21% of the orphans in LDCs like
Kenya move to the streets to seek consolation and at times seek company since they are left on
their own. While writing his masters research report, Obayi (2011) argues that, the ever
increasing number of orphans and other street children in Nairobi, Kisumu, Kisii, Nakuru and
Thika is due to the fact that the families thought to have been the immediate care takers after
their parents passed on have failed culturally and this has left the helpless children on their own,
thus pushing them to the streets.
Although the International definition of an ―orphan‖ is a child from birth to 18 years who has
lost one or both parents, culturally, the question of age does not matter much to the general
public (especially those who live in the rural areas). One of the problems that is disturbing the
today‘s implementation of OVC Program in Kenya is, does one withdraw the support for
example given to that OVC who has been caught by age 18 years while in school? In areas like
Kwale, Kilifi, Lamu, and almost all of the ASALs in Kenya, the rate of primary school transition

28
has been higher with increased enrollment due to free primary and secondary education
introduced by President Kibaki that has seen the aged boys and girls are in school (Republic of
Kenya, 2011). In an interview carried out in Kwale County by the World Bank in 2012 in
relation to the factors affecting the success of OVC projects in the HIV preference areas of
Vanga, Matuga, Kombani, Diani and partly the slum area of Likoni, the respondents had
questions concerning the OVC program; owing to the fact that it supported children under the
age of 18 years. In an interview, questions that were asked by various focused group discussions
included: What happens with those children who reach this age while still in school? Does it
mean that they will just be dropped out of the Program and yet their well being is still at stake?
So, what is the good of this Program? Our children start school around the ages of 10 or so and if
they are to continue into their standard 8, or, at times high school and by the time they finish they
will have definitely passed 18. They will still be in need of food, clothing and medical assistance
from the Program. This ought to be taken into account too. Such questions have made it difficult
to universally come up with a clear cut policy that differentiates between the culture of the
developed countries and that of the African countries; thus making it hard to achieve the success
of OVC programmes implementation.
2.5.2 Stigma and its Influence on OVCs Programmes Success
In reviewing the working paper of UNICEF and USAID (2008, p.58) they quote Pfleiderer and
Kantai (2010) in their findings based in India, Kenya, Nigeria, Lesotho and Uganda in that
stigma was, is and maybe shall be one of the major reasons OV children were dropping out from
school. According to the research, in Kenya for example, children whose parents were thought of
dying out of the deadly HIV virus in Turkana, Garissa, Makueni, Kisii, Bomet, Narok, Kiligoris,
Kilifi, Taita, and Hola were having specific nick names and times teachers and parents could
warn other fellow pupils not to play next to them as they feared they could transmit them with
HIV/AIDS. This has made it difficult for the children to truly accept the programme and a good
number of them opt to keep to themselves or get the support of the relatives that is not sufficient;
making the implementation of the programme difficult.
Also during the focus group discussions held in Mombasa‘s Flamingo Beach resort by the World
Bank in collaboration with the BBC world and Rahma fm to address the role of stigmatization on
the HIV/AIDS diseased child, it was revealed that ostracism and humiliation by fellow peers

29
contributed to the dropping out of schools and at times dropping out of the structured formal
OVC support programme. Through the same research it was discovered that stigma and
discrimination by teachers was a major education barrier (UNICEF and USAID, 2012, p.59;
World Bank, 2012). Thus it suggests that in the Kenyan situation in terms of the education
system and the economic situation, culture that discriminates and stigmatizes the OVC is a
contributing factor for children dropping out from school and out of the structured support
programmes; making the implementation process of these programmes difficult. This is
compared with the information that was collected from Nairobi by the World Bank in 2013
(World Bank, 2015) about the role of stigmatization on implementing HIV/AIDS affected OVC
support programmes in the Mukuruini, Kibera, Mathare, Huruma, Maina kwa Njenga and
Kariobangi slums.
According to the International Human Rights report (2014, p.4) children affected by HIV/AIDS
may be denied access to school or mistreated by teachers because of the stigma associated with
HIV/AIDS in Kenya especially in the poor rural homes where the HIV/AIDS is seen as a curse.
Furthermore the WFP report (2010) reviews conducted in different countries discovered
evidence of discrimination of OVC affected by HIV and AIDS in relation to care, protection and
access to food World Food Program describes discrimination in various forms as public
ostracism by the community, taking in of OVC for exploitative purposes in terms of child labor
and intra- 35 household discrimination.
The report further explains that there is some overlap in how each of these forms plays out and
all were seen to have serious implications for programming in terms of the food distribution
(WFP, 2010, p.10). According to Human Rights Watch (2014) children experience
discrimination in access to education based on their race, ethnicity, religion or other status.
Human Rights Watch investigations in countries that include Colombia, Guinea, India, Israel,
Mexico, Spain, South Africa, Kenya and Sri Lanka found that migrant children, children from
rural areas, ethnic or religious minorities, internally displaced and refugee children, indigenous
children, and Dalit or low-caste children were often denied equal access to education, or in some
cases, access to any education at all. For children in detention, opportunities for education are
often grossly deficient. This makes it difficult for the government therefore to equitably support
the education of these children through the various OVC support programmes. World Bank,

30
UNICEF and PCD (forthcoming) indicate that in Kenyan coast for example, has been
disadvantaged by the long wrangles between the Muslims and the Christians, the up country
people and the local coastarians, the educated and the non-educated, the believed poor
individuals and the called middle class up country people etc. who have been in constant wars as
to who should support the programme or who should be in the fore front in benefiting from the
programme. This has made it difficult for the implementation of the programmes aimed at taking
care of the OVC in region (GoK, 2014).

31
2.6 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework outlines the dependent, independent and moderating variables as
discussed in the literature review and elaborated in the Figure 1 below. It helps one to understand
the relationship between the variables of the study. It also gives a summary of the independent
factors together with the indicators that can be measured in the field during the research.
Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Moderating Variables
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
The above framework shows the interconnections between study variables that determine the
successful implementation of Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children
in Taita Taveta County. The dependent variable is the successful implementation of Cash
Successful Implementation of Cash
Transfer Programmes for Orphans and
Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta
County
 Socio-economic Status of the
OVC.
 Government Policies.
 Geographical Locations.
Financial Resources
 Sources of Finances
 The Amount Allocated
 Channels of Payments
Management
 Leadership Styles
 Allocation of Resources
 Identification of the OVC
Stakeholders
 Government
 Donors
 Politicians
Socio-Cultural Factors
 Cultural Definition
 Stigma

32
Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County that is
affected by the four independent variables on the left hand as shown on the figure 1 above.
The independent variables include: financial resources, management, socio-cultural factors and
stakeholders involvement. These are the factors that never change but their interactions bring a
general change in the dependent variable.
Accompanying the dependent variable on the far right is the moderating variables. These are
variables/factors that also in one way or the other interact to influence the successful
implementation of Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Taita
Taveta County but their literature has not been included in the document. They include: Socio-
economic Status of the OVC, Government Policies, and, Geographical Locations.
2.7 Summary of Literature Review
Literature has revealed that developed countries have already embraced the CT programmes both
CCTs and UCTs for over 60 years now. In this realization, a number of African countries
adopted the programme in the 1990s though their success has never been appealing.in Kenya,
this was introduced in the 2004 but it has been faced by a number of issues for a long time, thus
the need to look at the determinant factors for the success of these programme in Kenya
especially the OVC-CT programme. The research has looked at four factors that have been
adopted as the independent variables and the moderating variables are on the far right together
with the independent variable. These are the factors the researcher wants to address and show
how they bring success in the implementation of Cash Transfer programmes for Orphans and
Vulnerable Children in Taita Taveta County .

33
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the research design, target population, sample size and sampling
procedures, research instruments, validity and reliability of the research instruments, procedures
for data collection and analysis, and ethical considerations made in the study. It also explains one
how the research is going to be carried out.
3.2 Research Design
The research will be conducted using descriptive survey design. Mugenda and Mugenda (2003)
define survey as an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine
the current status with respect to one or more variables. The rationale behind the use of survey
research design is to help the researcher to collect information from the sample through
questionnaires into details and be able to measure the degree of influence of the stated factors.
According to Kothari (2004), Survey design involves describing the nature of the current
condition; identifying the problem in existing situations; assessing the needs to describe what
exists in what amount and what context.
3.3 Target Population
A population is an entire group of individuals, events, objects or items having common
observable characteristics from which samples are taken for measurement (Mugenda and
Mugenda, 2003; Kothari, 2008). The target population for this research will be the 290 head
teachers of the primary schools in Kenya that are registered by the MOE and are said to have
benefited from the CT-OVC for the last years since the project was rolled in the area (GOK,
2014 educational report), over 640 households that have benefited from the programme in the
last 4 years starting from 2014 backwards and the 34 assistant chiefs will be targeted. This makes
a total target population of 964.

34
Table 3.1: Target Population
Stakeholder Target Percentage
Head Teachers
Households
Assistant Chiefs
290 30%
640 66.39%
34 3.61%
Total 964 100%
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) a sample is a subject of a target population to which
the researcher intends to generalize the findings. Therefore, an ideal sample he observes that it
should meet three basic qualities that includes: adequacy of representation of the population, for
which it is to be generalized, should be economically viable and timely. A sample is observed as
a smaller group obtained from a more narrowly defined and manageable population otherwise
known as the ―accessible population‖ (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999; Tashakkori & Teddlie,
1998). A stratified random sampling will be done in the various categories of target population.
According to Borg and Gall (1989) when a population under study is less than 10,000, a sample
size of at least 10 percent is sufficient. In the same note, 29 heads will be randomly selected (290
x 10/100), 64 household heads (640 x 10/100) and 4 assistant chiefs (34 x 10/100). The area will
be clustered into four five regions i.e. central region, northern part, southern part, eastern part
and finally western part.
3.5 Data Collection Instruments
Survey research design mainly involves the use of questionnaires, inventories and interviews to
gather information (Gay, 1976). Krejcie and Morgan (1970) argue that questionnaires are more
effective when used with an adult population. The main data collection tool for the study will be
the questionnaire. The questionnaires will have both open and closed ended questions and will be
personally administered by the researcher and the research assistants in order to maintain and
ensure quality. This mode of administration will promote a high rate of response. The
questionnaire guide will be more in depth and will be meant to generate purely qualitative data
that will enable help capture information about cash transfer program for OVC in
implementation.

35
3.6 Data Collection Procedure
A pre-test evaluation will be conducted prior to data collection to enable the researcher to test the
viability of the data collection instrument and besides familiarize with the study area i.e.
geographical location, mood of the population in relation to perceptions, challenges etc. The
questionnaires will be administered by trained research assistants/enumerators who conducted
the pre- field and post field data collection. A three days training session will be conducted for
research assistants to internalize with the data instrument, study area, approaches used and what
is expected from them based on ethical standards of research.
The questionnaires will be administered orally with the guide of research assistants to the
targeted sample population of respondents who are willing to be interviewed. Direct
administration of questionnaires will be maintained too for school heads. Upon receiving
authorization permit to carry out the research from the ministry of labour and social services, the
researcher will make familiarization visits to all the selected schools in the County prior to the
data collection date. The questionnaires will be there after filled in by the respective respondents
and the researcher will collect them.
3.7. Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments
3.7.1 Instrument Validity
Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) explain validity as the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences
made by a research instrument. The common factor model proposes that each observed response
is influenced partially by underlying common factors and partially by underlying unique factors
(Paul, Ann, and Cruickshank, 1977). Kombo and Tromp (2006) observe that validity is the
degree to which the result obtained from the analysis of the data actually represents the
phenomenon under study.
Content validity of the instruments will be used to measure the degree to which the items
represents the specific areas covered by the study. Therefore, content validity of the instruments
will be determined by experts in School of Continuing and Distance Education of the University
of Nairobi Mombasa campus. The experts will advise on the questionnaire and the questionnaires
open-ended items to be corrected. The corrections on the identified items will be incorporated

36
into the instruments so as to increase its content validity. Finally the validity of the
questionnaires‘ open-ended items will be ascertained by lecturers from the Department extra-
mural studies of the University of Nairobi; specifically the supervisor Dr. Otieno Moses.
3.7.2 Instrument Reliability
Reliability has to do with the quality of measurements. In research, the term reliability means
"repeatability" or "consistency" of measures (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). Reliability will be
tested by administering the instrument to 10 sample respondents who will not make part of the
study sample, and the process repeated after 3 weeks. When a consistency result is obtained from
each sample test for the instrument in the two samples, then the instrument will be said to be
valid.
3.7 Data Analysis
The raw data will be edited once the data collection process is completed. Coding will be done in
order to translate responses into specific categories. The quantitative data from the questionnaire
will be analyzed using both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Frequency distribution
tables showing responses and percentages will be constructed. Hypothesis will be tested using
Chi-Square. The qualitative data obtained through interview schedules will be analyzed by
determining the main theme and content, and thereby make statements on how these themes of
data are related.
3.8 Ethical Considerations
There are numerous ethical considerations that the researcher will observe during the study. The
researcher will obtain the respondents‘ consent before carrying out the study. The researcher then
will explain the reason for the study to the respondents. The respondents will be assured that the
information they provide will be to be treated with extreme confidentiality. No names will be
used and codes will be used if necessary for confidentiality.

37
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Martin otundo research paperDETERMINANTS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMMES FOR ORPHANS AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN IN TAITA TAVETA COUNTY, KENYA

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Martin otundo research paperDETERMINANTS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMMES FOR ORPHANS AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN IN TAITA TAVETA COUNTY, KENYA