BIOLOGY AS A STUDY AREA EXPLAINS WHAT IS TRANSPORT IN PLANS AND ANIMALS

1. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1
By Martin Otundo Richard
email:martinotundo@gmail.com
phone +254721246744
TRANSPORT IS THE
MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES
WITHIN AN ORGANISM.
EXCERATORY PRODUCTS NEED
TO BE TRANSPORTED TO
EXPULSION SITES BECAUSE
THEIR RETENTION MAY
POISON THE CELLS.

2. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1
ALSO, LIVING CELLS REQUIRE
NUTRIENTS TO SURVIVE
HENCE MUST HAVE AN
ELABORATE TRANSPORT
SYSTEM.

3. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 2
AMOEBA IS A UNICELLULAR
ORGANISM WHICH HAS A
LARGE SURFACE AREA TO
VOLUME RATIO.
THEIR BODIES ARE IN
CONTACT WITH
ENVIRONMENT.

4. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 2
DUE TO THIS, DIFFUSION
HERE PLAYS AN
IMPORTANT ROLE IN
REMOVING WASTE FROM
THEIR BODIES.

5. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 3
LARGE MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS HAVE COMPLEX
STRUCTURES WHERE CELLS ARE
FAR FROM EACH OTHER.
DIFFUSION HERE ALONE
CANNOT FUNCTION TO REMOVE
ALL TOXINS PRODUCED BY THE
BODY.

6. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 3
THEREFORE, HIGHER
ORGANISMS HAVE AN
ELABORATE TRANSPORT
SYSTEM.
SIMPLE PLANTS LIKE MOSSES
AND LIVERWORTS LACK A
SPECIALISED TRANSPORT
SYSTEM

7. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 1
HIGHER PLANTS HOWEVER
HAVE A SPECIALLISED
TRANSPORT SYSTEM KNOWN
AS THE VASCULAR BUNDLE.
XYLEM
PHLOEM

8. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 2
TRANSPORT OCCURES IN 3
LEVELS;
1.UPTAKE OF WATER AND
MINERAL IONS CELLS FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND
RESPIRATION
2.SHORT DISTANCE TRANSPORT
– CELL TO CELL AT LEVEL OF

9. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 2
3 LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT –
THIS IS TRANSPORT OF SAP BY
VASCULAR BUNDLES AT PLANT
LEVEL

10. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 3
THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN
PLANTS CONSIST OF THE
VASCULAR TISSUE
XYLEM
PHLOEM
VASCULAR TISSUE ARE
LOCATED IN THE FOLLOWING
ORGANS

11. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 3
ROOTS – ABSORB WATER
AND MINERALS
STEM – CONDUCTS WATER
TO THE LEAVES
LEAVES – USES THE WATER
FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

12. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 4
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS LIKE
OSMOSIS DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE
TRANSPORT ENHANCE
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
WITHIN THE PLANT.

13. PLANT ORGANS 1
THE ROOT
IT HAS THE FOLLOWING
FUNCTION;
1. ABSORBS WATER AND MINERALS
FROM SOIL
2. ANCHOR THE PLANT TO THE

14. PLANT ORGANS 1
3 ACT AS STORAGE ORGAN IN
SOME PLANTS EXAMPLE
CASSAVA AND THE CARROTS
4 SOME ASSIST IN BREATHNG

15. PLANT ORGANS 2
THE ROOTS ARE SUBDIVIDED
INTO TWO MAIN TYPES;
MONOCOT ROOTS
DICOT ROOTS

16. PLANT ORGANS 3
DIFFERENCE
MONOCOT DICOT
PERICYCLE PRODUCE
LATERAL ROOTS
PERICYCLE GIVE RISE TO
LATERAL ROOTS, CORK
AND VASCULAR
CAMBIUM
XYLEM OVAL AND
ROUND
XYLEM STAR SHAPED OR
POLYGONL
PITH PRESENT PITH ABSENT
XYLEM AND PHLOEM
ARE NUMEROUS
XYLEM AND PHLOEM
LIMITED

17. ROOT HAIR;
IT HAS EXTENSIONS ARISING
FROM THE PILIFEROUS LAYER
IT ABSORBS WATER AND
MINERAL IONS FROM THE SOIL.
THEY ARE ONE CELL THICK AND
VERY MANY

18. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 1
THE PILIFEROUS LAYER - THIN
WALLED LAYER OF EPIDERMAL
CELL
GIVES RISE TO ROOT HAIR.
CORTEX – HAS LOOSELY PACKED
AND THIN WALLED
PARENCHYMA CELLS
STORE FOOD FOR PLANT.

19. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 1
ENDODERMIS – HAS CORKY
ENDOTHELIAL CELLS WITH
DEPOSITS ON CROSS WALLS.
REGULATES WATER AND
MINERAL SALTS ENTERING
XYLEM BY ACTIVE TRANSPORT.

20. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 2
THE PERICYCLE – ITS FOUND
BENEATH THE EPIDERMIS
GIVES RISE TO LATERAL
ROOTS.

21. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 2
VASCULAR TISSUE –
CONSISTS XYLEM AND
PHLOEM.
XYLEM CONDUCTS WATER
PHLOEM CONDUCTS FOOD
MATERIALS

22. ADAPTATIONS OF ROOT HAIR TO FUNCTIONS
HAVE NUMEROUS
MITOCHONDRIA TO PROVIDE
ENERGY FOR ACTIVE
TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION
ELONGATED TO INCERASE THE
SURFACE AREA OVER WHICH
ABSORPTION TAKES PLACE

23. ADAPTATIONS OF ROOT HAIR TO FUNCTIONS
PRESENCE OF LARGE SAP
VACUOLE EXERTS HIGH
OSMOTIC PRESSURE FOR
ABSORPTION
THIN WALLED FOR FASTER
DIFFUSION OF MATERIALS

24. VASCULAR TISSUE 1
CONSISTS OF;
XYLEM
TRANSPORTS WATER AND
MINERAL SALT THROUGHOUT
THE PLANT
THE XYLEM TISSUE IS MADE UP
OF VESSELS AND TRACHEIDS

25. VASCULAR TISSUE 2
DIFFERENCE;
VESSLES TRACHEIDS
MANY CELLS PILING UP INDIVIDUAL CELLS
SHORTER INDIVIDUAL CELL LONGER INDIVIDUAL CELLS
ADVANCED THAN TRACHEIDS PRIMITIVE THAN VESSLES
10CM AVERAGE LENGTH 1MM AVERAGE LENGTH
BROADER CELLS NARROW CELLS
CELL LUMEN IS LARGE CELL LUMEN IS SMALL
CIRCULAR CELLS IN CROSS SECTION POLYGONAL CELLS IN CROSS SECTION
PERFORATED END WALLS NO PERFORATION ON END WALLS
MORE EFFICIENT LESS EFFIENT
CONNECTED END TO END CONNECTED LATERALLY

26. VASCULAR TISSUE 3
SIMILARITIES;
 BOTH ARIZE FROM XYLEM
 BOTH ARE DEAD CELLS AT
MATURITY
 BOTH TRANSPORT WATER
 BOTH HAVE SECONDARY LIGNIFIED
CELL WALL
 BOTH PRESENT IN PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY XYLEM

27. ADAPTATION OF XYLEM
THICK LIGNIFIED WALLS –
WHICH PREVENTS THEM
COLLAPSING
DO NOT HAVE CROSS WALLS FOR
CONTINUOUS FLOW OF WATER
HAVE A NARROW LUMEN TO
FACILLITATE CAPILLARITY
THEY HAVE BROADER PITS TO
ALLOW LATERAL MOVEMENT OF
WATER
THEY ARE MADE OF NON LIVING

28. VASCULAR TISSUE 4
CONSISTS OF;
PHLOEM
A VASCULAR TISSUE MADE OF
SIEVE PLATES AND SIEVE TUBE
ELEMENTS.
SIEVE PLATES SEPARATE TWO
SIEVE TUBE ELEMENTS

29. VASCULAR TISSUE 5
DIFFERENCE;
SIEVE CELLS SIEVE TUBES
PRESENT IN PHLOEM OF LOWER PLANTS
I.E PTERIDOPHYTE AND GYMNOSPERMS
PRESENT IN PHLOEM OF ANGIOSPERMS
SINGLE CELLS AGGREGATION OF CELLS
LESS SPECIALLIZED MORE SPECIALLISED
LONG AND NARROW CELLS WITH
TAPPERING END WALLS
SHORT AND WIDE CELLS WITH
TRANSVERSE OR OBLIQUE END WALLS
NO SIEVE PLATES IN SIEVE AREA SIEVE PLATES PRESENT IN SIEVE AREA
SCATTERED SIEVE PORES AT END WALL SIEVE PORES LOCATED ON SIEVE PLATES
COMPANION CELLS ABSENT COMPANION CELLS PRESENT
PERFORATED END WALLS NO PERFORATION ON END WALLS

30. VASCULAR TISSUE 3
SIMILARITIES;
BOTH ARE COMPONENTS OF
PHLOEM
ABSENT NUCLEUS IN BOTH
BOTH ARE SIEVE ELEMENTS
BOTH ARE LIVING CELLS

31. VASCULAR TISSUE 3
BOTH INVOLVED IN
TRANSLOCATION
BOTH HAVE THIN PRIMARY
CELL WALL
BOTH HAVE DENSE
GRANULAR PROTOPLASM
BOTH PRESENT IN PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY PHLOEM

32. ADAPTATIONS OF PHLOEM
HOLLOW SIEVE TUBES FOR
FOOD TO MOVE FROM POINT TO
POINT.
DENSILY PACKED COMPANION
CELLS WITH MITOCHONDRIA TO
PRODUCE ENERGY FOR ACTIVE
TRANSPORT

33. THE STEM 1
THIS IS THE PART OF THE
PLANT CONNECTING THE ROOTS
TO THE LEAFY REGIONS OF THE
PLANT.
IT EXPOSES THE LEAF TO
SUNLIGHT.

34. THE STEM 1
AND ALSO IN SOME PLANTS IT
ACTS AS A STORGE ORGAN E.G
IRISH POTATO AND
SUGARCANE
IT CAN BE USED FOR
PROPAGATION IN SOME
PLANTS EXAMPLE CASSAVA

35. THE STEM 2
THE STEMS ARE SUBDIVIDED
INTO TWO MAIN TYPES;
MONOCOT STEM
DICOT STEM

36. THE STEM 3
DIFFERENCE;
MONOCOT STEM DICOT STEM
EPIDERMAL HAIRS ABSENT EPIDERMAL HAIRS PRESENT
SILICA DEPOSITS OVER THE EPIDERMIS NO SILICA DEPOSITS OVER EPIDERMIS
PERICYCLE ABSENT PERICYCLE PRESENT
PITH ABSENT PITH PRESENT
ENDODERMIS ABSENT ENDODERMIS PRESENT
NUMEROUS VASCULAR BUNDLES NUMEROUS VASCULAR BUNDLES
VASCULAR BUNDLE ARE COJOINED AND
CLOSED
VASCULAR BUNDLES ARE COJOINED AND
OPEN
CIRCULAR XYLEM ELEMENTS POLYGONAL XYLEM ELEMENTS
PROTOXYLUM LACUNA PRESENT PROTOXYLEM LACUNA ABSENT

37. SIMILARITIES;
BOTH HAVE SINGLE LAYER OF
EPIDERMIS
BOTH HAVE THICK LAYER OF
CUTICLE
THE HYPODERMIS IS PRESENT
IN BOTH
MAJOR PORTION OF GROUND
TISSUE IS PARENCHYMA

38. SIMILARITIES;
HAVE WELL ORGANISED
VASCULAR TISSUES
THEY HAVE A COJOINED
VASCULAR BUNDLES
BOTH HAVE DENSE GRANULAR
PROTOPLASM

39. TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 1
TRANSPORT OF WATER MAINLY
INVOLVES;
UPTAKE OF WATER AND
MINERAL SALTS FROM
GROUND
MOVEMENT OF WATER
THROUGH XYLEM TO THE

40. TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 2
1. UPTAKE OF MINERAL SALTS AND
MINERAL IONS
THEY ARE TAKEN UP BY ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
THIS PROCESS REQUIRES ENERGY
AND PROTEIN CARRIERS FOR
ACTIVE TRANSPORT TO

41. TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 2
2. ABSORPTION OF WATER BY
THE ROOTS
WATER IS ABSORBED IN THE
PLANT BY THE ROOT HAIR
CELL.
THE ROOT HAIR CELL
CONTAINS A SAP WHICH IS A
CONCENTRATED SOLUTION OF

42. TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 2
THE SAP AND THE SOIL
SOLUTION ARE SEPARATED
BY SEMI PERMIABLE
MEMRANE ON ROOT HAIR
CELL. WATER ENTER BY
OSMOSIS
WHEN WATER ENTERS THE
ROOT HAIR CELL, THE SAP
GETS DILLUTED CAUSING THE
CELL TO HAVE HIGHER

43. TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 4
WATER WOULD THEN PASS BY
OSMOSIS FROM THE ROOT
HAIR CELL INTO THE INNER
CELL OF THE CORTEX.
THIS PROCESS CONTINUES
UNTIL WATER REACHES THE
XYLEM VESSLES.

44. TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 1
AS WATER REACHES THE XYLEM
VESSLE, IT ACCUMULATES AND
PUSHED UP THE STEM
CREATING THE ROOT
PRESSURE.
ROOT PRESSURE IS THE
HYDROSTATIC FORCE THAT IS
DEVELOPED BY ENDODERMAL
CELLS THAT IN TURN WOULD

45. TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 2
ONCE THE WATER REACHES THE
XYLEM, WATER MOVES UP
THROUGH A PROCESS CALLED
CAPILLARY ACTION.
CAPILLARITY IS THE ABILITY
OF LIQUID TO FLOW AGAINST
GRAVITY THROUGH A NARROW
SPACE.

46. TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 2
THE CAPILLARITY ACTION
ALLOWS WATER TO BE PULLED
THROUGH THIN TUBES OF DUE
TO COHESIVE AND ADHESIVE
FORCE.
COHESIVE FORCE BINDS
MOLECULES OF THE SAME
KIND TOGETHER EXAMPLE

47. TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 3
ADHESIVE FORCE IS THE
INTERACTION OF MOLECULE
OF DIFFERENT KINDS EXAMPLE,
WATER AND THE WALLS OF
THE XYLEM.
THEY CAUSE WATER TO MOVE
UP THE STEM WITHOUT

48. TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 4
ROOT PRESSURE CAN PUSH
WATER UP THE STEM BUT
NOT STRONG ENOUGH.
HOWEVER, TRANSPIRATION
PULL THEREFORE ASSISTS BY
PULLING WATER UP THE
PLANT TO THE LEAVES.

49. TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 4
TRANSPIRATION BUILDS UP
THE FORCE TO FACILLITATE
TRANSPIRATION PULL.
THEREFORE, TRANSPIRATION
PULL IS A CONTINUOUS
COLUMN OF WATER AND
MINERALS SALTS UP THE

50. TRANSLOCATION 1
THIS IS A PROCESS BY WHICH
PRODUCTS OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS ARE
TRANSPORTED FROM THE
LEAVES TO OTHER PARTS OF
THE PLANT THROUGH THE
PHLOEM.

51. TRANSLOCATION 1
HERE THEY DIFFUSE
ACCORDING TO THEIR
CONCENTRATION
GRADIENTS TO THE
ADJUSCENT SIEVE TUBES
THROUGH SIEVE PLATE.
PROCESS IS HOWEVER VERY

52. TRANSLOCATION MECHANISMS 1
CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING;
DEALS WITH
TRANSLOCATION OF
ORGANIC SOLUTES OR
FOOD MATERIALS
FROM ONE END TO
ANOTHER END OF A SIEVE
TUBE.

53. TRANSLOCATION MECHANISMS 2
MASS FLOW; THIS IS
MOVEMENT OF WATER AND
NUTRIENTS THROUGH THE
PHLOEM TO OTHER AREAS OF
THE PLANT BY DIFFUSION
AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT.

54. TRANSLOCATION MECHANISMS 3
ACTIVE TRANSPORT; THIS IS
MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS
WITHIN THE PLANT
AGAINST CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT.

55. TRANSPIRATION
THIS IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH
PLANTS LOSE WATER TO THE
ATMOSPHERE INFORM OF
VAPOUR.
OTHER WAYS IN WHICH PLANTS
LOSE WATER APART FROM
TRANSPIRATION ARE;

56. TRANSPIRATION
…BLEEDING FROM WOUNDS
…GUTTATION
…SECREATION FROM GLANDS
AND NECTARIES

57. FORMS OF TRANSPIRATION
STOMATAL TRANSPIRATION; THIS
ACCOUNTS FOR 80 – 90% OF
TOTAL TRANSPIRATION.
IT OCCURES THROUGH THE LEAF
STOMATA.
LENTICULAR TRANSPIRATION;
TRANSPIRATION THAT OCCURES
THROUGH THE LENTICEL OR
STEMS IN PLANTS THAT UNDERGO
SECONDARY THICKENING.

58. FORMS OF TRANSPIRATION
CUTICULAR TRANSPIRATION;
OCCURES THROUGH THE
LEAF CUTICLES.

59. FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION 1
THE FACTORS ARE DIVIDED
INTO TWO;
INTERNAL OR STRUCTURAL
AND EXTERNAL OR
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

60. FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION 1
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS;
LIGHT INTENSITY; STOMATA
CLOSE AT LOW LIGHT
INTENSITY REDUCING
TRANSPIRATION.
IT HOWEVER OPENS AT
HIGH LIGHT INTENSITIES.

61. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 2
TEMPERATURE; HIGH
TEMPERATURE INCREASES
CAPACITY OF ATMOSPHERE
TO HOLD WATER AND THUS
INCREASING WATER
EVERPORATION FROM THE
MESOPHYLL CELLS OF THE
LEAF HENCE HIGH
TRANSPIRATION RATE.

62. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 2
LOW TEMPERATURE
REDUCES AIR CAPACITY
TO HOLD MORE WATER
THUS LOW
TRANSPIRATION.

63. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 3
AIR CURRENT; CARRIES AWAY
WATER VAPOUR AS FAST AS IT
DIFFUSES OUT OF LEAVES.
THIS PREVENTS SATURATION
OF WATER VAPOUR ON THE
SURFACE OF THE LEAF.
AS THIS HAPPENS, THE RATE
OF TRANSPIRATION BECOMES

64. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 4
HUMIDITY; THE HIGHER THE
HUMIDITY OF AIR
AROUND THE LEAF, THE
LOWER THE TRANSPIRATION.
THE HUMIDITY DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN INSIDE AND
THE OUTSIDE OF LEAF IS
CALLED SATURATION

65. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 4
IN DRY ATMOSPHERE,
THE SATURATION
DEFICIT IS HIGH
LEADING TO HIGH
TRANSPIRATION.

66. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 6
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE;
HIGH PRESSURE REDUCES RATE
OF TRANSPIRATION LEAVES
WHILE LOW PRESSURE INCEASES
TRANSPIRATION RATES.
THIS EXPLAINS WHY THERE ARE FEW
PLANTS IN HIGH ALTITUDE AREAS.

67. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 6
WATER AVAILABILITY;
TRANSPIRATION RATE
INCREASES WITH WATER
AVAILABILITY AND
REDUCES WITH WATER
UNAVAILABILITY.
NUMBER OF STOMATA; THE

68. STRUCTURAL FACTORS 1
SIZE OF THE LEAF; LARGE
LEAVES HAVE LARGE
SURFACE AREA OVER
WHICH TRANSPIRATION
OCCURES WHILE
SMALLER LEAVES HAVE
SMALL SURFACE AREA
OVER WHICH
TRANSPIRATION

69. STRUCTURAL FACTORS 3
POSITION OF THE
STOMATA; PLANTS HAVING
MORE STOMATA ON THE UPPER
SIDE (HYPERSTOMATIC)
THAN THE LOWER SIDE
HAVE A HIGHER RATE OF

70. STRUCTURAL FACTORS 3
PLANTS HAVING FEW
STOMATA ON THE UPPER
SIDE (HYPOSTOMATIC)
AND MORE ON THE
LOWER SIDE HAVE LOW
RATE OF

71. STRUCTURAL FACTORS 2
SIZE OF THE STOMATA;
THE LARGER THE
STOMATA THE HIGHER
THE RATE OF
TRANSPIRATION.

72. STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
1. SUNKEN STOMATA – WATER
ACCUMULATES IN THE
STOMTAL DEPRESSION
THEREBY LOWERING
VAPOUR CONCENTRAION
GRADIENT, HENCE

73. STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
2. SMALL LEAF SIZE –
REDUCES NUMBER OF
STOMATA AND
EVERPORATION AREA,
THEREBY REDUCING
TRANSPIRATION.

74. STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
3. THICK WAXY CUTICLE –
THIS REDUCES WATER BY
EVERPORATION.
4. HYPOSTOMATIC NATURE –
LOWER STOMATA ON THE
LEAF SURFACE.

75. STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
5. EPIDERMAL HAIRS - TO
TRAP AND CONDENSE
WATER VAPOUR THEREBY
REDUCING TRANSPIRATION.

76. STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
6. REDUCED LEAF
7. SOME PLATS STORE WATER
IN STEMS
8. SOME PLANTS COAT
LEAVES WITH WAX

77. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANS
1.REVERSED STOMATAL
RHYTHM
2.LEAF ROLL
3.LEAF FALL

78. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 1
1.IT REMOVES EXCESS WATER
FROM THE PLANT
2.PROVIDES COOLING EFFECT
OF THE PLANT
3.MAINTAINS TUGOR PRESSURE
OF THE PLANT CELLS.

79. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 1
4 CREATES TRANSPIRATION
PULL THAT ASSISTS IN
ABSORPTION AND
TRANSPORT OF WATER AND
DISSOLVED MINERALS.

80. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 2
5. IT CREATES A NEGATIVE
PRESSURE GRADIENT THAT
HELPS DRAW WATER AND
MINERALS UP THROUGH THE
PLANT FROM ITS ROOTS.

81. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 2
6. IT SUPPORTS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND
ENCOURAGES THE
EXCHANGE OF GASES,
HELPING MAINTAIN LEVELS

82. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 3
7. IT PLAYS A MAJOR ROLE IN
THE WATER CYCLE
8. IT CREATES WATER VAPOUR
THAT FORMS CLOUDS AND
FOG.

83. TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

84. TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
IT MAINLY OCCURES THOUGH
SPECIAL MEDIUM KNOWN AS
BLOOD WHICH IS THE
TRANSPORTING FLUID.
TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
MAINLY ENCOMPASES THE

85. CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
THE HEART ON THE OTHER
HAND PUMPS THE BLOOD TO
ALL PARTS OF THE BODY, VIA
THE BLOOD VESSLES.

86. CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
THERE ARE TWO DIFFERENT
TYPES OF CIRCULATORY
SYSTEMS;
 OPEN CIRCULATORY
 CLOSED CIRCULATORY

87. CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
IN THE OPEN CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM, BLOOD FLOWS IN THE
BODY CAVITY.
THE BLOOD IS CALLED
HAEMOLYMPH WHILE THE PART
OCCUPIED BY THE

88. CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
IN THE CLOSED CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM BLOOD IS PUMPED
INSIDE THE BLOOD VESSLES BY
A MUSCULAR HEART.
THE BLOOD HAS DIFFERENT

89. DIFFERENCE IN CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
OPEN CIRCULATORY CLOSED CIRCULATO
BLOOD FLOWS IN
OPEN SURFACE
CALLED SINUSES
BLOOD FLOWS IN
BLOOD VESSLES.
LOW BLOOD
VELOCITY
RAPID BLOOD
VELOCITY
BLOOD CAVITY
FILLED WITH
HAEMOCOEL
HAEMOCOEL
ABSENT

90. INTERNAL ORGANS
BATED BY BLOOD
INTERNAL OORGANS
NOT IN DIRECT
CONTACT WITH
BLOOD
BLOOD TAKES
LONG TIME TO
CIRCULATE
BLOOD TAKES
SHORT TIME TO
CIRCULATE
SLOW SUPPLY AND
ELIMINATION OF
MATERIALS
RAPID SUPPLY
AND ELIMINATION
OF MATERIALS

91. EXCHANGE OF
MATERIALS TAKE
PLACE BETWEEN
BLOOD AND SINUSES
EXCHANGE OF
MATERIALS TAKE
PLACE THROUGH
THE CAPILLARIES
BLOOD FLOW IS
NOT REGULATED
BLOOD FLOW IS
REGULATED
HAS A WEAK
HEART
COMPARED TO
CLOSED SYSTEMS
HAS A STRONG
HEART
COMPARED TO
OPEN SYSTEMS

92. WHEREBY THE BLOOD PASSES
THE HEART ONCE THEN TO THE
REST OF THE BODY, THIS TYPE
OF CIRCULATION IS CALLED
SINGLE CIRCULATION.
EXAMPLE THE FISH.

93. WHEREBY THE BLOOD PASSES
THE HEART TWICE THEN TO
THE REST OF THE BODY, THIS
TYPE OF CIRCULATION IS
CALLED DOUBLE CIRCULATION.
EXAMPLE; MAMMALS, BIRDS
AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

94. DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
IT INVOLVES BLOOD PASSING
THROUGH THE HEART TWICE IN
A COMPLETE CIRCUIT.
IT COMPRISES OF PUMLONARY
AND SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

95. PULMONARY CIRCULATION
INVOLVES BLOOD FLOW
THROUGH THE LUNGS VIA THE
PULMONARY ARTERY AND BACK
TO THE HEART VIA THE
PULMONARY VEIN.

96. BLOOD IS AT LOW PRESSURE TO
PREVENT RAPTURE OF THE
CAPILLARIES
ALSO BLOOD IS AT LOW
PRESSURE SO AS TO CREATE
ENOUGH TIME FOR IT TO BE

97. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
INVOLVES BLOOD FLOW FROM
THE HEART TO THE REST OF
THE BODY.
BLOOD IS AT HIGH PRESSURE
FOR EFFICIENT ORGAN
FUNCTIONING AND TISSUE

98. THIS MAINTAINS ACTIVE
CHEMICAL PROCESSES AT
HIGH TEMPERATURES.

99. OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
HERE, THE TRANSPORTING
FLUID FLOWS THROUGH THE
BODY CAVITY OR HAEMOCOEL
AND NOT IN VESSLES.
THIS SYSTEM IS MAINLY FOUND
IN MOLLUSES AND

100. ADV OF OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. TRANSPORTING FLUID IS IN
DIRECT CONTACT WITH THE
CELLS.
2. ALLOWS MIXING OF FLUID IN
AN ORGANISM.
3. IT REQUIRES LESS ENERGY

101. ADV OF OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
4. BLOOD PRESSURE IS
RELATIVELY LOW.
5. THE OXYGEN
REQUIREMENT IS LOW.

102. DIS ADV OF OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. WASTE REMOVAL IS SLOW
2. ANIMALS ARE LESS ACTIVE
3. NUTRIENTS ARE
DISTRIBUTED SLOWLY
4. BLOOD FLOW CANNOT BE
REGULATED.

103. ADV OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. RAPID NUTRIENT
DISTRIBUTION
2. THERE IS HIGH PRESSURE
IN BLOOD FLOW
3. ORGANISMS ARE MORE
ACTIVE

104. ADV OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
5. BLOOD NOT IN CONTACT
WITH THE CELLS HENCE NO
INTERFERENCE WITH
CELLULAR ACTIVITIES.

105. DIS ADV OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. REQUIRES MORE ENERGY
2. REQUIRES A STRONGER
HEART
3. PRESSURE MAY RUPTURE
BLOOD VESSLES
4. HEART MAY BE PRONE TO

106. THE MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 MAMMALS HAVE A CLOSED
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM WHERE
A POWERFUL HEART PUMPS
BLOOD INTO ARTERIES.
 THE ARTERIES DIVIDE INTO
SMALLER VESSELS CALLED
ARTERIOLES.

107. EACH ARTERIOLE DIVIDES
TO FORM A NETWORK OF
CAPILLARIES INSIDE THE
TISSUES.
THE CAPILLARIES
EVENTUALLY RE-UNITE TO
FORM VENULES, WHICH

108. THE VEINS TAKE THE
BLOOD BACK TO THE
HEART.
BLOOD FROM THE HEART
GOES THROUGH THE
PULMONARY ARTERY TO

109. THIS CIRCULATION IS
CALLED PULMONARY
CIRCULATION.
OXYGENATED BLOOD
LEAVES THE HEART
THROUGH THE AORTA AND

110. FROM THE TISSUES,
DEOXYGENATED BLOOD
FLOWS BACK TO THE
HEART THROUGH THE
VENA CAVA.
THIS CIRCULATION IS

111. IN EACH COMPLETE
CIRCULATION, THE BLOOD
FLOWS INTO THE HEART
TWICE.
THIS IS CALLED DOUBLE
CIRCULATION.

112. COMPONENTS OF MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY
BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
OF MAMMALS CONSIST OF
ARTERIES, VEINS, CAPILLARIES
AND THE HEART.
THE ARTERIES VEINS AND
CAPILLARIES ARE KNOWN AS

113. ARTERIES
THEY TRANSPORT BLOOD
FROM THE HEART.
THEY ALL CARRY
OXYGINATED BLOOD EXCEPT
THE PULMONARY ARTERY

114. THEY ARE ALL MUSCULAR
AND INELASTIC WITH A
SMALL LUMEN.
BLOOD FLOWS IN THEM AT
VERY HIGH PRESSURE.

115. THEY ARE LESS MUSCULAR AND
ELASTIC WITH A LARGER
LUMEN THUS BLOOD FLOWS AT
LOW PRESSURE.
A TINY VEIN IS KNOWN AS A
VENULE WHICH ARISES FROM
AN ORGAN AND THEN UNITE TO

116. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARTERY AND VEIN
ARTERY VEIN
THICK MUSCULAR
WALLS
THIN AND LESS
MUSCULAR
NARROW LUMEN WIDE LUMEN
NO VALVES HAVE VALVES
TRANSPORT
BLOOD AWAY
FROM HEART
TRANSPORT
BLOOD TO THE
HEART

117. ARTERY VEIN
TRANSPORT
OXYGINATED
BLOOD EXCEPT
PULMONARY
ARTERY
TRANSPORT DE-
OXYGINATED
BLOOD EXCEPT
PULMONARY VEIN
BLOOD FLOWS IN
HIGH PRESSURE
BLOOD FLOWS IN
LOW PRESSURE
BLOOD FLOWS IN
PULSES
BLOOD FLOWS
SMOOTHLY

118. CAPILLARIES
THEY ARE SMALL ONE CELL
THICK VESSLES LYING
BETWEEN THE CELL OF
EVERY ORGAN.
THEY JOIN AN ARTERIOLE
WITH A VENULE.

119. ADAPTATIONS OF CAPILLARIES
 HAVE DIRECT CONTACT WITH
TISSUES FOR EFFICIENT
EXCHANGE OF MATERIALS
 THEY ARE NUMEROUS TO
INCREASE SURFACE AREA
OVER WHICH EXCHANGE OF

120. ADAPTATIONS OF CAPILLARIES
 ONE CELL THICK FOR EASIER
DIFFUSION OF MATERIALS.
 THIN LUMEN TO INCREASE
PRESSURE HENCE ALLOW
MATERIALS TO DIFFUSE OUT
FASTER.

121. CAPILLARIES MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE
THEY RUN CLOSE TO THE CELLS
SINCE THEY HAVE A SMALL
LUMEN,
PART OF THIS BLOOD IS
FILTERED INTO THE CELLS.
THE PART FILTERED FORMS

122. CAPILLARIES MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE
BLOOD LEFT IN CAPILLARIES
HAVE MORE SOLUTES HENCE
HIGHLY CONCENTRATED.
WASTES IN THE IN THE
CELLULAR SPACES DIFFUSE OUT
INTO THE CAPILLARIES

123. CAPILLARIES MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE
THE FOOD AND NUTRIENTS AS
WELL WOULD DIFFUSE IN THE
CELLS.

124. THE HEART
AN ORGAN THAT PUMPS AND
RECIEVES BLOOD FROM ALL
THE BODY PARTS.
#DIAGRAM#

125. ADAPTATIONS OF THE HEART
 IT IS ENCLOSED BY A
PERICARDIUM MEMBRANE
SECREATING A FLUID THAT
LUBRICATES IT. THE FLUID
REDUCES FRICTION ON THE
WALLS AS IT PUMPS.
 HAS VALVES WHICH PREVENT
BACK FLOW OF BLOOD

126.  IT IS MADE OF CARDIAC
MUSCLES THAT CONTRACT
AND RELAX WITHOUT
FATIGUE OR REQUIRING
NERVOUS STIMULATION.
 DIVIDED INTO 4 CHAMBERS
WHEREBY THE RIGHT IS
CONCERNED WITH
PULMONARY CIRCULATION AS
THE LEFT SYSTEMIC

127.  CONNECTED TO THE BLOOD
VESSLES WHICH DELIVER AND
BRING BACK BLOOD TO THE
HEART
 IT HAS A MUSCULAR SEPTUM
WHICH SEPARATES
OXIGINATED TO
DEOXYGINATED BLOOD.

128.  THE LEFT VENTRICLE HAS
THICKER WALLS TO EXCERT
PRESSURE AND PUMP BLOOD
IN SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION.
 THE HEART HAS PACE
MAKERS THAT REGULATE THE
PUMPING MECHANISM.

129. MECHANISM OF PUMPING OF HEART
THE MAMMALIAN HERAT
UDERGOES SYSTOLE AND
DIASTOLE PROCESSES.
SYSTOLE PHASE IS WHEN THE
VENTRICLES CONTRACT TO
FORCE BLOOD INTO THE
ARTERIES

130. DURING DIASTOLE, THE
MUSCLES OF THE VENTRICLES
RELAX THEREBY INCREASING
THE VOLUME OF EACH
VENTRICULAR CHAMBER AND
PRESSURE DECREASES.
THE CUSPID VALVE OPENS
ALLOWING OXYGINATED BLOOD
TO FLOW INTO THE LEFT
VENTRICLE FROM THE LEFT

131. DURING SYSTOLE, THE
VENTRICULAR MUSCLES
CONTRACT, THE CUSPID VALVE
CLOSES PREVENTING BACK
FLOW OF BLOOD.
VOLUME OF VENTRICLES
DECREASES AND PRESSURE
INCREASES TO FORCE BLOOD

132. BOTH SYSTOLE AND DIASTOLE
MAKE UP THE HEARTBEAT.

133. DISEASE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. THROMBOSIS – FORMATION
OF BLOOD CLOT
(THROMBUS) IN THE
ARTERY.
MAINLY WHEN CORONARY
ARTERY IS BLOCKED, IT MAY
RESULT TO HEART ATTACK.

134. IT MAY ALSO BE BROUGHT BY
EXCESS CHOLESTROL IN THE
BLOOD. THIS MAY LEAD TO
CLOGGING OF THE CORONARY
ARTERY, LEADING TO HEART
ATTACK.

135. 2. ARTERIOSCLEROSIS – MAINLY
BROUGHT BY
CALCIFICATION OF THE
ARTERIES MAKING THEM LOSE
THEIR ELASTICITY.
IT IS CHARACTERISED BY
GROWTH OF FIBROUS
CONNECTIVE TISSUES IN

136. IT CAN BE TREATED MAINLY BY;
 TAKING FOOD LESS IN
CHOLESTROL
 REGULAR EXCERCISES TO
KEEP HEART MUSCLES ACTIVE
AND STRONG
 AVOIDING OBESITY NATURE.

137. VARICOS VEINS – THIS IS THE
SWELLING OF THE LEG
MUSCLES THUS BECOMING
FLUBBY DUE TO FAILLURE OF
SOME VALVES TO FUNCTION
PROPERLY.

138. VARICOS VEINS – THIS IS THE
SWELLING OF THE LEG
MUSCLES THUS BECOMING
FLUBBY DUE TO FAILLURE OF
SOME VALVES TO FUNCTION
PROPERLY.

139. HYPERTENSION OR HBP – IT
MAINLY RESULTS WHEN THE
HEARTBEAT IS ABOVE 140/90
READINGS. THE NORMAL
HEART BEAT HOWEVER
SHOULD RANGE AT 120/80

140. HYPERTENSION OR HBP – IT
MAINLY RESULTS WHEN THE
HEARTBEAT IS ABOVE (140/90
MMHG) READINGS. THE
NUMERATOR IS THE
DIASTOLIC PRESSURE WHILE
THE DENOMINATOR IS THE

141. THE NORMAL BLOOD PRESSURE
SHOULD BE (120/80 MMHG)
THIS DISORDER IS COMMON
WITH INDIVIDUALS ABOVE 40
YEARS OF AGE.

142. THE REASON IS ATTRIBUTED TO
LARGE AMOUNT OF SALT
INTAKE THUS INCREASING
BLOOD VISCOSITY.
ALSO, CHOLESTROL COATS THE
ARTERIES MAKING THEM

143. HBP CAUSES DESTRUCTION OF
THE ORGANS SUCH AS BRAIN
WHICH MAY LEAD TO STROKE.
MAINLY CONTROLED BY;
 AVOIDING TOO MUCH
CHOLESTROL
 REGULAR EXCERCISE

144. HBP CAUSES DESTRUCTION OF
THE ORGANS SUCH AS BRAIN
WHICH MAY LEAD TO STROKE.
MAINLY CONTROLED BY;
 AVOIDING TOO MUCH
CHOLESTROL
 REGULAR EXCERCISE

145. THE BLOOD
BLOOD TISSUE CONSIST OF
PLASMA AND BLOOD CELLS.
BLOOD CELLS ARE OF THREE
TYPES;
 WHITE CELLS
 RED CELLS
 PLATELETS

146. PLASMA
THIS IS THE LIQUID
COMPONENT OF THE BLOOD.
IT HAS THE FOLLOWING
FUNCTIONS;
 TRANSPORTING RESPIRATORY
GAS

147.  REGULATES THE BODY
TEMPERATURE THROUGH
HEAT DISTRIBUTION FROM
THE LIVER AND SKELETAL
MUSCLES
 TRANSPORTS SMALL
AMOUNTS OF OXYGEN AND
CARBON (IV) OXID

148.  CONTAINS ANTIBODIES THAT
INACTIVATE ENZYMES.
 MEDIUM TO TRANSPORT
SOLUBLE FOOD SUBSTANCES
IN THE BODY
 CONTAINS MINERAL SALTS
AND SUGARS CONTROLING
THE BODY OSMOTIC
PRESSURE

149. RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)
THEY MAINLY TRANSPORT
RESPIRATORY GASES FROM
THE LUNGS TO THE BODY
TISSUES AND VICE VERSER.

150. ADAPTATIONS OF RED BLOOD CELLS
 BICONCAVE TO INCREASE SA
FOR RAPID DIFFUSION OF
RESPIRATORY GASES.
 HAS HAEMOGLOBON HAVING
AFFINITY FOR OXYGEN
 LACK NUCLEUS TO CREATE
MORE SPACE FOR OXYGEN

151.  THIN PLASMA MEMBRANE
FOR EASIER DIFFUSION OF
RESPIRATORY GASES
 THIN CELL MEMBRANE FOR
EASIER DIFFUSION OF
RESPIRATORY GASES

152.  PRESENCE OF CARBONIC
ANHYDRASE ENZYME WHICH
FACILLITATES IN THE
TRANSPORTATION OF
CARBON (IV)

153. WHITE CELLLS (LEUCOCYTES)
THEY ARE MAINLY
RESPONSIBLE FOR FIGHT
HARMFUL MICRO ORGANISMS IN
THE BODY.
THEY ARE FURTHER DIVIDED
INTO GRANULOCYTES AND

154.  GRANULOCYTES HAVE
GRANULES, LOBED NUCLEUS
AND MOVE LIKE THE
AMOEBA.
 THEY MAY MOVE OUT OF THE
CAPILLARIES TO ENGULF
BACTERIA IN TISSUES.

155. THE GRANULOCYTES MAINLY
COMPRISE OF BASOPHILS,
EOSINOPHILS AND
NEUTROPHILS
THE AGRANULOCYTES
COMPRISE OF MONOCYTES AND

156. THE LYMPHOCYTES ARE MADE
IN THE BONE MARROW AND
ALSO FOUND IN THE LYMPH
TISSUES.
THEY ARE MAINLY OF TWO
TYPES;
B AND T LYMPHOCYTES.

157. THE MONOCYTES ARE MADE IN
THE BONE MARROW AND
FORMS THE LARGEST PART OF
THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS.
THEY CAN DESTROY THE MICRO
ORGANISM BY ENGULFING AND
DIGESTING IT INTO PIECES.

158. PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
THEY ARE NON NUCLEATED AND
INACTIVE CELLS RESPONSIBLE
FOR CLOTTING, WHEN A BLOOD
VESSLE OR A TISSUE IS
INJURED.

159. MECHANISMS OF BLOOD CLOTTING
WHEN THE TISSUES ARE
EXPOSED TO FREE FLOWING
AIR, THE PLATELETS RELEASE
THROMBOKINAS ENZYME
WHICH ACTIVATES
PROTHROMBIN TO THROMBIN

160. THROMBIN FINALLY CONVERTS
FIBRINOGEN TO FIBRIN
WHICH IS A CLOT, IN THE
PRESENCE OF VITAMIN K,
TRAPPING BLOOD CELLS FROM
COMING OUT OF THE TISSUE.
THIS THEN FORMS A SCUB

161. ALSO IT SHOULD BE NOTED
THAT BLOOD PLASMA HAS AN
ANTI COAGULANT FACTOR
KNOWN AS HEPARIN.
THIS ENZYME PREVENTS
CLOTTING FROM TAKING PLACE.

162. IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD CLOT
 PREVENTION OF EXCESS
BLOOD LOSS
 PREVENTION OF MICRO
ORGANISM ENTRY TO THE
TISSUES

163. TRANSPORT OF CARBON (IV) ODIDE
 CO2 DIFFUSES OUT OF THE
CELLS INTO THE TISSUE
FLUID.
 FROM HERE IT DIFFUSES
INTO THE BLOOD STREAM
 ABOUT 85% IS TRANSPORTED

164.  ABOUT 10% IS TRANSPORTED
AS CARBAMINO-
HAEMOGLOBIN WHEREBY
THIS IS HAEMOGLOBIN
COMBINED WITH CO2.
 ABOUT 5% IS TRANSPORTED
BY THE PLASMA INFORM OF

165. TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
 OXYGEN DIFFUSES INTO THE
ALVEOLAR CAPILLARIES
DOWN THE CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT ACROSS THE
CAPILLARY ENDOTHELIUM OR
THE PLASMA

166. FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD
1. TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
2. DEFENCE AGAINST HARMFUL
MICRO ORHANISMS
3. PRODUCTION OF
ANTIBODIES
4. REDUCE EXCESS BLEEDING

167. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• THE NETWORK OF VESSELS
THROUGH WHICH LYMPH
DRAINS FROM THE TISSUES
INTO THE BLOOD.
• THEY HAVE SWELLINGS
CALLED LYMPH NODES WHICH
PRODUCE ANTIBODIES I.E

168. TISSUE FLUID
THIS IS THE PART OF THE
BLOOD WHICH FILTERS OUT
OF THE NARROW BLOOD
CAPILLARIES INTO THE
INTERCELLULAR SPACES.
IT HAS DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS

169.  IT BATHES THE CELLS
WHEREBY O2 AND CO2
WOULD DIFFUSE OUT OF THE
CELLS
 CELLS OBTAIN NUTRIENTS
FROM IT.
 CELLS RELEASE WASTES

170. LYMPH
 THIS IS AN EXCESS TISSUE
FLUID THAT HAS DRAINED
OUT OF THE INTERCELLULAR
SPACE INTO THE LYMPH
VESSLE.
 IT IS USUALLY LOW IN O2 AND

171. FORMATION OF LYMPH
THE HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE AT
THE ARTERIAL END OF THE
CAPILLARY FORCES WATER AND
SMALL SOLUTES OUT OF THE
CAPILLARY, THEREBY FORMING

172. THE EXCESS TISSUE FLUID DOES
NOT GET BACK INTO THE
CAPILLARIES FROM THE LYMPH.
 THE LYMPH IS DRAINED
HOWEVER IN THE LYMPHATIC
VESSLES.
 THE FATS ARE ADDED AND
THEN ITS RETURNED BACK

173. ROLES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 TRAPS AND DESTROY
HARMFUL BACTERIA FROM
BODY
 ABSORBS DIGESTED LIPIDS,
GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACIDS
 TRANSPORT OF HORMONES
FROM THE ENDOCRINE

174.  SUPPLYING MATERIALS FOR
REPAIR TO THE INJURED
TISSUES.
 FORM BARRIER PREVENTING
INFLAMATION OR
PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES

175. BLOOD GROUPS
THR RED BLOOD CELLS HAVE A
PROTEIN CALLED ANTIGENS IN
THEIR SURFACE
THE ANTIGEN DETERMINE THE
BLOOD TYPE OF A PERSON
BLOOD WITH ANTIGEN A IS
CLASSIFIED AS BLOOD GROUP A
SAME AS B AND AB

176.  BLOOD AB HAS BOTH
ANTIGEN A AND B
 BLOOD GROUP O HAS NO
ANTIGENS

177.  THE PLASMA ALSO HAS
PROTEINS CALLED
ANTIBODIES DESIGNATED AS
A AND B.
 THEIR FUNCTION IS TO
DEFEND THE BODY FROM

178. BLOOD
TRANSFUSION

179.  A PERSON WITH BLOOD
GROUP A HAS ANTIBODY B
AND A PERSON WITH BLOOD
GROUP B HAS ANTIBODY A
 BLOOD GROUP O HAS BOTH A
AND B ANTIBODIES.

180. BEFORE WE PROCEED YOU
SHOULD KNOW;
#A DONOR
#A RECIPIENT

181. #####DIAGRAM OF
TRANSFUSION
 BLOOD GROUP AB HAS NEITHER
ANTIBODIES.
 THEREFORE IT IS REFERED TO
AS UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT.
 IT CAN RECEIVE BLOOD FROM
ALL BG, SINCE IT HAS NO

182. • WHAT IS AGGLUTINATION?
THIS IS THE CLUMPING
TOGETHER OF THE RED
BLOOD CELLS DUE TO THE
ANTIGEN OF DONOR BINDING
TOGETHER WITH THE

183.  BLOOD GROUP O IS REFERED
TO AS UNIVERSAL DONOR
AND CAN DONATE BLOOD TO
ALL OTHER BLOOD GROUPS.
 THIS IS BEAUSE THEY DO NOT
HAVE ANTIGEN A OR B.

184. PRINCIPLES OF TRANSFUSION
 A DONOR MUST BE HEALTHY
 BETWEEN 18 TO 65 YEARS
 MUST NOT HAVE DONATED
BLOOD IN THE LAST 6
MONTHS

185. HOW TRANSFUSION IS DONE
HALF A LITRE OF THE DONOR’S
BLOOD IS TAKEN FROM A VEIN
IN THE ARM AND DRAINED
INTO A CLEAN PLASTIC BAG
CONTAINING AN ANTI

186.  THE DONATED BLOOD IS
KEPT IN A BLOOD BANK AT
TEMPERATURES JUST ABOVE
THE FREEZING POINT FOR
LESS THAN A MONTH.
######------

187.  IT IS NOT ADVISABLE TO
TRANSFUSE BLOOD TO
PATIENTS AFTER A MONTH
SINCE MOST OF THE
REDBLOOD CELLS WOULD
HAVE ALREADY DIED.

188.  THE BLOOD SHOULD BE
SCREENED FOR PATHOGENS
E.G HIV
 ALSO BLOOD TYPING SHOULD
BE DONE AS WELL FOR ABO
AND THE RHESUS FACTOR

189. RHESUS FACTOR
THIS IS ANOTHER ANTIGEN IN
THE RED BLOOD CELLS APART
FROM THE NORMAL A AND B
IT IS CALLED THE RHESUS
ANTIGEN OR THE ANTIGEN

190. INDIVIDUALS HAVING THE
RHESUS FACTOR ARE SAID TO BE
RH+ AS THOSE WITHOUT ARE
SAID TO BE RHESUS –VE.
THE BLOOD PLASMA HAS NO
ANTIBODIES FOR RHESUS FACTOR
BUT CAN DEVELOP THEM ####---

191. IF A RH- WOMAN IS MARRIED
TO A RH+ MAN, ALL OF THEIR
CHILDREN WILL BE RH+…….
#####-----

192. EXAMPLE:
…..THE FIRST BORN HERE WILL
HAVE NO PROBLEM. BUT IF ITS
BLOOD PASSES INTO THE MOTHER
CIRCULATION THROUGH THE
PLACENTA, THE MOTHER’S BLOOD
WILL RESPOND BY PRODUCING

193. IF DURING THE SECOND
PREGNANCY THE FOETUS
BLOOD LEAKS TO THE
MOTHER’S BLOOD, THE
MOTHER’S ANTIBODIES WILL
CAUSE DESTRUCTION OF THE

194. THE FOETUS WILL DEVELOP A
CONDITION CALLED
ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FOETALIS
OR HAEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF
THE NEW BORN.

195. HOW WILL YOU KNOW THE
BABY IS AFFECTED?
THE AFFECTED BABIES HAVE A
YELLOW SKIN, A CONDITION
REFERED TO AS JAUNDICE.
####------

196. JAUNDICE IS AN INDICATION
THAT THE CHILD RED BLOOD
CELLS HAVE BEEN DESTROYED
HENCE MAY BE ANAREMIC.

197. THIS CONDITION CAN
THEREFORE BE PREVENTED BY
ADMINISTRATION OF RHESUS
IMMUNOGLOBULIN TO THE
PREGNANT MOTHER.

198. ALSO, IT SHOULD BE
ADMINISTERED ON THE 28TH
WEEK OF PREGNANCY OR
WITHIN 72 HRS AFTER
DELIVERY.

199. FINALLY THE RH- MOTHER CAN BE
GIVEN INJECTION AGAINST THE
RHESUS ANTIBODY REACTION
BEFORE PREGNANCY. THIS
PREVENTS HER BLOOD FROM
DEVELOPING ANTIBODIES WHEN
EXPOSED TO RH ANTIGEN.

200. IMMUNITY
THIS IS THE ABILITY OF THE
BODY TO RESIST DISEASE OR
INFECTIONS.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF
IMMUNITY;
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL/

201. THE NATURAL IMMUNITY IS
ALSO CALLLED INNATE OR
INHERITED AND THE
ARTIFICIAL IS ALSO CALLED
AQUIRED IMMUNTY SINCE ONE
CAN OBTAIN THIS FROM A

202. THE NATURAL IMMUNITY
THIS IS AN IMMUNITY THAT ONE
IS BORN WITH. IT IS PASSED
FROM THE PARENT TO THE
OFFSPRING WHEREBY IT OFFERS
PROTECTION FROM VERY MANY
ANTIGENS.

203. THE NATURAL IMMUNITY IS
FURTHER SUBDIVIDED INTO
THE FOLLOWING;
 AQUIRED NATURAL PASSIVE
IMMUNITY
 AQUIRED NATURAL ACTIVE

204. AQUIRED NATURAL PASSIVE IMMUNI
THIS IS IMMUNITY THAT IS
PASSED FROM MOTHER TO THE
FOETUS VIA THE PLACENTAL
TRANSFAR OF ALREADY
FORMED ANTIBODIES. SOME
ARE ALSO TRANSFERRED

205. AQUIRED NATURAL ACTIVE IMMUNIT
THIS IS IMMUNITY FORMED
WHEN AN INDIVIDUAL HAS
COME INTO CONTACT WITH AN
ANTIGEN NATURALLY AND HAS
ACTIVELY PRODUCED

206. ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
THIS INVOLVES THE USE OF
VACCINES TO PROTECT THE
BODY AGAINST SOME CERTAIN
DISEASED.

207. THE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY IS
FURTHER SUBDIVIDED INTO THE
FOLLOWING;
 AQUIRED ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE
IMMUNITY
 AQUIRED ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE

208. AQUIRED ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE IMMUN
THIS IS A TEMPORARY
PROTECTION FROM THE ANTI
BODIES OF AN ALREADY
IMMUNISED ORGANISM, THAT
ARE INTRODUCED INTO

209. AQUIRED ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUN
THIS IS THE DELBERATE
INTRODUCTION OF AN ANTIGEN
INTO AN ORGANISM TO ALLOW
THE ORGANISM TO FORM ITS
OWN ANTIBODIES AGAINST THE

210. AN ANTIGEN IS A CHEMICAL
THAT CAUSES THE PRODUCTION
OF ANTIBODIES IN THE ANIMAL
BODY.
THEY MAY ALSO LEAD TO
ALLERGIES OR DISEASES.

211. EXAMPLES OF ANTIGENS
 VACCINES – SUSPENSION OF
LIVING ATTENUATED OR
WEAKENED MICROBIAL CELLS
 EXOTOXINS – TOXINS
SECRETED BY BACTERIA

212.  ENDOTOXINS – WHICH ARE
CELLULAR COMPONENTS OF
BACTERIA.
 ISOANTIGENS – ANTIGENS
DERIVED FROM ONE
INDIVIDUAL AND PLACED IN

213.  TOXOIDS – WHICH ARE
DETOXIFIED TOXINS OR
WEAKENED POISONS.

214. IMMUNE RESPONSE
THESE ARE REACTIONS
INVOLVING PRODUCTION OF
ANTIBODIES BY LYMPHOCYTES
DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF
ANTIGEN IN THE BODY. AN
ANTIGEN CAN BE PATHOGEN OR
THEIR TOXINS IN THE BODY.

215. THE ANTIBODY CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION IS
COMPLEMENTARY TO THE
RESPECTIVE ANTIGEN.
THEREFORE, SPECIFIC
ANTIBODIES ARE RELEASED IN
RESPONSE TO SPECIFIC

216. NOW, THIS IS HOW THE
LYMPHOCYTES PROTECT
THE BODY AGAINST
INFECTIONS.
THE BODY ALSO INCREASES THE
PRODUCTION OF PHAGOCYTES

217. VACCINATION OR IMMUNISATION
THIS IS THE INTRODUCTION OF
AN ANTIGEN INTO THE BODY
THROUGH AN INJECTION OR
ORALLY BY THE MOUTH.
IT IS DONE TO INCREASE THE
ORGANISM IMMUNITY.

218. THE VACCINE STIMULATES THE
PRODUCTION OF SPECIFIC
ANTIBODIES BY THE BODY
SUCH THAT WHEN THE BODY
WILL BE INFECTED NEXT TIME,
THERE WILL BE NO SERIOUS

219. ROLES OF VACCINE
EXAMPLE OF THE IMMUNISABLE
DISEASES ARE AS FOLLOW;
 BIRTH – BCG (BACILLE
CALMETTE GUERIN) WHICH IS
CLOSELY RELATED TO
MYCOBACTERIUM TB, WHICH

220.  6 WEEK –
DIPTHERIA CAUSED BY A
BACTERIUM WHICH MAY
LEAD TO DIFFICULTY IN
BREATHING,
PERTUSIS WHICH IS A MEDICAL

221. INFLUENZA WHICH MAINLY CAUSE
THE DISTURBANCE OF THE
RESPIRATORY TRACT
AFFECTING BREATHING.
PNEUMONIA WHEREBY THE
LUNGS BECOME INFLAMATED
WITH A BACTERIUM WHICH

222. TETANUS WHICH IS THE
INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE
CONTRACTION CAUSED BY
RAPID REPEATED STIMULI
HEPATITIS B AND FINALLY
POLIO.

223.  10 WEEKS
ORAL POLIO, DIPTHERIA,
WOOPING COUGH, TETANUS
AND HEPATITIS B
 9 MONTHS
MEASLES

224. ALLERGIC REACTIONS
AN ALLERGY IS A
HYPERSENSITIVE REACTION TO
AN ANTIGEN BY THE BODY.
THEY RESULT WHEN THERE IS A
REACTION BETWEEN AN
ANTIGEN AND AN ANTIBODY
CAUSING CELLS TO RAPTURE

225. HISTAMINE INCREASES THE
PERMIABILITY OF THE CELLS
MAKING THEM TAKE UP FLUID
AND SWELL. THIS MAY LEAD
TO A CONDITION CALLED
ANAPHYLAXIA WHEREBY THE
BLOOD VESSLES GET
DILLATED, LEADING TO

226. HISTAMINE INDUCES ALSO
INFLAMATORY RESPONSE
AND PAIN. TO MINIMIZE THE
PAIN, ANTI HISTAMINE DRUGS
ARE USED. EXAMPLE,
CETRIZINE AND PIRITON.

227. THE SUBSTANCES THAT CAUSE
THE ALLERGY ARE CALLED
ALLERGENS.
EXAMPLE INCLUDE; DUST,
POLLENGRAINS, SPOORES,

228. MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC REACTIONS
 BEGINS WITH THE ENTRY OF
PATHOGEN
 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM THEN
RECORGNISES THE
INTRUSION

229.  AFTER THE INTRUSION,
PHAGOCYTES MAY MOVE AND
ENGULF THE PATHOGEN AND
DESTROY THEM.
 OR, THE LYMPHOCYTES MAY
PRODUCE ANTI BODIES.

230. THE ANTIBODIES PRODUCED
MAY BIND PATHOGENS
DEGENERATING THEM TO
DEATH OR
MAY BIND PATHOGENS FOR THE
PHAGOCYTES TO ENGULF THEM

231. ORGAN TRANSPLANT
THIS IS THE TRANSFAR OF AN
ORGAN FROM THE DONOR TO
THE RECIPIENT.
THE TISSUE OR THE ORGAN
BEING TRANSFERED IS KNOWN

232. AN ALLOGRAFT, IS AN ORGAN
FROM A DONOR WHOSE
GENETIC IDENTITY IS NOT
SIMILAR TO THE RECIPIENT.

233. ALSO, WE HAVE A XENOGRAFT
IS A GRAFT FROM AN ANIMAL
DONOR TO THE HUMAN
RECIPIENT. EXAMPLE, USING A
PIG HEART VALVE TO REPLACE
A HUMAN DEFECTIVE

234. THE RECIPIET BODY WILL
RECORGNISE THE ORGAN AS
FOREIGN AND IMMUNE
REJECTION OCCURES.
TO AVOID THIS, TISSUE TYPING
IS DONE OR DRUGS

235. WHAT IS TISSUE TYPING?
THIS IS THE DETERMINATION
OF THE GENETIC SIMILARITY
BETWEEN THE DONOR AND
RECIPIENT. THE MORE CLOSELY
RELATED THEY ARE, THE

236. IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT
THE IMMUNE SUPPRESSIVE
DRUGS ADMINISTERED
DURING GRAFTING MAY
SUPPRESS NORMAL IMMUNE
RESPONSE AGAINST

237. THIS MAKES THE RESIPIENT TO
BE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DISEASES.

238. PROBLEMES OF ORGAN TRANSPLANT
 GRAFT CAN BE REJECTED BY
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM OF THE
RECIPIENT
########----------

239.  THE GRAFT CAN FIGHT
LYMPHOID TISSUES OF THE
RECIPIENT THEREBY CAUSING
ABNORMAL GROWTH OF
TISSUE OR EVEN CAUSE
CANCER ON THE RECIPIENT.

240. FINALLY……….
 THE IMMUNE SUPPRESSIVE
DRUGS MAY SUPPRESS
NORMAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
AGAINST PATHOGENS