Tamil Nadu, Agricultural Engineering Department,Agricultural Engineering Training Centre, Tiruchirapalli, Training on Newly developed Agricultural Machinery and Equipments, Past and present,1, Minor Irrigation Schemes.
chapter 5.pptx: drainage and irrigation engineering
cc aed aetc am&e p&p;1 minor irrigation
1. TRAINING ON
NEWLY DEVELOPED
AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY & EQUIPMENTS
“Agricultural Machinery & Equipments
(Past & Present) - An 'U' Turn Look.”
-Coomarasamy. C
-Formerly EE, AED
Agricultural Engineering Training Centre,
Tiruchirapalli
29.12.2015 : 11.00 a.m.- 01.00 p.m.
cc tn aed aetc am&e p&p 1 Minor Irrigation
2. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Agriculture-The science or practice of farming, including cultivation of
the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to
provide food, wool, and other products.
Engineering is the branch of science and technology concerned with
the design, building, and use of engines, machines, and
structures.
Agricultural Engineering- the branch of engineering involved with
the design of farm machinery, with soil management, land
development, and mechanization and automation of livestock
farming, and with the efficient planting, harvesting, storage, and
processing of farm commodities.
Engineers are directly or indirectly involved in influencing human
resources in making decision to take agriculture to higher height.
The term “agricultural engineer” means a person trained in
engineering who applies engineering knowledge to agriculture
and food as defined broadly to include biological processes and
environmental aspects.(defined by Stout)
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3. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Agricultural Engineers deal with the technique, systems and machines for
production of goods and services.
To improve agricultural practices, the use of machinery and farm power
must be combined with soil conservation and management to
minimize erosion.
However, Agricultural engineering has application of physical knowledge
with judgment, in the utilization of materials and forces of nature to
improve production practices and management.
Agricultural engineers may engage in any of the following areas:
design of agricultural machinery, equipment, and
agricultural structures
internal combustion engines as applied to agricultural machinery
agricultural resource management (including land use and water use)
water management, conservation, and storage for
crop irrigation and livestock production
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4. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
surveying and land profiling
climatology and atmospheric science
soil management and conservation, including erosion and erosion
control
seeding, tillage, harvesting, and processing of crops
livestock production, including poultry, fish, and dairy animals
waste management, including animal waste, agricultural residues, and
fertilizer runoff
food engineering and the processing of agricultural products
basic principles of circuit analysis, as applied to electrical motors
physical and chemical properties of materials used in, or produced by,
agricultural production
bio-resource engineering, which uses machines on the molecular level
to help the environment.
Design of experiments related to crop and animal production
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5. Mechanisation is the process of changing from working largely or
exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery.
Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural
machinery to mechanise the work of agriculture, greatly increasing farm
worker productivity.
In modern times, powered machinery has replaced many jobs formerly
carried out by manual labour or by working animals such
as oxen, horses and mules.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
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Machines, in fact, are interposed between the power and the work, for
the purpose of adapting the one to the other.
It involves the use of an intermediate device between the
power source and the work.
This intermediate device usually transforms motion, such as rotary
to linear, or provides some sort of mechanical advantage, such as
speed increase or decrease or leverage.
6. Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors, trucks,
combine harvesters, airplanes (crop dusters), helicopters, and other
vehicles.
Modern farms even sometimes use computers in conjunction with
satellite imagery and GPS (Global Positioning System) guidance to
increase yields.
The development and implementation of precision agriculture or
site-specific farming has been made possible by combining the
Global Positioning System (GPS) and geographic information
systems (GIS).
These technologies enable the coupling of real-time data collection
with accurate position information, leading to the efficient
manipulation and analysis of large amounts of geospatial data.
GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for
farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop
scouting, variable rate applications, and yield mapping.
GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility field conditions
such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness.
1.0. INTRODUCTION - GPS
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7. 1.1. INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - CONCEPT
Farm mechanization is the application of
engineering and technology in agricultural operations to do a job in a
better way to improve productivity.
i.e., Mechanization entails the use of
farm machinery and facilities to maximize all farm inputs for
optimum production.
This includes development, application and management of all
mechanical aids for field production, water control,
material handling, storing and processing.
Mechanical aid include hand tools, animal drawn equipments,
power tillers, tractors, oil engines, electric motors,
processing and hauling equipments.
Farm mechanization does not mean the use of big machines and
tractors for farming work only.
Mechanization is a need-based process, which provides
sufficient time gap for self-adjustment of various inputs
without causing sudden impact of changes.
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8. 1.2. INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - NEED
To mechanize there is need to take note of the following:
o There must be a
suitable equipment developed for timely production of goods.
o manufacturing and availability of machine spare parts must be
adequate to meet needs of end users of such machinery.
o Maintenance of such machinery is essential for
productivity and enhanced profit making.
o Effective utilization of the machinery
(operators and technical staff ) must be available.
o Favorable condition of use such as
government policy, political frame work, financial obligation and
seasoned professionals to handle
vital aspect of mechanization are essential.
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9. 1.3. INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - SCOPE
This is a good scope of farm mechanization in India due to the
following factors:
(a) Improved irrigation facility in the country.
(b) Introduction of high yielding variety of seeds.
(c) Introduction of high dose of fertilizers and pesticides for
different crops.
(d) Introduction of new crops in different parts of the country.
(e) Multiple cropping system and intensive cultivation followed in
different parts of the country.
The above factors are responsible to encourage farm mechanization
which can be viewed with the following parts in mind:
(i) Population of the country is increasing at the rate of about 2.5%
per year.
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10. 1.3. INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - SCOPE
Steps have to be taken to arrange food and fibers for such large
population by adopting intensive farming in the country.
(ii) In multiple cropping programme, where high yielding variety of
seeds are used,
all farm operations are required to be completed in
limited time with economy and efficiency.
This is possible only with the help of mechanization.
(iii) Farm mechanization removes drudgery of labour to a great
extent.
A farmer has to walk about 66km on foot while ploughing one
hectare land once by bullocks having 15 cm furrows width.
(iv) A large numbers of female workers and children work on farm
unwillingly due to shortage of power.
From the human stand point, it is not desirable that such an
arduous duty should be taken from children and females.
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11. 1.3. INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - SCOPE
A child must go to school and woman must devote time for managing home
affairs to make life pleasant if machines are used:
a) The farmer and his animals can be relieved of hard work.
b) He will do his job with machines, better and quicker.
c) He will get more leisure and devote more time for other works.
d) He will earn better living and enjoy life in nice manner.
(v) The proper utilization of basic inputs like water, seeds and fertilizers,
will be possible only when proper equipments are used.
(vi) There are certain operations which are rather
difficult to be performed by animal power or human labour such as:
a) Deep ploughing in case of deep rooted crops.
b) Killing the pernicious weeds by deep tillage operations.
c) Leveling of uneven land
d) Land reclamation.
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12. 1.4. INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - AIMS
Aims of Mechanization:
To increase productivity
To remove farm drudgery
To improve on product quality
To reduce cost of labour
To increase income
Provision of employment opportunities
Improve livelihood of farmers
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13. 1.5.INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - BENEFITS
(i) Timeliness of operation.
(ii) Precision of operation.
(iii) Improvement of work environment.
(iv) Enhancement of safety.
(v) Reduction of drudgery of labour.
(vi) Reduction of loss of crop and food products.
(vii) Increased productivity of land.
(viii) Increased economic return to farmers.
(ix) Improved dignity of farmer.
(x) Progress and prosperity in rural areas.
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14. 1.6. INTRODUCTION :
FARM MECHANIZATION - LIMITING FACTORS
The following are the limiting factors in farm mechanization in
India.
(a) Small land holdings.
(b) Less investing capacity of farmers.
(c) Agricultural labour is easily available.
(d) Adequate draught animals are available in the country.
(e) Lack of repair and servicing facilities for machines.
(f) Lack of trained man power.
(g) High cost of machines.
(h) Increases an individual’s workload
(i) Can be hazardous to health
(j) Reduces social interaction associated with farm work.
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15. 1.7. INTRODUCTION :
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
Various types of agricultural operations
on a farm can be broadly classified as
1.Tractive work such as-
(I) seed bed preparation,
(ii) cultivation,
(iii) harvesting and
(iv)transportation.
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16. 1.7. INTRODUCTION :
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
2.Stationary work like
(i) silage cutting,
(fermented, high-moisture
stored fodder)
(ii)feed grinding,
(iii) threshing,
(iv)winnowing and
(v) lifting of irrigation water.
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17. 1.7. INTRODUCTION :
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
These operations are done by different sources of power, namely -
(i) human,
(ii)animal,
(iii) mechanical –oil engine,
(iv) mechanical -tractor,
(v)electricity and other powers like
(vi)Solar,
(vii)wind etc.,
Human Power-
Human power is the main source of power
for operating small tools and implements.
They are also employed for doing stationary work like
threshing,
winnowing,
chaff cutting and
lifting irrigation water.
On an average a man develops nearly 0.1 horse power (hp).
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18. 1.7. INTRODUCTION :
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
Animal Power
The most important source of power
on the farm all over the world is animal.
It is estimated that
nearly 80% of the total draft power used in agriculture
throughout the world is still provided by animals.
Animals like bullocks and buffaloes happen to the
principle sources of animal power.
Camels, horses, donkeys, mules ( m..d + f..h )and elephants are
also used in farm work.
The average force a bullock can exert is nearly
equal to one tenth of its body weight.
A medium size bullock can develop between 0.50 to 0.75 hp.
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19. 1.7. INTRODUCTION :
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
Mechanical Power
The third important source of farm power is
mechanical power that is available through
tractors and
oil engines.
The oil engine is a highly efficient device for converting fuel into
useful work.
The efficiency of diesel engine
varies between
32 to 38 per cent.
Diesel engines of
larger size are used on
tractors.
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20. 1.7. INTRODUCTION :
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
Electrical Power
Electrical power has become
a very important source of power on farms.
Largest use of electric power in the rural areas
is for irrigation and domestic water supply.
Use of electricity in
post harvesting like threshing
dairy industry,
cold storage, fruit processing and
cattle feed grinding has
tremendously increased.
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21. 1.7. INTRODUCTION :
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
Solar
From the sun (continuous, 3.41X106 Joules/m2
Tractors
Crop dryers
Wind Power- Used with wind vanes
The availability of wind power for farm work is
quite limited.
Where the wind velocity is more than 32 km/hr,
wind mills can be used for lifting water.
A wind mill having 3.6 m diameter wheel mounted
on 12.0 m tower is able to produce from 0.1 to 0.9 hp with the
wind velocity varying from 6.4 to 37 kmph.
Thus the average capacity of a wind mill would be
above 0.5 hp.
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22. 1.8. INTRODUCTION :
LEVELS OF MECHANIZATION
Human
Power rating(0.1 HP),
most primitive
Highly inefficient
High energy consumption
Low cultivated area
Animal
Power rating(1-5 HP)
Better than manual/human
Larger capacity for animal drawn tools
Prone to Tsetse fly infestation
Competition for meat/milk by humans
Mechanical
Power rating(10-200HP)
More coverage of land
Highly efficient
High productivity
Expensive
Needs skilled labour c.coomarasamy
23. 2.0.1. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SCHEMES- PAST
1. Minor Irrigation Schemes
. Sinking of Filter point tube wells
. Sinking of private tube wells
. Sinking of boring in wells
. Deepening of wells
. Community wells
Resistivity meters
Hand Boring sets
Percussion drills
Rotary drills
Hammer drills
Wagon drills/ In-well drills
Rock Blasting Units
Long Hole Equipments
Debris Removers/ Tiller’s crane
Air compressors
Electrical loggers
Bulldozers (Crawler type tractors)
Wheel type tractors
Rice combine harvesters
Pumping and Boring tools
GAEW Percussion drills
Major overhauling of
Agricultural Machines
2. Land Development Schemes
. Levelling
. Ploughing
3. Soil and Water Conservation
Schemes
4. Workshops
. Government Agricultural
Engineering Workshop
. Tractor Workshops
Other special schemes/programmes are package programme, Integrated Area Development Programme,
Exploratory Tube Organisation wells Scheme, River Pumping Scheme, Tractor Hire Purchase scheme,
Oil engine Hiring Scheme, Drought Prone Area Programme, Wind sweft area deelopment programme.
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24. 2.0.2. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SCHEMES-PRESENT
1. Soil and Water Conservation in the catchments of River Valley Project
2. Agricultural Mechanisation Programme
3. Command Area Development and Water Management Programme
4. Demonstration of Agricultural Machinery and Implements
5. Training Programme to Farmers in handling and maintenance
of Agricultural machinery
6. Rain Water Harvesting and Runoff Management Programme
7. NABARD assisted Rain Water Harvesting Programme
8. Soil and Water Conservation under Hill Area Development Prog.
9. Soil and Water Conservation under Western Ghats Development Prog.
10. Soil Conservation in Tribal Areas under Integrated Tribal Development
11. Replacement of old Pump sets with new Pump sets.
12. World Bank aided Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Modernization
& Water bodies Restoration & Management (TN IAMWARM) Project
13. Minor Irrigation Scheme
14. Land Development Scheme
15. National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP)
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25. 2.0.2. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SCHEMES-PRESENT
MACHINERY AVAILABLE
Sl.
No
Land
Development
Machinery
Quantity
(Nos)
1 Bulldozer 90
2 Tractor 171
3 Paddy Combine
Harvester
50
4 Hydraulic
Excavator
2
5 Paddy
Transplanter
7
Sl.
No
Minor
Irrigation
Machinery
Quantity
(Nos)
1 Rotary Drills 30
2 Percussion Drills 7
3 Mini Drills 19
4 Hand Boring Sets 62
5 Long Hole
Equipments
7
6 Rock Blasting Units 32
7 Resistivity meters 8
8 Electrical Loggers 2
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26. Irrigation is the main input of Agricultural economy.
For a sustained development in the agricultural sector in modernization
of agricultural practices, availability of assured irrigation facility is
undoubtedly the most important prerequisite.
Thus, in the context of efforts towards economic development, the
importance of irrigation development bears special significance.
Irrigation Schemes are classified as Major, Medium and Minor,
depending on their culturable command area.
they are categorised as Surface Flow, Surface Lift (For Major / Medium
and Minor) and Ground Water Lift (for Minor only).
2.1. IRRIGATION
Sl.No Irrigation Culturable Command Area (CCA)
1 Major Irrigation more than 10,000 hectares
2 Medium Irrigation more than 2,000 hectares but less
than 10,000 hectares.
3 Minor Irrigation area up to 2,000 hectares
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27. Irrigation advantages:
(i) regular and reliable supply of water;
(ii) supply of silt if irrigation is from river waters;
(iii) year- round cultivation;
(iv) reduction of soil salinity in deserts (but if water is allowed to
evaporate from the fields, salinity will increase).
Irrigation brings about an increase in the gross cropped area by
increasing the net sown area in rainfall scarcity areas and by
facilitating multiple cropping.
Type of Irrigation Technique:
1. Surface Irrigation
2. Localized Irrigation
3. Drip Irrigation
4. Sprinkler Irrigation
5. Sub-irrigation- seepage irrigation
2.1. IRRIGATION
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29. The development of Ground Water is mostly done through individual and
cooperative efforts of the farmers, with the help of institutional finance and
through own savings.
Surface Minor Irrigation Schemes are generally funded from the Public
Sector outlay.
Minor irrigation mainly involves ground water development,
e.g., tube-wells, boring works, etc.
There are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type
of aquifer the well is in:
Shallow or unconfined wells are completed in the uppermost saturated
aquifer at that location (the upper unconfined aquifer).
Deep or confined wells are sunk through an impermeable stratum into
an aquifer that is sandwiched between two impermeable strata (aquitards
or aquicludes).
The majority of deep aquifers are classified as artesian because the
hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the level of the top of the
aquifer.
If the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the land surface it is
a "flowing"artesian well (named after Artois in France).
2.1.1. MINOR IRRIGATION
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30. 2.1.2. SELECTION OF A DRILLING METHOD
In selecting a drilling method for well construction, the most important
consideration is to collect
representative groundwater or soil samples from specified depth
intervals.
However, cost, time and other factors must also be considered.
Below is a summary of
relevant factors to consider in the selection of a drilling method in
hydro geological work.
Depth of Drilling: all drilling methods have certain limitations
Sample recovery: type of samples desired, i.e. soil, groundwater,
disturbed or undisturbed, frequency of sampling, yield estimation;
Target lithology: well installation completed in unconsolidated or
consolidated formation.
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31. 2.1.2.1. SOIL - TAMILNADU
Before planning for
construction of well,
we must know the soils, and
hydrogeology of the site.
Geophysical survey should be
conducted before execution.
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33. The resistivity survey method is more than 100 years old and is one of
the most commonly used geophysical exploration methods (Reynolds,
1997).
Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity
Electrical survey. Mapping subsurface resistivity by injecting an
electrical current into the ground.
Resistivity meter. An instrument used to carry out resistivity surveys
that usually has a current transmitter and voltage-measuring circuitry.
Electrode. A conductor planted into the ground through which current is
passed, or which is used to measure the voltage caused by the current.
Apparent resistivity. The apparent resistivity is the resistivity of an
equivalent homogeneous earth model that will give the same potential
value as the true earth model for the same current and electrodes
arrangement.
Multi-core cable. A cable with a number of independent wires.
2.1.2.3. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
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37. 2.1.3. WELL DRILLING METHODS
Various well drilling methods have been developed because
geologic conditions range from hard rock to completely
unconsolidated material such as alluvial sand and gravel.
Particular drilling methods are employed more frequently in certain
areas because they are more effective in penetrating the local aquifers
and thus offer cost advantages.
Drilling procedures may depend on factors such as
depth and diameter of well,
lithology,
sanitation requirement and use of the well (i.e. well dedication).
The drilling method is site-specific and depends on the type of
logging and testing to be performed.
No single method is best for all conditions and applications.
Well drilling methods are numerous and only the basic principles
and applicability of selected and conventional methods are presented.
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38. Methods which do not use circulation (drilling) fluids
Displacement boring - a piston or plug-type sampler is forced into the
soil
Driven wells-. Well points in soft formations - driven by hand or a
hammer
Solid-stem auger continuous helix
Hollow-stem auger
Methods which use circulation (drilling) fluids to carry drill cuttings
to the surface
Rotary Drilling
Rotary (direct) Drilling
Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling (RC)
Dual-wall Reverse Circulation Drilling
Percussion Drilling
Cable-tool Percussion
Air Percussion Down-The-Hole Hammer
Odex Drilling / Simultaneous Casing
Drilling
ODEX is an excellent option when
unconsolidated formations are too
dense or cobbly for Auger Drilling.
ODEX is a down-hole air hammer system
that is designed to advance casing
during drilling. Once a desired depth
is reached they eccentric bit can be
retrieved leaving the casing in place
for sampling or installations.
When the bore-hole is complete, the
casing is retrieved to be used again.
2.1.3. WELL DRILLING METHODS
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41. 2.1.6. AUGERING
The hand auger consists of extendable steel
rods, rotated by a handle.
A number of different steel augers (drill bits)
can be attached at the end of the drill rods.
The augers are rotated into the ground until
they are filled, then lifted out of the borehole
to be emptied.
Above the water table, the borehole generally
stays open without the need for support.
Below the water table a
temporary casing may be used to prevent
borehole collapsing.
Drilling continues inside the
temporary casing using a bailer until the
desired depth is reached.
The permanent well casingis then installed
and the temporary casing must be removed.
Augers can be used up to a depth of about
15-25 meters, depending on the geology.
Diameters range from 50 to 200mm.
Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995)
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42. 2.1.7. PERCUSSION
Manual percussion uses a heavy cutting or
hammering bit attached to a rope or cable and
is lowered into the open bore hole or inside a
temporary casing.
Usually, a tripod is used to support the tools.
By moving the rope or cable up and down, the
cutting or hammering bit loosens the soil or
consolidated rock in the borehole, which is
then extracted by using a bailer.
Just as with hand augering, a
temporary casing of steel or plastic may be
used to prevent the hole from collapsing.
When the permanent well
screen and casing are installed, this
temporary casing has to be removed.
Manual percussion drilling is generally used
up to depths of 25 meters.
Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995)
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43. 2.1.8. SLUDGING
Sludging uses water circulation to bring
the drilled soil up to the surface.
The drill pipes are moved up and down.
On the down stroke, the impact of the
drill bit loosens the soil and on the up
stroke, the top of the pipe is closed by
hand (or valve), drawing up the water
through the pipe and transporting the
cuttings to the surface.
On the next down stroke, the hand
(valve) opens the top of the pipe and the
water squirts into a pit, in front of the
well.
In this pit, the cuttings separate from the
water and settle out, while the water
overflows from the pit back into the well.
The borehole stays open by water
pressure.
Thickeners (additives) can be added to
the water to prevent hole collapse and
reduce loss of working water.
Sludging can be used up to depths of
about 35 meters.
Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995)
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44. 2.1.9. JETTING
Jetting is based on water circulation and
water pressure.
As opposed to sludging, water is pumped
down the drilling pipes.
The large volume of water has an erosive
effect at the bottom and the ‘slurry’ (water
and cuttings) are transported up between
the drill pipe and the borehole wall.
A manual ormotorised pump is used to
achieve an adequate water flow.
The drill pipe may simply have an open
end, or a drill bit can be added and partial
or full rotation of the drill pipe can be
used.
Thickeners (additives) can be added to
the water in order to prevent hole collapse
and reduce loss of working water.
Jetting (with rotation) is generally used up
to depths of 35 meters.
Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995)
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47. Hand-boring tools-
1) single chisel
2) cross chisel
3) rod
4) 6 foot sludger
5) screw-jointed tube
6) tube with outside collar
7) tube with flush joint, riveted
8) tube with screw socket
9) 6 foot grappler
10) reamers
11) single cross head
12) double cross head
13) fork
14) key
15 & 16) core cutters and extractor
17) spring pole
18) windlass
19) legs and pulley
20) hook to lift rods
21) temper screw
22) excavation and hole
23) rods
24) core cutter
25) rods jointed with loose socket
(from Lupton, pg. 52)
2.1.12. HAND BORING SETS
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48. 2.1.13. MINI DRILLS
Light percussion drilling rig /
Mini drill
Often called “Shell and auger”
drilling,
This method is more properly
termed light percussion
drilling since the barrel auger
is now rarely used .
This rig consists of :
1. A collapsible “A” frame,
with a pulley at its top.
2. A diesel engine: connected
via a hand operated friction
clutch (based on a brake
drum system) to
a winch drum which provides pulling power to the rig rope and can be
held still with a friction brake which is foot-operated.
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49. 2.2.0. DRILLING TECHNIQUES- MACHINE
Boreholes are drilled by machine (rig).
The purpose of drilling is to obtain a hole sufficient in size and depth,
inside which well screen and casing pipes can be subsequently
placed.
The hole is made by cutting the formation material at the bottom and
thereafter removing the disintegrated fragments to ground surface.
Two main techniques are used to drill boreholes:
with percussion drilling the cutting action is obtained by alternately
raising and dropping the tools in the descending drill hole, while
with rotary drilling this is accomplished by the rotation of suitable
tools to chip and abrade the rock formation into small fragments.
To remove the disintegrated material, two main methods are used:
the chippings are either periodically removed with the help of a
bailer or sand pump or they are continuously removed by means of a
stream of water.
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52. 2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGS
The most widely used percussion rigs are of the type known as cable
tool rigs.
The tools are moved up and down in the well with strokes that may
vary between 0.15 and 1 m.
The weight of tools may also vary between 100 to more than 1000 kg.
The hole is worked up and down until 1 to 1.5 m of cuttings have
accumulated at the bottom; the loose material is then removed with the
bailer.
If the formation being drilled is loose, it is necessary to advance the
casing as the hole progresses down, to prevent caving of the hole.
In solid rock, casing may only be necessary in the first 3 or 4 m of the
hole to prevent softer soil particles from falling into it.
Drilling rates with cable tool rigs vary with the type of formation being
penetrated, with the depth of the hole, the type and size of the
equipment and with the experience of the drilling crew operating the
machine.
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53. Cable tool water well drilling rig
2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGS
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54. 2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGS
Soil Drilling rates Remarks
hard, dense, non-fractured rocks
(granite, gneiss, lava, quartzite)
1 to 2 m
per day
slow, drilling in hard
dense rocks
soft rocks (sandstones, sandy
clay).
15 to 30 m
per day
Sticky shale and clays 5 to 15 m per
day
difficult to loosen and
commonly difficult to bail.
Loose, fine sand 3 to 5 m
per day
hard to penetrate
when the rock is fractured holes tend to follow
softer zones causing the
borehole to crook or tools
(bits, bailer) to get stuck.
Unconsolidated material
containing boulders
very difficult to drill
driving down of this
casing more difficult.
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55. Boring tools, Figure 413, for well sinking, testing ground,
etc, consisting of:
1) well rod, usual length 10 feet 2) worm auger
3) open auger, for clay 4) flat chisel, for stone of flint
5) spring dart, to draw faulty pipe from the bore hole
6) spring dart, to draw faulty pipe from the borehole (for
small pipes)
7) bell screw, for withdrawing broken rods
8) bell box, for withdrawing broken rods from the borehole
9) auger nose shell, with valve for loose soil or sand
10) flat nose shell, for similar purposes
11) shoe nose shell, for harder ground
12) hand dog, for screwing and unscrewing the rods
13) pipe clamps, or rests 14) T-chisel for flint or stone
15) wad hook, for withdrawing stones, etc, which may fall
into the bore hole
16) spiral angular worm for withdrawing broken rods
17) diamond, or drill-pointed chisel, for hard ground
18) lifting dog, for raising and lowering the rods
19) long pipe clamps, or rests
20) tillers or levers for turning the rods
21) wrought-iron screwed well-bore pipe
22) short rod, with swivel head
23) crow’s foot for extracting the broken rods from the bore
hole
24) pair of well-rod joints ready to shut up for greater
lengths
25) pipe tongs, or heaters, for making joints of pipe
26) T-piece, or pipe dog, for lowering the pipes
27) brazed and collared pipe, with water-tight soldered
joints
28) common riveted pipe, strong make
29) spring hook to be attached to the well rope for raising
tools, etc.
30) windlass complete, for boring or sinking
31) strong well sinking bucket
(from Appleby’s Handbook of Machinery, pg. 110-111)
2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGS
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56. Rotary drilling is a popular method due to its greater drilling speed and
the fact that casing is rarely needed during the drilling operation; an
advantage if a low water yield in the new borehole does not justify its
exploitation (the work involved in recovering casing from cable-tool
drilled dry holes is difficult, expensive and frequently impossible).
Rotating bits of various types cut the rock or sediments.
Power from the engine is delivered to the bit through a rotating hollow
steel.
As in percussion rigs, rotary drilling rates depend on the characteristics
of the rock formations being drilled, on the fracturing and degree of
water saturation of these fractures and on the type and size of the
equipment used.
2.2.2..ROTARY DRILLING
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59. 2.2.2..ROTARY DRILLING
Soil Drilling rates Remarks
soft unconsolidated
sediments
100 and 150 m
per day
consolidated rocks 10 and 20 m per
day
Highly permeable rocks most difficult to drill,
especially if their fractures
are above the water table
(dry)
drilling bits and tools may be
easily lost.
very hard pebbles or boulders bit will tend to spin on the
hole without cutting through.
losing the verticality and
alignment of the well may be
inevitable and the hole will
have to be abandoned.c.coomarasamy
60. As a result of the fast development of pneumatic drilling
techniques Down-the-Hole Hammer drilling, has been introduced.
A pneumatic single piston hammer (similar to the well known "road
hammer") is fitted at the bottom of a string of drill pipe; a diamond or
tungsten carbide bit is attached to the hammer.
As drilling proceeds, the bit is rotated to make it change position within
the hole.
While the tool is only hanging from the stem and is not touching the
bottom, the piston is "idling" on its cylinder and nearly all the air is
exhausted through the bit, thus providing extra cleaning possibilities, as
air (if hole is dry) or a foamy air/water emulsion (under water table
levels) are at all times running into the hole and expelling cuttings to the
surface.
When the tools land on the bottom of the hole, the bit assembly is
pushed up to meet the oscillating pneumatic piston striking with
frequencies varying between 200 and 1000 blows per minute.
2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING
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61. While the bit cuts, the air cools the bit and cleans the hole.
Penetration rates in hard rock have been improved by this method.
Rates of 3 to 5 m per hour through basalt are commonly reported.
Down-the-Hole Hammer rigs will only operate with great difficulty in
unconsolidated ground or clays; in this drilling condition, the presence of
water may defeat them, as it causes the cuttings to congeal and stick to
the walls (injection of special detergents into the air supply would,
however, help to overcome this constraint).
2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING
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62. A Down-The-Hole Drill is
called DTH in most drilling
terms.
The down-the-hole drill is
basically a mini jack
hammer that screws on the
bottom of a drill string.
The fast hammer action
breaks hard rock into small
flakes and dust and is blown
clear by the air exhaust from
the DTH hammer.
The DTH hammer is one of
the fastest ways to drill hard
rock.
It is rotary cum percussive
type drilling.
2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING
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63. Working of DTH
In DTH drilling, the percussion
mechanism commonly called the
hammer is located directly behind
the drill bit.
The drill pipes transmit the
necessary feed force and rotation
to hammer and bit
plus compressed air or fluids for
the hammer and flushing of
cuttings.
The drill pipes are added to the
drill string successively behind the
hammer as the hole gets deeper.
The piston strikes the impact
surface of the bit directly, while the
hammer casing gives straight and
stable guidance of the drill bit.
2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING
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65. 2.2.4. TYPES OF WELL LOGS
As the technology of has improved over the decades, myriad types of
well logs have emerged. From Gamma Ray (GR) Logs that measure
radioactiviwell logging ty of the rocks to determine the amount of shale in
a formation to Sonic (or Borehole Compensated) Logs that measure
porosity by measuring how fast sound waves travel through rocks,
different tools are used to determine different subsurface characteristics.
Resistivity Logs measure how electricity travels through rocks and
sediments. This determines what types of fluids are present because oil
and fresh water are poor conductors of electricity, while formation waters
are salty and easily conduct electricity.
Induction Logs are used in wells that do not use mud or water, but oil-
based drilling fluids or air, which are nonconductive and, therefore, cannot
use electric logs. Induction uses the interaction of magnetism and
electricity to determine Resistivity.
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Logs show the permeability of the rocks in the
well by calculating the electrical currents generated between the drilling
fluids and formation water held in the pore spaces. SP is used many
times to determine between shale and sandstone.
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66. Technical specifications
A borehole drilled through hard rocks may be left unlined or will only
require lining in the upper section (to avoid looser, weathered parts or
soil particles falling into it),
in softer rocks or unconsolidated formations the completed well must be
lined over its entire depth; this lining is called casing pipe. In front of the
aquifer, special casing is placed to act as the well's intake;
it may be perforated pipe or special well screens.
Sometimes, an artificial gravel pack is placed in the annular space
between the hole wall and the outer walls of the screens (at the intakes),
to provide extra protection to the intake and an increased filtration
capacity to avoid solid particles being carried into the well by the
incoming water during pumping.
Casings must be water tight, especially at the upper section, to prevent
undesirable water finding its way into the hole.
2.2.4. WELL DESIGN AND COMPLETION
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67. The well intake (and therefore the
screen it is made from) is the
"business end" of the well; its
success depends on this straining
device, on the care taken in
collecting samples of the drilling
cuttings to identify aquifer zones
for screen placement, on the
skills needed to design and
produce the most efficient one
and on the materials used, which,
in principle, should guarantee
efficiency for a long time.
2.2.4. WELL DESIGN AND COMPLETION
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68. 2.2.4. WELL DESIGN AND COMPLETION
The pump;
The head works (apron) protects the opening at
the surface from contaminants or particles
entering the well;
The sanitary seal is an impervious layer,
preferably made out of concrete, preventing
contamination of the well by holding back
seepage through thegravel pack along the
borehole;
The well casing prevents the well from collapse
and seepage of contaminants. Traditionally, steel
pipes were used for lining but PVC pipe recently
have replaced their use, as they are less
expensive and easier to handle;
The well screen holds back sediments while
allowing water to infiltrate the well.
Thescreen slots need to be smaller than the grain
size of the surrounding soil. PVC pipes can easily
be slit with special slitting saws to create
thousands of fine cuts;
The gravel pack, composed of graded gravel and
sand, fills up the space between thescreen and the
borehole. It is only required if the surrounding soil
has a grain size smaller than the slot size of
the screen (WATERAID 2008; BALL 2001; WAL
2010).
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69. All drilling methods alter the hydraulic characteristics
of formation materials in the vicinity of the borehole.
Development procedures are designed to restore or improve these
characteristics to maximise the performance (SMET & WIJK 2002).
This is achieved by removing the fines and by consolidation of the gravel
pack (WAL 2010).
Over-pumping (that is, pumping at above the design-rate) can improve
the efficiency of the packing by drawing further fine particles into it.
Where the surrounding ground has many fine particles, the flow of water
can be accelerated by back-flushing at a higher rate (WATERAID 2008).
Once a well has been developed and is free of any fines, the well should
be test-pumped.
Test pumping gives useful information about the performance of the well
and indicates whether the well yield will be sufficient for its intended
purpose (WAL 2010).
It also indicates the maximum yield that can be drawn without risking
overexploitation of the well. After having tested the water quality (see
also water quality testing, the well can be set into operation.
2.2.4. WELL DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING
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70. 1. compressed air adapter 10. behind cylinder room 18. canal
2. free room inside the cylinder
head
11. cover 19. cylinder
3. valve chatter 12. cover room 20. piston shaft
4,5
.
canal 13. canal 21. twist nut
6. front cylinder room 14. exhaust arris 22. leader nut
7. percussion piston 15. front piston arris 23. drill sleeve
8. behind piston arris 16. arris at the piston shaft 24. shank
9. exhaust arris 17. wearing box 25. drill sleeve
26. ratchet wheel
Cross-section of a jack-hammer. Source: Reuther.
2.3. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL
DEEPENING – Rock Blasting Unit use
Deepening of open wells consists of blasting the bottom to rocky sub-stratum
by dynamite, in stages, up to the desired depths. The jack hammer is used.
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71. Quality control of drilling bit sharpening, a) wearing control, b) control of wedge angle,
c) control of open angle curve. Source: Roschlau.
INTEGRAL DRILL STEELS
2.3. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL
DEEPENING – Rock Blasting Unit use –bits, rods
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72. By using extension drill steel equipments and compressed air, 36-48mm
diameter and 15-30 m long holes are drilled to tap water in rocks of the
open well in this extension hole drilling method.
As drilling proceeds the extension rods are connected by means of
coupling sleeves.
An auto-feed or pusher leg is used for horizontal bore drilling.
73. 2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL –
SIDE AND VERTICAL BORING- LONG HOLE EQUIPMENTS
By using extension drill steel equipments and compressed air, 36-48mm
diameter and 15-30 m long holes are drilled to tap water in rocks of the
open well in this extension hole drilling method.
As drilling proceeds the extension rods are connected by means of
coupling sleeves.
An auto-feed or pusher leg is used for horizontal bore drilling.
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74. Design of a jack-hammer with stand, a) for thrust, b) stop-hammer. Source: Armstrong.
2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL –
SIDE AND VERTICAL BORING- LONG HOLE EQUIPMENTS
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75. Composition of a complete drilling system for pneumatic drilling with stand.
Source: Atlas Copco Company Information.
2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL –
SIDE AND VERTICAL BORING- LONG HOLE EQUIPMENTS
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76. BITS FOR DOWN THE HOLE HAMMERS
SHANK ADAPTERS
2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL –
VERTICAL BORING- IN WELL DRILL- BITS, ADAPTERS
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77. 2.5. REFERENCES
Agricultural Engineering Department, Tamil Nadu.
Description of Drilling Methods by: S. Fortin, and D. Duncan
Water Manual for Refugee Situations (UNHCR, 1992, 160 p.)
Drilled Wells compiled by Marco Bruni (seecon international gmbh),
Dorothee Spuhler (seecon international gmbh)
CHANG Ping, THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING IN
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Overview Report
Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity (Solid Earth Geophysics
Encyclopedia) Submitted by landviser
Geo-technique SI book chapter 5, Subsurface exploration: boring,
drilling, probing and trial pitting
SATYANARAYANA I , Basics of drilling 1 ppt
Anil Kilania
Official U.S. Government information about the Global Positioning System
(GPS)
Rodichev and G. Rodicheva, Tractor and Automobiles.
Course Lecturer: Engr. Dada P.O.O. Department of Agricultural Engineering
Google webs and images
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