BU Logistics Functions During a Disaster Reflection.docx
1. BU Logistics Functions During a Disaster Reflection
CHAPTER 41 Operations and Logistics James J. Rifino Disaster management is most effective
when responding agencies are well trained, well practiced, and familiar with the hierarchy
needed for disaster response. Before a major incident, responding organizations and
personnel must be organized under a defined leadership structure to effectively coordinate
and carry out the tasks needed to properly mitigate the event. One of the hallmarks of a
developed country from the emergency response perspective is its ability to effectively
respond to and manage a complex disaster event in an organized fashion.1,2 By definition,
the Incident Command System (ICS) is a management system designed to enable effective
and efficient domestic incident management by integrating a combination of facilities,
equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within a common
organizational structure. ICS is normally structured to facilitate activities in five major
functional areas: Command (directed by the Incident Commander [IC]), Planning (collects
and disseminates information about the incident and advises about resources), Finance and
Administrative (critical for tracking incident costs and reimbursement accounting),
Operations, and Logistics. These functions task individuals with different responsibilities
crucial for disaster response and recovery. They can also be applied routinely for local and
regional incidents, not just disasters. The Operations section is responsible for carrying out
the response activities described in the Incident Action Plan (IAP). This includes directing
and coordinating all operations, assisting in the development of response goals and
objectives, requesting and releasing resources, and providing situation and resource status
updates. The Logistics section is responsible for services and support necessary to sustain
the tactical objectives of the Operations section. This includes facilities, services, materials,
and personnel to operate the requested equipment for the incident. This function is most
significant with respect to longterm or extended operations when more resources are
required. Operations and Logistics are two completely separate functions and functional
entities, but an efficient and effective Operations section at a major incident is partly
dependent on a well-organized and properly functioning Logistics section. HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE History has documented disasters on many levels all around the world. Some
of the larger disasters were the result of infection (North American Smallpox Epidemic of
1775, Black Death of 1348 to 1351, Spanish Influenza in 1918) as well as natural disasters
(Great Earthquake of 1202, Aleppo Earthquake of 1138, volcanic eruptions in Greece and
the Pacific). These horrific events killed millions around the world. Documentation of
“disaster preparation” and “disaster response” internationally was very poor, essentially
3. additional assistance not available at the time of the call (e.g., calling for a ladder truck from
a neighboring town for a fire in a tall building). If regional resources do not satisfy the needs
of a disaster response, the traditional next step has been to request aid from the state
emergency management agency. Governors can declare a state of emergency, thereby
allowing for access to necessary materials, equipment, and financial resources. The state
governor may also activate the National Guard. In the last 10 to 15 years, many states have
developed specialty response teams capable of mobilizing in response to a disaster. These
include urban search and rescue (US&R) teams, hazardous materials (HazMat) teams,
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) task forces, emergency medical service(s) (EMS) and
ambulance strike teams, and similar entities. In 1996, Congress enacted the Emergency
Management Assistance Compact, a mutual aid agreement that allows human and material
resources to cross state lines and operate in a declared disaster situation in a “state-to-
state” assistance operation when requested through the proper channels and approved by
the governor of the affected state. Because disaster preparedness and response evolved out
of the military in the United States, many of the Logistics and Operations processes today
have roots in military practice. Throughout Europe, the European Commission coordinates
emergency relief and assistance in the wake of all disasters. Floods and fires are quite
common in the summer months, although all disasters are monitored for and an
appropriate response is expected. The Monitoring and Information Centre (MIC) within the
European Commission is a centrally based center in Brussels that monitors emergencies
worldwide and coordinates European resources for relief operations. The MIC acts as a
communication hub between countries after a disaster occurs, whether natural or human-
made. Upon receiving a request for help, duty officers alert potential donor nations and
match offers of aid to the needs on the ground. In addition to rounding up equipment and
supplies, the MIC dispatches field experts to disaster sites.7 Asian Disaster Preparedness
Center (ADPC) is an organization that helps to reduce the impact of disasters on
communities and countries in Asia and the Pacific, the most hazard-prone region in the
world. Established in 1986, ADPC is an independent nongovernmental organization (NGO)
that promotes disaster awareness and the development of mitigation and management
policies in advance of a disaster. With headquarters located in Bangkok, ADPC also has
country offices in Bangladesh, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), and
Myanmar. ADPC raises awareness, helps establish and strengthen sustainable institutional
mechanisms, enhances knowledge and skills, and facilitates the exchange of information,
experience, and expertise. The organization also deploys disaster risk management (DRM)
information and systems to reduce local, national, and regional risk across this large
region.8 Australia has a system very similar to the United States. The states and territories
have primary responsibility for life and property within their borders, and they must rely
on their own plans and arrangements to respond to natural or human-made emergencies
that threaten life or property. When a jurisdiction deems that their resources will not be
able to effectively manage an incident it can ask for help from the Australian Government.
This request is delivered through the Australian Government Disaster Response Plan
(COMDISPLAN). Emergency Management Australia (EMA) receives the request for
assistance and responds through the Australian Government Crisis Coordination Centre
5. and hazards—regardless of cause, size, location, or complexity.”9 It provides a common
approach for managing all incidents consistently while allowing for flexibility. It is strongly
encouraged and recommended that all agencies practice the basics on a daily basis with
small incidents, so that a response to a larger incident is more seamless and practiced when
it occurs. The Operations Section Chief is the individual designated by the IC to manage and
command the Operations section. He is ultimately responsible for developing and
implementing strategies and tactics to meet the incident objectives set by the IC and the
IAP. This plan details the objectives of the mission and how they will be met. An IAP should
be written for every operational period during the disaster. Tactical decision making (i.e.,
how, when, and where to deploy certain resources to mitigate a disaster) is also the
responsibility of the Operations Section Chief. The ability to make these decisions in a
competent fashion, however, is predicated on a continual flow of information both from the
field and from the command sector. If an incident spans more than one operational period
(usually one work cycle), the operations chief may assign a deputy to work the opposite
shift to ensure adequate time for nourishment and rest. An Operations Section Chief should
be designated for each operational period. There are several goals that the Operations Chief
must accomplish during the initial stages of the response to a disaster. In addition to
managing all incident tactical activities and implementing an IAP, the Operations Chief must
decide how much to expand his or her organizational structure to match the size and scope
of the incident, and the numbers of personnel needed for assigned operations (span of
control). Supervisory personnel should be titled and placed in charge of subsidiaries within
the operations section by who is most qualified to perform the task rather than on a
person’s rank or predisaster title. Span of control within the Operations Section is
recommended to be 1:5, but may be as high as 1:10 in larger scale incidents. If this is
exceeded, branches need to be established with the same concept. The Operations Chief
must decide, in conjunction with the IC and Safety Officer, what degree of risk he or she is
willing to assume when sending emergency responders into an unstable environment to
perform search, rescue, evacuation, medical care, and mitigation activities related to the
disaster event. The Operations Chief must maintain an effective line of communication with
the various components within the section as well as with the other ICS sections and the IC.
Finally, the Operations Chief must understand the concept of flexibility when making
decisions. Disaster events may appear static to the civilian population, but emergency
responders understand that these events are dynamic in nature. Changing environmental
conditions, secondary hazards, fatigue, resource availability, psychological stressors, and
many other factors contribute to ever-changing disaster conditions, and these conditions
require adaptability and flexibility in decision-making. Thankfully, there is usually no
reason to expand the operations section of the ICS for the great majority of local incidents.
An event that the DHS labels an “incident of national significance,” however, may
necessitate creation of divisions, groups, branches, task forces, and strike teams. These
entities represent functional and geographic separation of duties. A good example of this
was demonstrated after the 9/11 disaster. The fire department of the City of New York
(FDNY) retained command and control of the entire incident and eventually developed a
271 “unified command structure” according to principles of the ICS. The terrorist attack
6. claimed many lives and resulted in a disaster site that spanned 16 acres. This required a
large-scale expansion of the Operations section. Divisions were created according to street
names that bordered the scene. Groups included functional components such as technical
rescue, fire suppression, and EMS. Branches of each group were composed of personnel
attached to a specific type of resource, such as the US&R branch. Within the US&R were
individual US&R task forces. EMS strike teams from FDNY and surrounding mutual aid
organizations were deployed in support of US&R task forces and other specialized
resources. Health and medical resources to support rescue and recovery workers on site
were provided by the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) under FEMA’s Emergency
Support Function (ESF) #8, using disaster medical assistance teams (DMATs). A variety of
federal resources are available to assist local ICs in planning for and handling large-scale
disasters and their aftermath. Recognizing that government resources cannot meet the
needs of those affected by catastrophic events, the National Response Framework (NRF)
was developed to prepare communities. Updated in 2013, it provides context for how the
entire community works together as well as the response efforts related to other parts of
national preparedness. The NRF uses the comprehensive framework of NIMS and provides
mechanisms for expedited and proactive federal support. It is a more operational incident
management and resource allocation plan. The NRF aligns federal coordination structures,
capabilities, and resources into a unified, all-discipline and all-hazards approach to
domestic incident management. The priorities of the NRF include saving lives and
protecting the health and safety of all at the incident, ensuring security of the homeland,
prevention of imminent incidents, protecting and restoring critical infrastructure, and
facilitating the recovery of individuals as well as families, businesses, governments, and the
environment. Regarding federal assets and personnel, there are multiple emergency
response resources deployable through the DHS. US&R task forces specialize in the
response to collapse of reinforced concrete buildings, and other infrastructure and their
primary mission is to rescue persons trapped in confined spaces regardless of the etiology
of the event. They are dispatched under ESF #9 (Search and Rescue). (As noted above,
health and medical operations are deployed under ESF #8.) The NDMS is now located in the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, under the purview of the Assistant
Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR) and the Office of Emergency Management
(OEM). DMATs are multidisciplinary teams of health care professionals that can provide
medical care for prolonged periods in a variety of formats, when local infrastructure is
incapacitated. Disaster mortuary operations response teams (DMORTs) can assist or
augment local medical examiners in victim identification and mortuary services, while
national veterinary response teams (NVRTs) can provide assistance when animal issues
arise.10 Logistics The Logistics section supports Command and Operations. This section
performs technical activities to maintain the function of operational facilities and processes.
Typical logistics functions during a disaster revolve around providing all the support needs
for the incident, including finding and ordering supplies and other resources; searching out
and setting up facilities (dining hall, incident command, etc.); arranging transportation for
personnel and supplies; equipment maintenance; maintaining fuel, medical, and
pharmaceutical supplies; food services; communications equipment or hardware and
8. assistance capabilities at incident locations. The Food unit is responsible for planning
menus, ordering food, providing cooking facilities, maintaining food service areas, and
managing food security and safety. This unit is especially important for extended incidents.
This unit is often assisted by NGOs such as the Red Cross, who may provide personnel or
other assistance. If this is the case, the Operations Section Chief and IC need to be involved
to ensure operational continuity. The Supply unit orders, receives, processes, stores,
inventories, and distributes all supplies. It also handles all tool operations and is
responsible for projecting resource needs based on the IAP. The Facilities unit sets up,
maintains, and demobilizes facilities including the Incident Command Post, Incident Base,
camps, food and hydration areas, sleeping quarters, sanitation areas and showers, lighting,
and staging areas. It is also responsible for ordering lighting units, fire extinguishers for
tents, and portable toilets. The Ground Support unit maintains vehicles, all ground support
equipment, fuel supplies for the mobile equipment, provides transportation supporting the
operation, and develops the Traffic Plan. There are numerous examples of large, devastating
disasters that resulted in high mortality around the world. Many of the issues with regards
to rescue and medical assistance were a result of a severe deficiency with respect to
Logistics. The United Nations called the 2004 Indian Ocean 9.0-magnitude earthquake and
resulting tsunami a “logistics nightmare.” The tsunami killed more than 230,000 people, left
1.7 million people homeless, and traveled 375 miles in just 75 minutes. The response to the
tsunami disaster was quite complicated, but was also significant. NGOs and governments
from all over the world sent supplies to the area. Early in the response, flights to an airport
in Indonesia were suspended because there were too many airplanes already on the
ground, unable to unload their cargo because of lack of space at the airport. Ground
transportation was ineffective and in short supply, and washouts of the roadways made
delivery of the supplies difficult.11 Ironically, the biggest ongoing logistical challenge in the
response to the Southeast Asia tsunami was how to distribute the abundance of supplies
and funding. Similar issues with logistics were seen in Haiti in 2010 after a 7.0-magnitude
earthquake resulted in the deaths of 230,000 people and essentially displaced 2.3 million
people. The infrastructure there could not handle the international response, and many
issues persisted for years. In the United States, Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast in
2005, causing levee breaks that devastated New Orleans. It had quickly strengthened from a
category 1 hurricane to a category 5 hurricane after it crossed Florida, and struck as a
category 4 hurricane. A White House document from the office of President George W. Bush
called The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina: Lessons Learned noted the following:
“The Department of Homeland Security, in coordination with State and local governments
and the private sector, should develop a modern, flexible, and transparent logistics system.
This system should be based on established contracts for stockpiling commodities at the
local level for emergencies and the provision of goods and services during emergencies. The
Federal government must develop the capacity to conduct large-scale logistical operations
that supplement and, if necessary, replace State and local logistical systems by leveraging
resources within both the public sector and the private sector.”12 Downloaded for FAYEZ
ALRUQI (feozy93@gmail.com) at Philadelphia University from ClinicalKey.com by Elsevier
on October 30, 2019. For personal use only. No other uses without permission. Copyright