GUIDE: Review section 5.4 in your text, “Improved Teacher Training and Professionalism.” Your text shares a multitude of examples that demonstrate an increase of quality in teacher training. Describe at least three factors (e.g., normal schools broadened their curricula to the training of secondary school teachers, requirement of the completion of high school to be admitted to college for teacher training, teachers must have a bachelor’s degree, development and growth of teacher training courses, Herbartianism, teacher certification, and teacher organizations) that contribute to improved teacher training in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Select one contribution and determine if it is still prevalent today. Explain how you could improve on this contribution by using technology in your own classroom or school situation. Chapter 5.4 5.4 Improved Teacher Training and Professionalism Teacher training benefited from a strengthening of the curriculum and standards at the normal schools. Additionally, at the same time that the number of colleges and universities was increasing, and the role of the university evolving, many universities also established departments of pedagogy or teacher education. The entry of the universities into teacher training brought a movement to develop a science of education and a scientific approach to the learning process. The work of Johann Herbart was a major contribution to this movement. Strengthening of the Normal School Curriculum and Standards Between the end of the Civil War and 1900, the number of normal schools exploded from 50 to nearly 350. Unfortunately, in many of these institutions the academic background of both the faculty and students precluded them from teaching or studying at a collegiate level: High school completion was seldom required for admission, and the majority of instructors did not hold a college degree themselves (Diener, 2008). The majority of these institutions focused on the technical training of teachers rather than providing a broad liberal education. However, as the new century advanced, improvements in the quality of faculties, students, and facilities were matched by an expansion of the curriculum. A burgeoning population had created an increased demand for elementary and common school teachers, while the secondary school movement created a concomitant demand for secondary teachers. Normal schools began to broaden their curricula to include the training of secondary school teachers, and they began to require high school completion for admission and college degrees for faculty. During the second and third decades of the 20th century, normal schools, responding in part to competition from colleges and universities entering teacher training (described in the next section), expanded their programs from 2, to 3, and eventually to 4 years. By this time many of them were beginning to call themselves state teachers' colleges and offering B.A. degrees. The passage of teacher cert ...

1. GUIDE: Review section 5.4 in your text, “Improved Teacher
Training and Professionalism.” Your text shares a multitude of
examples that demonstrate an increase of quality in teacher
training. Describe at least three factors (e.g., normal schools
broadened their curricula to the training of secondary school
teachers, requirement of the completion of high school to be
admitted to college for teacher training, teachers must have a
bachelor’s degree, development and growth of teacher training
courses, Herbartianism, teacher certification, and teacher
organizations) that contribute to improved teacher training in
the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Select one contribution
and determine if it is still prevalent today. Explain how you
could improve on this contribution by using technology in your
own classroom or school situation.
Chapter 5.4
5.4 Improved Teacher Training and Professionalism
Teacher training benefited from a strengthening of the
curriculum and standards at the normal schools. Additionally, at
the same time that the number of colleges and universities was
increasing, and the role of the university evolving, many
universities also established departments of pedagogy or teacher
education. The entry of the universities into teacher training
brought a movement to develop a science of education and a
scientific approach to the learning process. The work of Johann
Herbart was a major contribution to this movement.
Strengthening of the Normal School Curriculum and Standards
Between the end of the Civil War and 1900, the number of
normal schools exploded from 50 to nearly 350. Unfortunately,
in many of these institutions the academic background of both
the faculty and students precluded them from teaching or
studying at a collegiate level: High school completion was
seldom required for admission, and the majority of instructors

2. did not hold a college degree themselves (Diener, 2008). The
majority of these institutions focused on the technical training
of teachers rather than providing a broad liberal education.
However, as the new century advanced, improvements in the
quality of faculties, students, and facilities were matched by an
expansion of the curriculum. A burgeoning population had
created an increased demand for elementary and common school
teachers, while the secondary school movement created a
concomitant demand for secondary teachers. Normal schools
began to broaden their curricula to include the training of
secondary school teachers, and they began to require high
school completion for admission and college degrees for
faculty.
During the second and third decades of the 20th century, normal
schools, responding in part to competition from colleges and
universities entering teacher training (described in the next
section), expanded their programs from 2, to 3, and eventually
to 4 years. By this time many of them were beginning to call
themselves state teachers' colleges and offering B.A. degrees.
The passage of teacher certification statutes that specified the
amount and type of training required of teachers contributed to
this move, as did the requirement by accrediting agencies that
secondary school teachers have bachelor's degrees. Between
1911 and 1930, there were 88 such conversions (Tyack, 1967).
In time, with the broadening of the curriculum to embrace many
of the liberal arts, the "teacher" designation was dropped and
most became simply "state colleges." Some of these former
normal schools have become among the largest and most
respected universities in the United States.
Universities Enter Teacher Training
Paralleling the development and growth of teachers' colleges
was the establishment of departments or chairs of pedagogy in

3. colleges and universities. Teacher training at the college or
university level, typically consisting of one or two courses in
the "science and art" of teaching, had been offered at a limited
number of institutions as early as the 1830s, and the universities
had always been institutions for the education of those who
taught in the Latin grammar schools, academies, and high
schools. However, they did not prepare these students as
teachers per se, but as individuals who had advanced knowledge
of certain subject matter.
Universities did not become involved in teacher preparation to
any significant extent until after the Civil War. Their
involvement stemmed from the increased demand for secondary
school teachers, the entrance of the normal schools into the
training of secondary school teachers (to which the universities
objected), and the growing recognition that the
professionalization of teaching demanded study of its theory
and practice.
The University of Iowa established the first permanent chair of
pedagogy (education) in 1873. Other Midwestern universities
followed, and in 1892 the New York College for the Training of
Teachers became a part of Columbia University. By the turn of
the century, teacher training departments had become
commonplace in the major colleges and universities. By 1894–
1895 there were more than 200 colleges offering teacher
education courses, and 27 had organized departments or schools
of pedagogy (Lagemann, 2000).
Herbartianism
An important outgrowth of the involvement of universities in
teacher education was the movement to develop a science of
education and the scientific investigation of educational
problems. One of the earliest contributors to this movement was
the German philosopher and educator, Johann Friedrich Herbart
(1776–1841).

4. Herbart believed that the development of character was the
primary goal of education, and that this could best be achieved
by a scientific approach to the learning process that placed
greater emphasis on the development of ideas and less on
emotion and feeling.
Herbart proposed, much along the lines of current thinking in
brain research, that learning takes place through the process of
apperception, by which the child interprets new information in
light of past experiences. By this process two or more ideas
become related and will relate to future ideas or experiences.
Thus, teaching must ensure the association of ideas by making
sure the student understands how new material is related to
previous material. Because instruction is most successful if it
stimulates interest, the curriculum should be directed at
arousing student enthusiasm. Such an approach, with its
emphasis on the relationship of concepts and information, was
designed to break down the isolation of disciplines found in the
traditional curriculum.
Herbart maintained that any suitable material could be learned
if presented systematically and in successive steps. The five
steps in the Herbartian methodology are as follows:
Preparation—preparing the student to receive the new material
by arousing interest or recalling relevant past material or
experiences.
Presentation—presenting the new material.
Association—relating or combining old and new ideas.
Generalization—formulating general ideas or principles based
on both old and new material and experiences.
Application—applying the ideas or principles to new situations.
Although Herbartianism was short-lived, its ideas and pedagogy
had a profound influence on teaching methods and the

5. curriculum, particularly at the elementary level, long after the
movement itself faded (Kliebard, 2004). Herbart demonstrated
not only the significance of methodology in instruction, but
also, equally important, that education could become a science.
The National Herbartian Society was founded in 1892 and 8
years later became the National Society of the Scientific Study
of Education. Most books on teaching methods published
between 1895 and World War I were pervaded by Herbartian
ideas, and as late as the 1950s the Herbartian steps could be
found in teacher education tests (Connell, 1980).
The Herbartians provided a well-articulated and methodical
approach to education at a time when teachers and teacher
education were seeking just such a systematic and
comprehensive view (Connell, 1980). Before the end of the 19th
century, teachers across the country began organizing lessons
around the five steps. Although many of them may have done so
rather mechanically, the process did force attention to
methodology.
Teacher Certification
The growing public school system demanded not just more
teachers but more qualified teachers trained in the most recent
educational pedagogy and psychology. The traditional method
of assessing teacher quality had been certification following a
written examination and often an oral examination by a lay
committee. However, the ability and objectivity of these panels
was always suspect. In a Baptist area Congregationalist teachers
might not be hired, and vice versa. In the South, prospective
teachers might be hired only if they said that states' rights had
caused the Civil War, and in the North only if they blamed
slavery (Tyack, 1967). The written exams in most states,
although free of bias, tested only what might be expected of a
common school graduate and contained no questions on
pedagogy.

6. This began to change by the mid-19th century, as state
departments of education became involved in teacher
certification. In 1843 New York authorized the state
superintendent to set examinations and issue certificates that
would be valid statewide. Indiana followed in 1852,
Pennsylvania in 1854, and by the end of the century the
superintendents of most other states were given the same
authority (Angus, 2001). By 1921, 26 states issued all
certificates, 7 states developed the regulations and examinations
but the county issued the certificate, and 12 states developed
regulations and questions but the county administered the
examination and issued the certificate (Butts & Cremin, 1953).
At the same time that certification was being centralized at the
state level, certification requirements were being upgraded. In
1900 no state required high school graduation for certification.
In the first decade of the 20th century, this changed as a few
states began to require high school graduation for an elementary
school teaching certificate and in others the number of years of
secondary school completion required for certification was
increased to 2, 3, or 4.
By 1921, 4 states required high school graduation plus some
professional training of their teachers, and 14 states required
high school graduation but no professional training. Thirty
states did not yet specify any academic requirement for
certification (Butts & Cremin, 1953). Nonetheless, the trend
toward increasing certification requirements had clearly begun.
In the years to come, certification requirements would
increasingly define who was qualified to teach and what
knowledge teachers should possess.
Recommended Resource: The Career and Contributions of
Johann Herbert
PLEASE LIST TWO MORE APA FORMAT CITES (HERE IS
ONE FOR YOU, JUST NEED TWO MORE)

7. · Webb. L. D. (2014). History of American education: Voices
and perspectives. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
· Chapter 5.4: Improved Teacher Training and Professionalism