Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreat.docx

Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and
recreation (2nd Edition)
David Malloy, Saul Ross, Dwight Zakus
2003, Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Canada
(slightly abridged)
"That’s cheating!" "No, it's not!"
"That’s wrong!" "No, it's perfectly alright!"
"That's bad!" "No, it isn't!"
"That's improper behavior!" "No, it's not!"
"That's a violation of policy!" "No, it isn't!"
"That may not be an actual violation, "If it's not a
violation
but it certainly goes against the of the rules, then
spirit of the rules." it is perfectly acceptable."
Comments such as these all reflect a concern for ethics and
ethical behavior. Each comment is an expression of a moral
judgment about some behavior exhibited. Each comment uttered
is the result of an evaluation or assessment made of the
behavior in relation to an explicit or implicit standard.
These comments are usually uttered based on observations
of the behavior exhibited. The assessments originate from the
observer's own set of beliefs about what is right or wrong, what
is good or bad, or what is permissible or unacceptable.
A critical question emerges from the preceding comments:
From where docs the standard come that the person uses to
assess behavior and then render judgment? The beginning of
an answer to the possible bases for ethical standards will be
presented later in this chapter and a more elaborate treatment
is reserved for the fourth chapter, "Sources of Ethical
Decision··Making."
From this brief digression we return to an examination of the

ways we make moral judgments. Frequently there is no
critical examination nor probing of the set of beliefs, the
actual basis for rendering moral judgment, used by the
person making such comments. In part this is due to the
paucity of attention paid to the study of ethics, generally, and
to sport ethics, particularly, at all levels of schooling. While
each individual has a personal sense of morality, without the
serious, disciplined study of ethics it is not surprising to
discover that most people are unaware of the bases for
moral judgment. This text aims to consider- ably reduce this
lack of knowledge through the information provided below.
ln ordinary, everyday circumstances, human behavior is not
pre-analyzed for us. There are, however, some instances when
this does occur. For example, there arc times when
teachers, parents, administrators, religious officials, writers
of articles for newspapers and magazines, or authors of books
discuss certain events. Then, through their analyses, they
point out the good and the bad, the right and the wrong.
These instances are few compared to the many times when we
have to analyze the situation by ourselves. Consequently, there
is an obvious need to comprehend the realm of ethics and to
learn how to conduct moral reasoning.
Divergent Assessment of Behavior
A list of contradictory statements appears at the start of this
chapter. These comments result from observations of blatant
acts. If both observers (in each set of statements) saw the same
action, yet came to hold different opinions, there is a need
to (1) explore how two observ-ers could possibly hold such
divergent views, and (2) devise a method that should enable
them, and us, to decide which is a justified view. We shortly
will undertake these tasks. To help us deal with these challenges
we need to turn our attention first. to some preliminary matters:
(1) the definition and elaboration of terns such as ethics,
morals, values, and norms, and (2) briefly deal with some
historical aspects of ethics (additional information on this
topic is presented in Chapter 4.). These discussions will

provide the basis for the development of the first model for
rendering moral judgments. A second, more elaborate and
complex model will be presented in the third chapter, "Factors
Influencing Decision Making."
Axiological Framework
In one sense it seems almost redundant to provide
definitions for such common terms as ethics, morals,
values, and norms since these words are often used in
everyday speech. Ironically, it is because of the widespread
use (and misuse at times) of these words that they have
taken on many meanings, thus indicating a need for the
provision of definitions to standardize our understanding.
Definitions are provided, along with pertinent elaborations,
to clarify current usage and to provide additional insights
into the axiological framework. Understandings derived from
the definitions will facilitate the reading of the text.
Ethics is a sub-discipline of philosophy. Ethics, as the word is
commonly used, is concerned with issues of right and wrong in
human conduct. It is concerned with what is good and what is
bad; what is authentic and is not authentic. Ethics is also
concerned with the notions of duty, obligation, and moral
responsibility. As such, ethics are manifested in behavior
and assessed through the application of ethical inquiry
and critical moral reasoning.
An understanding of what is, and what ought to be, is basic to
assessing behavior in terms of right/wrong, good/bad, or
authentic/inauthentic. To assess behavior, what is ethical, as
a basis for rendering moral judgment, we need to know
what is right, what is good, and what is authentic. Although
the three terms, right, good, and authentic, refer to ethical
standards, there are differences among them. Generally, we
employ the terms right and wrong in situations where
rules and laws are applicable; we use the terms good and bad
when we focus our attention on the consequences of the
act; and we apply the terms authentic and inauthentic to
situations where the person examines his or her own behavior

critically. The section entitled "Three Ethical Bases" below
contains additional information regarding these differences.
Ethics, as the study of morals, refers to that specific branch of
philosophy that critically examines, clarifies, and reframes
the basic concepts and presuppositions of ethical theories and of
n1on:tlity generally. The contemporary organization of this
branch of philosophy is comprised, roughly, into two
categories, meta-ethics and applied ethics.
Meta-ethics is more theoretical in nature as it trains its
sights on the logic, coherence, and presuppositions found in
each ethical theory. In contrast, as the term suggests,
applied ethics is much more concerned with examining
behavior in terms of right and wrong, good or bad,
authentic and inauthentic.
Both meta-ethics and applied ethics interrelate at the level of
theory and practice. We must ground ethical theory in actual
human existence, f(n· if that were not so, it would be difficult
to imagine its applicability. And, as we base moral judgment
on some standard or ethical maxim, we must invoke some
ethical theory. Ethical theory unavoidably forms the basis of
moral judgment.
Morals, generally, is the term more often used when
referring to actions, behavior, and the principles that
guide them. Technically speaking, morality is a central
concept of ethics but it is not the whole of ethics. Morality
often refers to certain principles that seem to make absolute
and universal claims (e.g., thou shalt not kill).
In contemporary times, moral is the term applied to an
individual's actions. Through moral categories we can judge if
that particular behavior was right or wrong, good or bad,
virtuous or evil.
Three Ethical Bases
Throughout history, serious thinkers have explored and
proposed a wide range of sources as the base for ethics.
These bases are often called ethical theories. Some
approaches have persisted over time as generally accepted

bases for ethics. Three are of particular interest. A brief
introductory comment is presented here to serve as the basis for
a more extensive discussion in the next chapter.
Deontology (Categorical) is a rule-based approach, focusing on
obligation and duty, similar to the orientation found in the
Bible. Since attention is directed to the act itself, this approach
is non-consequentialist or categorical.
Teleology (Consequential) is an approach that focuses on
the consequences of the action, one that conceives of ethics
as concerned with measuring the amount of goodness, or
badness, arising from behavior. Attention is directed towards
assessing the consequences of a particular action rather than
examining the act itself.
In contemporary times, under the influence of post-World War
II European thought, generally called existentialism, attention
was directed squarely on the individual. Concepts such as
authenticity, which refers to how true the person is to himself
or herself) integrity, and genuineness are factors that must be
considered in judging each individual act at that particular
time within the context of the unique circumstances prevailing.
Each of the three bases or approaches listed above identifies a
source from which we derive ethical maxims. Problems can,
and usually will, arise during moral discourse if there is no
explicit agreement reached regarding which ethical maxim will
serve as the measuring rod. Using different ethical bases can
lead to divergent judgments.
An example will serve to illustrate the case. A hockey
player on Team A is about to skate free on a breakaway with
the likelihood of scoring a goal. A defender on Team B
deliberately trips the opposing player to prevent the goal
and the television announcer, in reporting the play, adds
that it was a good foul. Phrased in this manner, the
announcer is praising a violation of the rules. If a rule-based
orientation is the source of the ethical maxim, then clearly
the defender deliberately violated a rule and, therefore, it is
judged as wrong or bad. However, if one takes a

consequentialist approach, one can argue that the defender,
by tripping the opponent, ensured a win for Team B. This,
thereby, produces more good/happiness for the defending
team than bad/ sadness for the opposing team. Since the
good/happiness for one team outweighs the bad/sadness of the
other team, the deliberate rule violation was, in reality, a
good foul. From an existential perspective, the player
committing the foul would need to examine his or her
conscience to decide whether a deliberate violation of
the rules is an instance of authentic behavior.
Ethical Bases and Values Clarification
Three different and distinct sources have been briefly
sketched; ethical maxims can be derived from each of these
three sources. As illustrated in the case just described, the
behavior under scrutiny can be assessed from all three
ethical bases and, on occasion, somewhat surprisingly, contrary
ethical judgments can be rendered. This creates a new
problem that needs addressing. Which of the three moral
judgments do we accept and which do we reject?
Confronting this problem requires, among other things, the
clarification of your own values. Do you regard adhering to
higher principles and obeying the rules as more important
or valuable than evaluating the goodness (or badness)
resulting from an action'!) Or do you sub- scribe to the
view that the end justifies the means, particularly in situations
where the end creates more goodness than badness'? If this is
your belief, are you prepared to break rules in cases where, on
balance, you predict more goodness than badness will result
from your actions!) How important is it for you to be authentic,
to behave in a way that is consistent with what you truly
believe in?
When faced with a choice, which do you value more highly:
Obeying the rules under any circumstances? Or making
certain that the result of your actions produces more
goodness than badness, no matter the behavior used to attain
that goal? Or is it maintaining authenticity, that is, being true

to yourself at all times without regard for adherence to the
rules and possible outcomes regarding goodness and badness?
As you rank these options in order of your personal
preference you are engaging in a values clarification
exercise through which you will (1) learn more about
yourself and (2) obtain some insights into which ethical base
(theory), categorical (rules, non-consequentialism),
consequential (outcome, consequentialism), or existentialism
(authenticity), is more likely to influence your thinking and
moral reasoning.
Why Be Ethical?
There is an ethical dimension embedded in all of our behavior.
This observation applies equally to individuals and to
organizations, as people comprise these groups and make
decisions that lead to action. Ethics permeates all of our
behavior, encompassing our interactions with other human
beings, with animals, and with the environment. Viewed in
this light, we suggest that ethical considerations are more than
vague theoretical abstractions, since they apply to every move
we make. Usually the moral component remains unnoticed
because we generally treat each other ethically. When
behavior departs from the norm, we quickly become aware
of the ethical aspect.
Since there is an ethical dimension to all of our behavior, it
behooves us to consider carefully how we ought to behave.
Why should administrators, leaders, teachers, coaches,
players, students, participants, and professionals in all fields
behave morally?
Rendering Moral Judgment
Differences of opinion over moral issues have probably
existed since the beginning of Time, since our forebears
began interacting with each other. A review of contemporary
writings reveals disagreement and controversy between
philosophers, professional practitioners, theologians, and
throughout the public. We cannot expect to find unanimity in
ethics and in moral judgments except on rare occasions.

When we find agreement, it occurs mostly when the
exhibited behavior is at either one of the extreme ends of
the moral spectrum. Behavior that contains minimal ethical
content is rarely subject to scrutiny or cause for dispute.
Since we readily reach agreement in such cases without
serious discussion we learn very little. Similarly, blatant,
flagrant, obvious immoral acts provoke little, if any, moral
disagreement. In such cases discussion tends to focus on the
motivation that prompted the act or on the sanctions likely lo
be applied.
Between these two extremes are countless acts that invite
moral judgment. Ethical dilemmas emerge daily in every
facet of professional practice, incidents and events that
demand our scrutiny. When we begin discussing those
incidents and behavior we are engaged in doing ethics. Doing
ethics involves judging human beings in terms of ends or
goals attained and the means used t:o achieve them.
Included in this approach is an examination of the
relationship between the means and the ends. Doing ethics
involves using data and it also requires techniques of
describing, assessing, judging, and making decisions.
Examining data critically to render moral judgment is part of a
process called moral reasoning Moral reasoning is a
systematic approach that enables us to probe deeply in order to
see things with greater clarity. It frees us from dogmatic,
preconceived, and prejudiced thinking. Freedom from these
intellectual restrictions creates cognitive independence. Issues
and statements are analyzed critically using rational thought
in place of emotional appeal. An integral part of moral
reasoning is the requirement to provide reasons to support the
position taken or the rendered moral judgment.
Providing reasons places the discussion above the level of
mere opinion. If the discussion remains at: the level of mere
opinion, we make little, if any, advancement or progress. All
opinions are of equal value. We are each entitled to our
opinion. Stating, and restating, opinion gains us very little,

although this is often the case in moral discussion. When we
offer reasons in support of the view expressed, the impasse is
often broken. Once we offer reasons, we can evaluate them in
terms of their pertinence, cogency, and force. By comparing
the total strength of the reasons provided in support of one
view to the total force of a contrary view, we can
determine which is the more logical and/or stronger case.
Through critical examination of the reasons given, faulty
logic, inconsistent thinking or inapplicable rationales can be
detected. Disciplined, impartial, logical thinking is required
to criticize the reasons given and to ferret out
discrepancies. This analytical process, difficult and arduous at
times, leads to greater moral insights, thus placing· the
dialogue well beyond the realm of mere opinion. When moral
reasoning is used, the discussion is placed on a different
level, one well above what is found in a "bull session."
Based on rational thought and sound reasoning, the moral
judgments rendered through this process are apt to better
withstand criticism.
Moral reasoning is not conducted as an exercise in abstract
thought. As applied ethics, moral reasoning aims to identify and
delineate right conduct and correct behavior. As cases in
Chapters 8 and 9 are explored and analyzed, we become
aware of the moral options available to us as well as the wide
range of ethical dilemmas that are encountered as real-life
issues. Caution must be used before declaring an action
absolutely right or absolutely wrong, absolutely good or
absolutely bad. There are shades of grey when judging human
conduct.
Moral reasoning is a skill that needs to be acquired. Like all
other skills, practice, often guided by a more
knowledgeable person, is required in order to improve one's
ability. Ample opportunity to practice moral reasoning skills
is provided in Chapters 8 and 9, where a wide array of
case studies are found. As you tackle each one you will be
engaged in moral discourse.

Agent Accountability
A person is accountable for his or her actions. Technically, we
identify that person as an agent. To understand what it means
t:o be accountable requires an understanding of what it
means to be an agent. An agent has free will and the power
to act. Having free will and the power t:o act allows the
agent to choose, from among options, which action to do. By
choosing to act in a certain way, an agent accepts
responsibility for that action and its consequences. An agent
is accountable for actions done intentionally; here we link
accountability to intention, which is an integral part of action.
Involuntary actions and accidental actions are generally
placed in another moral category. Both motivation and
intention are not always obvious. Difficulties may be
encountered in determining the status of motivation and
intention in the act.
Five Steps for Rendering Ethical Judgment-Model I
Step One: Obtain and clarify all the pertinent facts of the case
or incident
To ensure that everyone involved in the discussion is operating
from the same base, it is important that all the facts be
presented. Everyone needs to know exactly what occurred. We
must consider the incident, not only in its proper chronological
order, but also in terms of who was present and their roles,
responsibilities, and understandings (both tacit and explicit)
that prevailed then. This step is similar to evidence being
presented at a trial in court. In order for the judge and jury to
arrive at a just verdict, all the facts of the case need to be
presented. The same line of thinking applies to moral reasoning.
Step Two: Identify and enunciate the ethical maxim(s) to be
used
Omission of this step will likely add confusion as the use of
different implicit maxims will create a situation where
people talk past each other. The identification and
enunciation of an ethical maxim serves to direct the
discussion along one path of moral reasoning. Here we can

focus the debate as everyone involved understands the
yardstick being used as the measuring rod.
An ethical maxim is a general moral principle, rule, law, or
moral doctrine one adopts or formulates to serve as a
yardstick against which behavior is to be measured. It can be
understood as a moral rule of thumb and, as such, it can also
serve to guide behavior.
As explained earlier, the three ethical theories, categorical,
consequential, and existentialism, are sources from which
ethical maxims can be derived. From a categorical (non-
consequential) perspective we can ask the following questions:
Are there any specific rules which apply? Are there any
"unwritten" but generally accepted procedures which are
pertinent.? Do any of the policies of the institution cover
the issue at hand? Are there broader social standards that can
be invoked? Do any of the particular laws of the jurisdiction
apply? If there is a rule governing that behavior then that rule
serves as an ethical maxim. lf no rule is applicable the next
step may be to consult the institution's policies, and procedures.
Generally speaking, it is easier to arrive at consensus where
explicit rules or clear statements are available. A consensus is
more difficult: to obtain in the realm of "unwritten" rules and
social standards since these areas are amenable to a wider array
of interpretation. Laws, clearly, can serve as ethical maxims.
Laws, rules, policies, and procedures can also be terribly
wrong (more on this in the next chapter).
A consequential approach focuses on the end results produced.
Did that particular action generate more good than bad?
Ethical maxims, formulated within this context, will be
phrased in a way that allows for the comparison of benefits
(goods) and drawbacks (bad) resulting from the action (e.g.,
ergogenic aids in sport). Attempting such calculations is a
difficult challenge since goodness and badness are not
readily amenable to quantification. Estimates can be made
of the impact. The action is likely to have on everyone
involved in that particular event. This step assists us in

calculating the sum total of good and sum total of bad
resulting from the incident.
Consideration given to the greatest good for the greatest
number serves as a general guide in public policy but that
notion is more difficult to apply to individuals. Despite this
caveat we can often determine if an event had minimal or
major impact. In calculating the sum of goodness and the
sum of badness, consideration needs to be given both to
quantity and quality; some events have more profound
impact than others (this will be discussed further in Chapter
5).
From an existential perspective, the focus is trained on the
person as agent with freedom of choice and responsibility, that
is, authenticity. Authenticity is a characteristic based upon
the concept of congruence -- congruence within the person
(affective and cognitive domains) and congruence between
the person, the person's actions, and the world. A person
is authentic to the degree to which the person's being in the
world is fundamentally in accord with the basis of that
person's own nature and own conception of the world. An
authentic person thinks, feels, and acts in a consistent,
congruent manner.
Authenticity is a personal matter. Only the person can know
the authenticity of his or her own being. To be genuine, honest,
congruent, or "real" means to be authentic to oneself. The
person is the only one who can know what is going on inside
his or her self.
The search for an ethical maxim cannot be conducted in
isolation, separate and apart from the incident under
scrutiny. Step Two cannot be the exclusive focus of
attention; some consideration needs to be given to Step One
at the same time.
More than one ethical maxim can be found to serve as the
moral yardstick against which we can measure behavior.
Invoking more than one ethical maxim promotes a wider-
ranging moral discourse. A more comprehensive examination

of the behavior/act/incident/event is preferable to a narrower
review, since the former produces greater insights and
therefore more, rather than less, ethical knowledge.
Step Three: Time
Chronologically we can look to (1) the time before the
incident, (2) the time of the incident, and (3) the consequences
that resulted because of the incident. In the quest for a
comprehensive description of what occurred, i. is usually
advantageous to know what prompted the action under
examination. That knowledge often helps us to understand
the act itself. Knowing precisely, and in detail, what
happened when the incident occurred adds to the foundation
upon which we conduct moral reasoning. Assessing the
consequences helps us to determine the gravity or severity of
the situation. As the moral reasoning exercise evolves,
knowledge of what happened before the incident, what
indeed happened, and the consequences resulting will be
considered. All this information helps to satisfy the
requirements of Step One in the Model.
In the first period, the time before the action, two factors
may be present that demand consideration: motivation and
intention. What motivated the action? At times good motives
produce bad results and, conversely, evil motives produce
good results. Knowledge of the motivation involved, which is
not readily or easily attained, is usually a factor considered in
moral reasoning. From the individual’s own perspective
authenticity is a moral characteristic that applies at all times
(i.e., prior to, during, and following the act). Intention, the
other factor, can often be discerned from the act itself --
but that is not always the case. In the absence of a statement
from the agent, there is no alternative other than assessment of
the act to impute intention.
This schema can also serve as a very general checklist of
factors to consider in an attempt to arrive at a complete
description of what occurred.
Step Four: Identify and discuss extenuating or special

circumstances
At times special or extenuating circumstances exist that shed
light on what occurred. For example, in an 800-meter race the
runner in second place stumbles, due to a pothole in the track,
just as she is about to pass the leader. This jolt is of sufficient
force to cause the leader to lose her balance. Thrown off-
balance, the leading runner pauses to right herself and in so
doing drops back into second place. Somehow that collision
helps the stumbling runner regain her balance and
launches her into the lead that she maintains for the rest of
the race. The second place finisher lodges a protest as she felt
she deserved the gold medal. A pothole in the track, easily
discovered only after the incident, represents a special
circumstance that needs to be considered when rendering moral
judgment.
Another scenario will add to the explanation. Team Alpha
arrives at the visitors, dressing room to discover the theft of
their soccer sweaters. League rules are strict and firm,
requiring teams to dress in uniforms bearing the color and
design registered. Without proper dress the team cannot
play. In addition, another rule says that games must start
on time. The opposing team receives one goal for each five-
minute delay. With full knowledge that. a rule violation
will occur, the manager of team Alpha requests permission
to use the home team's practice jerseys. She further asks for
a 20-minute delay in the start of the game and that no penalty
be applied. Here is a special circumstance that merits
consideration in moral reasoning.
In Step Four, the facts of the case or incident are further
amplified. Circumstances are best identified as extenuating or
special after a full basic description of the case has been
provided.
Step Five: Render judgment.
This, in one sense, is the culmination of moral reasoning. We
should render judgment only after all the facts of the case have
been considered and we reach agreement on the ethical

maxim(s) applicable.
Once we know as many facts as possible, and consider the
special or extenuating circumstances, is it possible to reach a
consensus among those involved in that particular moral
reasoning exercise. Not always is it possible to decide
absolutely in terms of black or white, right or wrong, good
or bad. Ethics also comes in shades of grey, that is, qualified
judgments that find some right or good and some wrong or bad
in a particular act. Reasons given for the judgments rendered
serve as warrants to support the decision reached.
Summary
Professional practitioners and laypersons utter ethical
pronouncements on certain acts that occur within the realm
of that specific specialty and in all aspects of life. Too often
these judgments are based on inadequate knowledge of moral
reasoning and a lack of awareness of the various bases from
where ethical maxims can be derived to serve as yardsticks
against which behavior is measured. Despite the need for
professionals in all fields to be aware of the ethical dimension
of their practice, very little attention is paid to this topic in the
curriculum that comprises their respective professional
education.
MGMT675 - CTU Library Resources
The following articles are from the Business Source Premier
database in the CTU Library.
Phase 1
Boseman, G. (2008). Effective leadership in a changing world.
Journal of Financial Service
Professionals, 62(3), 36-38. Retrieved from Business Source

Premier database.
The article focuses on the theoretical concept of leadership and
the traits of a leader. Two issues
are discussed: defining the leadership role and evaluating the
two types of leaders, transactional
and transformational. Three components in leadership theory are
the leader, the follower, and the
situation or context in which they take action. Traits that
followers look for in leaders are
honesty, competency, the ability to recognize trends and
mobilize, and the skill to inspire and
empower others. The definition used by Winston Churchill to
assess effective leadership is
mentioned, as well as the "4E" framework used by Jack Welch.
Characteristics of the
transformational and transactional leader are contrasted.
Buckingham, M. (2005). Managers and leaders. Leadership
Excellence, 22(12), 5-6. Retrieved
from Business Source Premier database.
The article presents insights on the roles of managers and
leaders. There are differences in the
roles of managers and leaders. Great managers bring out the
talents and strengths of people and

capitalize on them through techniques. Leaders transform
people strategically.
Singh, A. (2009). Organizational power in perspective.
Leadership & Management in
Engineering, 9(4), 165-176. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Power and influence are fundamental human phenomena that are
deeply ingrained on the psyche
and conscious personality of individuals. The difference
between proper and improper use of
power is the difference between success and failure, high and
low productivity, motivation and
disillusionment. This paper includes a review and analysis of
the classical concepts of power in
management literature, a description of power styles, and
classical research findings on the
optimum use of power. In it I describe power bases and cover
the relationship of power with
project uncertainty, organizational climate, situational
leadership, productivity, and individual
independence. Links are made to leadership styles, and
references are made to negative uses of
power. Overall, the concept of power is placed in perspective as
it relates to management needs,

and ideas are discussed for managing and controlling power for
the benefit of organizations. The
immense advantages of expert power and personal influence
(reference power) are emphasized.
Overwhelming evidence is presented regarding the negative
nature of coercion and
authoritativeness as viable management styles in well-developed
organizations. Any power base
is seen potentially to be double-edged: effective usage depends
entirely upon organizational
climate and culture. A developed organization must be designed
based on increasing use of
expert and reference powers that promote reflection and choice
in decision making.
Phase 2
Arrata, P., Despierre, A., & Kumra, G. (2007). Building an
effective change agent team.
McKinsey Quarterly, (4), 39-43. Retrieved from Business
Source Premier database.
The authors focus on the importance of change agents who
implement novel processes, train
employees in new skills and act as role models during the
process of organizational change. They

mention the value of an organizational change agent program.
They focus on the elements that
are essential to change agent programs, including their design.
The recruitment and development
of personnel for the program are discussed as well as the
integration between the team of change
agents and the organizational areas to be transformed.
Higgs, M. (2009). The good, the bad and the ugly: Leadership
and narcissism. Journal of Change
Management, 9(2), 165-178. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Leadership is becoming increasingly recognized as a crucial
issue for organizations facing
change in a complex and volatile environment. This leads to a
need for an understanding of the
extensive leadership literature. However, it is notable that this
literature is primarily focused on
'good' leadership. Until relatively recently it has ignored 'bad'
or 'dark-side' leadership. Yet recent
research in the field of change has provided evidence that such
'negative' leadership impacts
adversely on change implementation. The purpose of this paper,
therefore, is to review the

literature on 'bad' leadership and to explore the extent to which
leader narcissism provides an
explanation of 'bad' leadership behaviors. Building from this
review the paper presents
recommendations for future research.
McMurray, P., & Rosenke, S. (2005). Leadership in a changing
environment. Rural
Telecommunications, 24(5), 30-36. Retrieved from Business
Focuses on the leadership strategies to manage employee
resistance to corporate changes.
Perceptions of employees on changes; Impact of changes on
employees' expertise and
motivation; Adjustment shared by employees and corporate
leaders in the change process.
Why is the failure rate for organisation change so high?. (2008).
Management Services, 52(4),
10-19. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
The article explains the reasons for the failure of organizational
change. Among the reasons cited
are absence of dedicated and fully resourced implementation
teams, lack of structured
methodology and project management, failure to plan and

manage quick wins, failure to fully
mobilize change champions, lack of sympathetic human
resource policies, use of an outsider to
transact change, and failure to monitor and evaluate outcomes.
Strategies to manage transition
are also cited, notably change in leadership culture.
Phase 3
Da, Y., & Liang, J. (2004). A new model for examining the
leader - member exchange (LMX)
theory. Human Resource Development International, 7(2), 251-
264. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier database.
The theory of leader - member exchange (LMX) is re-examined.
The concepts of social and
economic exchange misused in previous research are clarified.
A model that describes the
exchange relationships between manager and subordinates is
presented. The model challenges
the well-accepted positive relationship between high quality of
LMXs and organizational
performance in previous studies by pointing out that the
relationship may lead to negative

results. New research propositions based upon the model are
offered to encourage further
research efforts.
Dixon, M., & Hart, L. (2010). The impact of path-goal
leadership styles on work group
effectiveness and turnover intention. Journal of Managerial
Issues, 22(1), 52-69.
Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
Leaders continuously seek to improve organizational
performance and enhance work group
effectiveness to drive competitiveness and curtail the cost of
employee turnover. The diversity of
many work groups in the U.S. creates potential benefits and
challenges for their leaders. Using
data gathered from a manufacturing facility in southeastern
U.S., this study examines how Path-
Goal leadership styles, diversity, work group effectiveness, and
work group members' turnover
intention are related. Although all three Path-Goal leadership
styles demonstrated significant
positive correlations with work group effectiveness, only the
Supportive style showed a
significant negative relationship with turnover intention.

Interestingly, work group effectiveness
showed no significant correlation with turnover intention.
Spinosa, C., Glennon, B., & Sota, L. (2008). The virtues of
transformational leaders. Business
Strategy Review, 19(4), 82-86. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
They are a rare breed: transformative leaders earn that heady
title by transforming not just
companies, but industries. Charles Spinosa, Billy Glennon and
Luis Sota believe there are four
virtues that such leaders manifest.
Vera, D., & Crossan, M. (2004). Strategic leadership and
organizational learning. Academy of
Management Review, 29(2), 222-240. Retrieved from Business
Adopting the strategic leadership perspective, we develop a
theoretical model of the impact of
CEO and top manager leadership styles and practices on
organizational learning. We take a fine-
grained look at the processes and levels of organizational
learning to describe how strategic
leaders influence each element of the learning system.
Researchers have implicitly assumed

transformational leadership approaches to organizational
learning. We challenge this
conventional wisdom by highlighting the value of transactional
leadership as well.
Phase 4
urockra
Highlight
Kellerman, B. (2004). Leadership warts and all. Harvard
Business Review, 82(1), 40-45.
According to today's business literature, to be a leader is, by
definition, to be benevolent. But
leadership is not a moral concept, and it is high time we
acknowledge that fact. We have as much
to learn from those we would regard as bad examples as we do
from the far fewer good examples
we're presented with these days. Leaders are like the rest of us:
trustworthy and deceitful,
cowardly and brave, greedy and generous. To assume that all
good leaders are good people is to
be willfully blind to the reality of the human condition, and it
severely limits our ability to

become better leaders. Worse, it may cause senior executives to
think that, because they are
leaders, they are never deceitful, cowardly, or greedy. That way
lies disaster.
Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. Harvard
Business Review, 78(2), 78-90.
According to the author, although effective leadership eludes
many people and organizations,
new research has determined six distinct leadership types that
appear to have a direct and unique
impact on the working atmosphere of an organization. Research
shows that leaders with the best
results do not rely on only one leadership style. The six styles
are coercive, authoritative,
affiliative, democratic, pacesetting and coaching. Findings
indicate that the more styles a leader
exhibits, the better. This can be accomplished by building a
team with members who employ
styles the leader lacks. An alternative approach is to expand
one's own style repertoires.
Maner, J., & Mead, N. (2010). The essential tension between
leadership and power: When
leaders sacrifice group goals for the sake of self-interest.

Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology, 99(3), 482-497. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Throughout human history, leaders have been responsible for
helping groups attain important
goals. Ideally, leaders use their power to steer groups toward
desired outcomes. However,
leaders can also use their power in the service of self-interest
rather than effective leadership.
Five experiments identified factors within both the person and
the social context that determine
whether leaders wield their power to promote group goals
versus self-interest. In most cases,
leaders behaved in a manner consistent with group goals.
However, when their power was
tenuous due to instability within the hierarchy, leaders high (but
not low) in dominance
motivation prioritized their own power over group goals: They
withheld valuable information
from the group, excluded a highly skilled group member, and
prevented a proficient group
member from having any influence over a group task. These
self-interested actions were
eliminated when the group was competing against a rival

outgroup. Findings provide important
insight into factors that influence the way leaders navigate the
essential tension between
leadership and power.
Yunxia, Z. (2007). Do cultural values shape employee
receptivity to leadership styles?. Academy
of Management Perspectives, 21(3), 89-90. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier
database.
This article discusses management science and the contextual
factors that influence how
employees respond to various leadership styles. Research has
explored how group level
collectivism might moderate the relationship between
transformational leadership and employee
attitudes. The author reflects on how the use of other leadership
styles, such as transactional,
might influence these relationships. With consideration of
increased diversity within work
groups and the growth of international business, cultural values
and the reaction of employees to
various leadership styles warrants increased attention.

Phase 5
Carson, J., Tesluk, P., & Marrone, J. (2007). Shared leadership
in teams: An investigation of
antecedent conditions and performance. Academy of
Management Journal, 50(5), 1217-
1234. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
Shared leadership refers to a team property whereby leadership
is distributed among team
members rather than focused on a single designated leader. We
examined antecedent conditions
that lead to the development of shared leadership and the
influence of shared leadership on team
performance in a sample of 59 consulting teams. Both the
internal team environment, consisting
of shared purpose, social support, and voice, and external
coaching were important predictors of
shared leadership emergence. In turn, shared leadership was
found to predict team performance
as rated by clients. We conclude by discussing the implications
of these findings for team
leadership and effectiveness.
Druskat, V., & Wheeler, J. (2003). Managing from the
boundary: The effective leadership of

self-managing work teams. Academy of Management Journal,
46(4), 435-457. Retrieved
We used in-depth critical incident interviews with the external
leaders of self-managing work
teams and their team members, and interviews and surveys
provided by managers, to understand
how effective leader behaviors and strategies unfold over time.
Content analyses of the data
produced a process model showing that effective external
leaders move back and forth across
boundaries to build relationships, scout necessary information,
persuade their teams and outside
constituents to support one another, and empower their teams to
achieve success.
Hobson, C., Strupeck, D., & Szostek, J. (2010). A behavioral
roles approach to assessing and
improving the team leadership capabilities of managers.
International Journal of
Management, 27(1), 3-15. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Success in today's globally competitive marketplace requires

that managers have the ability to
effectively lead teams. While some individuals appear to have
an innate, almost effortless
capability to lead teams, most managers benefit from systematic
efforts to assess and improve
their performance in this critical area. Research on small group
interaction and leadership
behavior in teams is used to identify a set of task, social, and
dysfunctional behavioral roles that
are critical to team leader success. The widely used, well-
researched leaderless group discussion
(LGD) exercise is proposed as a potentially useful tool to
measure team leadership role
behaviors. A structured protocol is introduced, employing the
LGD to assess and improve team
leadership capabilities in individuals. Examples of protocol use
in business and academia are
discussed. Finally, several directions for future research are
considered.
Pearce, C. (2004). The future of leadership: Combining vertical
and shared leadership to
transform knowledge work. Academy of Management Executive,
18(1), 47-57. Retrieved

Knowledge work is becoming increasingly team-based. With the
shift to team-based knowledge
work comes the need to question more traditional models of
leadership. Traditionally, leadership
has been conceived around the idea that one person is firmly "in
charge" while the rest are
simply followers--what is termed vertical leadership. However,
recent research indicates that
leadership can be shared by team leaders and team members--
rotating to the person with the key
knowledge, skills, and abilities for the particular issues facing
the team at any given moment. In
fact, research indicates that poor-performing teams tend to be
dominated by the team leader,
while high-performing teams display more dispersed leadership
patterns, i.e., shared leadership.
This is not to suggest that leadership from above is unnecessary.
On the contrary, the role of the
vertical leader is critical to the ongoing success of the shared-
leadership approach to knowledge
work. Thus, this article addresses the following questions: (1)
when is leadership most
appropriately shared? (2) how is shared leadership best
developed? and (3) how does one

effectively utilize both vertical and shared leadership to
leverage the capabilities of knowledge
workers?
Pinar, M., & Girard, T. (2008). Investigating the impact of
organizational excellence and
leadership on business performance: An exploratory study of
Turkish firms. SAM
Advanced Management Journal, 73(1), 29-45. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier
database.
The article focuses on the study of the impact of organizational
excellence and leadership on the
performance of firms in Turkey. It cites the three key factors
that are critical for business
performances including customer oriented, quality of personnel,
innovation and four key
leadership techniques. Furthermore, the seven factors, personal
interviews and surveys with 200
firms were folded up in three major cities in the western part of
the country and the outcome for
each factor was examined carefully to help managers weigh the
value of various approaches and

strategies. The study suggests the significant link of
organizational and leadership on business
performances.
Cascio, W. (2005). Strategies for responsible restructuring.
Academy of Management
Executive,19(4), 39-50. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
As organizations struggle to enhance their competitive
positions, employment downsizing
continues as a preferred part of a restructuring strategy. Its
objective is to reduce operating costs
as a way of increasing earnings and stock prices. A study of
S&P 500 firms from 1982-2000,
however, casts serious doubt on the long-term payoff of this
approach. The purpose of this article
is to suggest several alternative approaches to restructuring. In
contrast to employment
downsizing, a strategy that regards people as costs to be cut, a
responsible restructuring strategy
focuses on people as assets to be developed. This focus
recognizes that people are the source of
innovation and renewal, especially in knowledge-based
organizations, and that the development

of new markets, customers, and revenue streams depends on the
wise use of a firm's human
assets. The article presents company examples and research-
based findings that illustrate
mistakes to avoid and affirmative steps to take when
restructuring responsibly.
Coyne, K., Coyne, S., & Coyne, S. (2010). When You've Got to
Cut Costs Now. Harvard
Business Review, 88(5), 74-82. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
The article discusses strategies that managers can use to reduce
overhead costs by 10, 20, and 30
percent. The authors say that managers will have to look at a
combination of at least 10 actions
that will produce opportunities for administrative cost savings
and recognize the proportional
amount of organizational disruption that accompanies cost
control. Topics discussed include
consolidating incidentals such as organizational events,
resolving overdue personnel issues such
as under-performing employees, eliminating interdepartmental
liaisons, coordinating
departments' parallel activities such as purchasing, redesigning
the hiring and performance

management processes, and restructuring cross-department
activities.
Fryer, B., Stybel, L., Peabody, M., Dormann, J., & Sutton, R.
(2009). The Layoff. Harvard
Business Review, 87(3), 33-40. Retrieved from Business Source
Premier database.
Astrigo is in trouble. The home improvement chain has missed
its earnings forecast badly and
sales are falling. A 10% reduction in staff looks like the only
choice. Layoffs, however, would
undermine the retailer's longtime commitment to employees and
the ability to provide its famed
customer service. But tapping cash reserved for strategic
acquisitions goes against the firm's
values, too. What should the CEO do? Board advisers Laurence
J. Stybel and Maryanne
Peabody, of Stybel Peabody Lincolnshire, suggest that the
company borrow a page from
McDonald's and declare Astrigo's intention to focus on the
interests of long-term shareholders.
This move would establish a framework that would help
management make tactical decisions
with more clarity and flexibility. The company could then use
its cash to buy a little time to

study the options. If Astrigo can't avoid layoffs, a last-in, first-
out approach would be the least
costly. Former CEO Jürgen Dormann understands the challenge
Astrigo faces. When he took
over ABB, the company was in deep distress. After shaking up
his executive committee,
Dormann personally reached out to all 180,000 employees to
enlist their help. They came back
with ideas that saved $1.6 billion -- and rescued the company.
Management professor Robert I.
Sutton thinks too many executives assume that layoffs are the
best way to reduce costs. They
don't factor in how long it takes to realize the savings from job
cuts, the costs to hire and train
people once business picks up, or the damage to morale and
productivity. Astrigo's executives
should consider alternatives such as pay cuts, reduced benefits,
unpaid time off, and incentives
for departure. If layoffs are inevitable, Astrigo should do them
quickly, and firing the bottom
10% of employees would be the worst approach.
Kowske, B., Lundby, K., & Rasch, R. (2009). Turning 'Survive'

into 'Thrive': Managing Survivor
Engagement in a Downsized Organization. People & Strategy,
32(4), 48-56. Retrieved
The articles discuss the effect that downsizing can have on the
workplace environment and the
attitudes and productivity of the workers who survived the
layoffs. Some research has shown that
while downsizing is usually undertaken to reduce costs and
increase efficiency, there may be
limited long term benefits due to worker turnover,
dissatisfaction and disengagement. The
authors suggest that managers can mitigate against the negative
aspects of downsizing by
communicating with employees about the changes and the
subsequent vision for the future of the
organization. Dealing with the remaining employees in a fair
and supportive manner can help
create an environment of trust after downsizing has taken place.
(2009). Maximize Productivity, Minimize Layoffs. (cover
story). HR Focus, 86(4), 1-15.
The article focuses on the effort of human resource

professionals to maximize productivity and
minimize layoffs in the U.S. It explores the means to seek
alternatives to avoid layoffs and keep
as many employees as possible. It illustrates how an
organization can avoid and handle such
situation during a recession and gives an overview on how it
affected organizations and
operations in the country.
Parks, C. (2002). Instill Lean Thinking. Industrial Management,
44(5), 14. Retrieved from
Business Source Premier database.
Discusses the role of corporate culture and change management
in a company's transformation to
a lean organization. Need for strong project leadership and
support from top management;
Lessons from lean implementation initiatives that failed;
Description of the Toyota Production
System; Elements of effective change management strategies;
Need for cross-functional training
in order to have productive multifunctional workers.

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