papers

1. 33
Writing Research Papers
33a What is a research paper?
A research paper (sometimes called a term paper) is a specific kind of re-
searched writing common in many college courses. In Chapter 32, we explained
roles that researching plays in many writing situations, and we also character-
ized different kinds of sources. Research paper assignments usually require the
use of several published sources (Chapter 34) throughout. Your mission is to
synthesize those sources into a project of fairly significant length.
Every research activity, formal or informal, involves two processes:
1. Gathering information
2. Analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating what you’ve gathered
Academic research writing (and many business and public reports), involves a
third process:
3. Writing an accurately documented paper based on your ANALYSIS,
SYNTHESIS, and EVALUATION of what you’ve gathered
Some research papers use information from PRIMARY SOURCES and FIELD RESEARCH.
However, most use information from SECONDARY and PUBLISHED SOURCES.
Research is an absorbing, creative activity. It lets you come to know a sub-
ject deeply and leads to fresh insights. The entire process, especially when re-
peated in a number of courses and settings, helps to shape you into a self-reliant
learner. Nevertheless, many researchers—inexperienced and experienced—feel
intimidated at the beginning of a research project. We find that research writ-
ing goes most easily when you deliberately break it down into organized steps
using a manageable research plan.
33b How do I plan a research project?
Research takes time, so budget your efforts intelligently. As soon as you get an
assignment for a research paper, plan your schedule, using Quick Reference
33.1 as a model. Because no two research paper projects are alike, adapt these
steps to your own needs. You might, for example, need only one day for some
steps but two weeks for others. So, while you need to stay flexible, you also
want to be realistic and keep your eye on the calendar.
523

2. 524 33b WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
Quick Reference 33.1
Sample schedule for a research project
Assignment received _____
Assignment due date _____
PLANNING FINISH BY (DATE)
1. Start my research log (33c). _____
2. Choose a topic suitable for research (33d). _____
3. Draft my research question (33e). _____
4. Understand my writing situation (33f). _____
5. Take practical steps (33g):
a. Gather materials and supplies. _____
b. Learn how to use my college library. _____
6. Determine what documentation style I need to use (33h). _____
RESEARCHING
7. Plan my “search strategy,” but modify as necessary (34b). _____
8. Decide the kinds of research I need to do:
a. Field research (32d). If yes, schedule tasks. _____
b. Published sources (34). _____
9. Locate and evaluate sources (34d, 34j). _____
10. Compile a working bibliography (33i) or annotated
bibliography (33j). _____
11. Take content notes from sources I find useful (33k). _____
WRITING
12. Draft my thesis statement (33l). _____
13. Outline, as required or useful (33m). _____
14. Draft my paper (33n). _____
15. Use correct parenthetical citations
(34b–34c; 35b–35c; 36a, 36c). _____
16. Revise my paper (33o). _____
17. Compile my final bibliography (Works Cited
or References), using the documentation style
required (Chapters 36–38). _____

3. How do I choose and narrow a research topic? 33d 525
33c What is a research log?
A research log is your diary of your research process. Use a separate notebook
for the log, or create a new folder or file on the computer. Whichever format
you rely on, make your research schedule one of the first entries.
Although much of your research log will never find its way into your re-
search paper itself, what you write in it greatly increases your efficiency. A well-
kept log traces your line of reasoning as your project evolves, tells where you’ve
ended each work session, and suggests what your next steps might be. It can
also provide information about your process in a way that helps your instruc-
tor note your effort and determine how best to help you. In your log, always
record the date as well as the following elements:
• Your current step in your search for information.
• The search strategy you used to find that information.
• The name, location, and other details of exactly where you found the
information.
• The main point of the information you found.
• The exact file or folder name in which you’ve stored your detailed con-
tent notes.
• Your suggested next step for when you return to your research.
• Your evolving overall thoughts and insights as you move through the re-
search and writing processes; particularly pay attention to the movements
away from gathering material to organizing it, from organizing to draft-
ing, and from drafting to revising.
Figure 33.1 (page 526) shows a selection from the research log of Andrei
Gurov, who wrote the MLA-style research paper shown in section 36e.
33d How do I choose and narrow a research topic?
Sometimes, of course, you don’t get to choose a research topic. Research in the
workplace and many public arenas often emerges from specific situations. A
doctor needs to decide the best way to treat a patient. An office manager needs
to make a decision about purchasing new computers. An actor needs to re-
search a time period to better portray an historical character.
Some instructors assign a specific topic for research (for example, “What
are the most compelling scientific theories to explain false memory?”). Others
leave more choice to you, assigning a general subject area appropriate to a spe-
cific course (for example, “memory” in a psychology course) and expecting you
to narrow it to a manageable topic. Still other instructors expect you to choose

4. 526 33d WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
a topic on your own (for example, “Write a research paper on a topic of cur-
rent interest or importance”). This last example happens most often in com-
position courses, where instructors often emphasize learning research skills
more than mastering a particular content area.
33d.1 Choosing a topic on your own
The freedom to choose any topic you want can sometimes be overwhelming.
Don’t panic. Instead, use some of the strategies for generating ideas in Quick
Reference 33.2.
33d.2 Narrowing a general topic into a workable one
Whether you’re working with a topic of your choice or an assigned one, you
want to check that it’s sufficiently narrow for the time frame and other require-
ments of your research paper. Also, you want to be sure that the narrowed topic
is worthy of a college research project.
• Expect to consider various topics before making your final choice.
Give yourself time to think. Keep your mind open to flashes of insight
and to alternative ideas. At the same time, be careful not to let indecision
paralyze you.
Figure 33.1 A selection from the research log of Andrei Gurov, who wrote the
MLA-style research paper shown in section 36e

5. How do I choose and narrow a research topic? 33d 527
• Select a topic that interests you. Your topic will be a companion for a
while, sometimes for most of a semester. Select a topic that arouses your
interest and allows you the pleasure of satisfying your intellectual curiosity.
• Choose a sufficiently narrow topic. You want to be successful within
the time and length given by the assignment. Avoid topics that are too
broad, such as “emotions.” A better choice would be “how people per-
ceive and respond to anger in others.”
• Choose a topic worth researching. Avoid trivial topics that prevent you
from doing what instructors and others expect of a student researcher.
NO The colors of MP3 players.
YES The legal issues of sharing downloaded music.
Quick Reference 33.2
Finding general ideas for research
• Talk with others. Ask instructors or other experts in your area of interest
what issues currently seem “hot” to them. Ask them to recommend read-
ings or the names of authorities on those issues.
• Browse some textbooks. Read the table of contents and major headings
of textbooks for subjects that interest you. As you narrow your focus,
note the names of important books and experts, often mentioned in ref-
erence lists at the end of chapters or in the final pages of the book.
• Browse the library or a well-stocked bookstore. Stroll through the
stacks (the rows of bookshelves) to find subjects that interest you. Look
at books as well as periodicals. Thumb through popular magazines, and
browse academic journals in fields that interest you.
• Browse the Internet. Many search engines provide topic directories.
Click on some general categories and review subcategories until you lo-
cate specific topics that interest you. Then try further subject searches or
KEYWORD searches (34d) to see where they lead.
• Read encyclopedia articles about your interests. General encyclopedias
survey a wide range of topics, while specialized encyclopedias concentrate
on a specific area. Never, however, stop with encyclopedias—they are too
basic for college-level research.
• Get ready. Carry a small notebook and a pen, a laptop, or a PDA. Ideas
have a way of popping into your mind when you least expect them. Jot
down your thoughts on the spot so that they don’t slip away.

6. 528 33e WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
• Choose a topic that has a sufficient number of appropriate sources
available. If you can’t find useful sources—ones that relate directly to your
topic and ones that are credible, not simply plentiful—drop the topic.
• Talk with a professor in your field of interest, if possible. Before the
meeting, read a little about your topic so that you can ask informed ques-
tions. Ask whether you’ve narrowed your topic sufficiently and produc-
tively. Also, ask for the titles of major books and the names of major
authorities on your topic.
A good academic topic allows you to demonstrate your critical thinking abil-
ities. There are two broad ways of doing this. First, you might choose a topic on
which intelligent people have formed different opinions. Then, you might ana-
lyze your sources and draw on your own experiences to decide which position ap-
pears best.The purpose of such a paper would be to attempt to PERSUADE readers
that you’ve considered the various positions and reached a reasonable conclusion.
Alternatively, you might choose to INFORM readers in a paper that synthe-
sizes several sources related to a complex subject. Writing a SYNTHESIS means
pulling together extensive information from varied sources to examine essential
points that relate to a topic. For example, imagine you’ve been assigned to write
the sample research paper about déjà vu in section 36e. After you’ve read a dozen
articles on the topic of déjà vu, you might try to identify three or four key points
and then organize information from your reading around those points. Your
goal is to clarify complicated or scattered information for your readers.
For a more detailed narrative of Andrei Gurov’s research process and the
final draft of his research paper, see 36e.1 and 36e.2.
33e What is a research question?
A research question about your topic is the controlling question that drives
your research. Few research paper assignments are phrased as questions. There-
fore, most research writing calls on you to ask a thought-provoking, underly-
ing question and then to search for answers to it. Regarding research as a quest
for an answer gives your work a specific focus: You can’t know whether you’ve
found useful source material unless you know what you’re looking for.
Research questions, whether stated or implied, and the strategies needed
to answer them vary widely. Your purpose might be to present and explain in-
formation: “How does penicillin destroy bacteria?” Or your purpose might be
to argue one side of an issue: “Is Congress more important than the Supreme
Court in setting social policy?” You can then consult various sources in an at-
tempt to work toward an answer.
Attempt is an important word in relation to research. Some research ques-
tions lead to a final, definitive answer, but some do not. The previous question

7. How does the writing situation shape my research paper? 33f 529
about penicillin leads to a reasonably definitive answer (you describe how the
antibiotic penicillin destroys the cell walls of some bacteria); this means your
writing has an informative purpose. The other question about social policy has
no definitive answer, so you’re asked to offer an informed opinion based on
facts and authoritative viewpoints gathered from your research; this means your
writing has a persuasive purpose.
To formulate a research question, begin by BRAINSTORMING a list of ques-
tions that come to mind about your topic. Write your list of ideas in your re-
search log (33c).
Suppose, for example, the topic you want to write about is “homeless-
ness.” Here are some typical questions you might ask.
• Why can’t a rich country like the United States eliminate homelessness?
• Who is homeless?
• How do people become homeless?
• Is it true that many families—not just adults—are homeless?
• Is the homelessness problem getting better or worse?
• What are we doing to solve the problem of homelessness?
• What is it like to be homeless?
Some questions will interest you more than others, so begin with one of
those. If a question leads to a dead end, pursue another. Only when you find
yourself accumulating answers—or in the case of questions without definitive
answers, accumulating viewpoints—is it likely you’re dealing with a usable re-
search question. Once you have an explicitly stated research question, you can
streamline your research by taking notes from those sources that help you an-
swer your research question. If your research paper requires you to state an in-
formed opinion, keep in mind that dealing with opposing positions is crucial
to writing an effective argument (see section 5l).
Stay flexible as you work. The results of your research may lead you to
modify the research question slightly. Actually, such modifying is part of the
“moving ahead and circling back” that characterizes research writing. When
you’ve finished researching and notetaking in response to your final research
question, you have a starting place for formulating your preliminary THESIS
STATEMENT (see 2d).
33f How does the writing situation shape
my research paper?
Your TOPIC, PURPOSE, AUDIENCE, ROLE, and SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS (1b) all
influence your research paper. If you receive an assignment to argue for a po-
sition but instead you inform readers about possible positions, your paper will

8. 530 33g WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
fall short. The same would happen if you were assigned to write a ten-page
paper, in MLA style, for an audience of people knowledgeable on a certain
topic and instead you wrote fifteen pages in APA style, for a very general au-
dience. When you receive a research paper assignment, make sure to understand
if you’re being asked to write for a specific situation. Maybe the assignment
will specify only a few elements of the situation but not all; follow, then, the
ones required.
Even if you receive a very open assignment, you’ll find it useful to create
a writing situation for that paper, especially a purpose and audience. Doing so
will give you a guidepost to see if you’re on the right track. To decide whether
your paper will have an informative purpose or a persuasive purpose, see what
your research question asks. If the answer to it involves giving facts, informa-
tion, and explanation, your purpose is to inform. For example, “How have
computers changed over time?” calls for INFORMATIVE WRITING. Conversely, if
the answer involves offering an educated opinion based on contrasting views
and supporting evidence, your purpose is to persuade. For example, “Why
should people be aware of current developments in computers?” calls for
PERSUASIVE WRITING. You may find that during your research or writing process,
a different purpose would make more sense. Usually, it makes sense to change
to the new purpose, adjusting your thesis in the process. However, if your in-
structor has asked for a proposal or otherwise approved your research project,
you’ll want to check to make sure the new direction is OK.
AUDIENCES for research papers can vary. Your instructor, of course, is al-
ways an audience. However, in some cases he or she will read as a representa-
tive of other, larger audiences, and you’ll want to meet their expectations. For
example, if you’re writing about the topic of déjà vu for a specialized audience
(1d.2) that knows psychology and expects your paper to have the characteris-
tics of writing in that field, your research paper will differ slightly from one on
the very same topic but for a general educated audience (1d.1). Your sense of
audience can guide your decisions about content, prior knowledge, assumptions,
level of detail and explanations needed, STYLE, TONE, and so on. Section 1d
provides advice for analyzing audience.
33g What practical steps can help me work efficiently?
To conduct your research with greatest efficiency, you need to do some foot-
work before you start researching. First, gather the materials listed in Quick Ref-
erence 33.3 so that they’re organized and ready for use at a moment’s notice.
Second, become familiar with your college library, especially its catalogs and
databases (34d). Third, be sure to become skilled with finding and evaluating
appropriate resources on the Internet (34k–34m).

9. What practical steps can help me work efficiently? 33g 531
33g.1 Learning how to use library resources
When you learn how your college library functions, your research efficiency in-
creases. Though almost all libraries in the United States and Canada are or-
ganized around the same principles for organizing information, physical layouts
and procedures differ considerably. If you visit your college library for the sole
purpose of figuring out what’s located where, you’ll feel comfortable and con-
fident when you work there.
Some college libraries provide orientations through English courses; some
offer individual training sessions; and most offer informative Web sites or hand-
outs about their resources. Quick Reference 33.4 provides a checklist for famil-
iarizing yourself with your library.
33g.2 Deciding how you’ll use the computer
How you use the computer in the research process is largely a matter of per-
sonal preference. Some students use a computer only for finding sources and
for DRAFTING and REVISING the paper itself. These students do the rest of their
research steps by hand on index cards and sheets of paper: keeping their
Quick Reference 33.3
Materials you might need for research
1. A copy of your assignment.
2. This handbook, especially Part Five, or access to the Internet so that
you can read the book online and use its guidelines.
3. Your research log (33c).
4. Index cards for taking notes (unless you use a laptop). If you use differ-
ent colors of index cards, you might color-code the different categories
of information you find. Also, you might use one size for bibliography
cards and the other for content note cards. Another coding strategy is
to use pens of different ink colors or self-sticking dots of various colors.
5. Money or a debit card for copy machines or printers.
6. A flash drive or other means for storing downloaded source materials,
if you’re not exclusively using your own computer.
7. If you use index cards and other paper, a small stapler, paper clips, and
rubber bands.
8. A separate bag or backpack with wheels to carry research-project mate-
rials and books you check out from the library. (Librarians joke about
researchers with wheelbarrows.)

10. 532 33g WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
Quick Reference 33.4
Learning your library’s resources
• How do you get access to the library’s catalog and databases, both from in-
side the library and through the Internet? What are the log-in procedures?
• How does the library’s catalog work?
• What periodical indexes or databases does your library have, online or in
print? (Indexes and databases are lists of articles in journals and magazines,
grouped by subject areas.)
• Where is the general reference collection? (You can’t check out reference
books, so when you need to use them, build extra time into your sched-
ule to spend at the library.)
• Where is the special reference collection? (Same rules apply as for general
reference books.)
• Are the book and journal stacks open (fully accessible shelves) or closed
(request each item by filling out a form to hand to library personnel)? If
the latter, become familiar with the required procedures not only for ask-
ing for a book or journal but also for picking it up when it’s ready.
• Where are the library’s physical collections of periodicals (journals, maga-
zines, and newspapers) stored? Libraries are increasingly moving from
paper to digital storage, but some publications might still exist only in
print. Most libraries place periodicals published recently in open areas,
and they place older ones in bound volumes, on microfilm or microfiche,
or online. Learn to use whatever system is in place at your library.
• How do you identify when periodical articles exist digitally, in versions
that you can read completely online rather than only from a paper copy?
When you find that an article has a digital version, how do you access it?
• What, if anything, is stored on microfilm or microfiche? If you think
you’ll use that material, take the time to learn how to use the machines.
(We find that each library’s machines work differently—and many of
them have stumped us on occasion.)
• Does the library have special collections, such as local historical works or
the writings of persons worthy of such an exclusive honor?
research log (33c), compiling their WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY (33i), taking con-
tent notes (33k), and so forth.
Other students carry out their entire research process on computer. They
set up folders for every phase of their project. To accumulate print sources for
their working bibliography, these students download them onto a computer

11. What is a working bibliography? 33i 533
hard drive or a flash drive—always carefully recording the origin of the source
in the documentation style they’ve selected (33h). They type their research log,
working bibliography, and content notes directly into computer files.
33h What documentation style should I use?
A documentation style is a system for providing information about each
source you’ve used in your research paper. Documentation styles vary from one
academic discipline to another. The humanities often use MLA (Modern Lan-
guage Association) style (Chapter 36). The social sciences frequently use APA
(American Psychological Association) style (Chapter 37). Biology and other
natural sciences often use CSE (Council of Science Editors) style (Chapter 38).
CM (Chicago Manual) style is used in various disciplines, generally in the hu-
manities (Chapter 38). Instructors almost always have precise expectations
about which style they want you to use. Find it out, and follow it to the letter!
Using the wrong documentation style—or using the right one badly—is like
showing up to a formal wedding wearing flip-flops and a ripped shirt. You
don’t want an instructor to minimize your research and writing effort because
he or she is so distracted by careless documentation.
Determining the required documentation style at the start of the process
helps to guarantee that you’ll write down the exact details you need to docu-
ment your sources. You’ll need to document all secondary sources. If you’re
doing primary research, decide what you must document before you begin.
Your instructor may have special requirements, such as asking you to submit
your research notes or results from observations, questionnaires, surveys, inter-
views, or anything else that produces primary data.
33i What is a working bibliography?
A working bibliography is a preliminary list of the PRIMARY and SECONDARY
SOURCES you gather in your research. It contains information about the source
and where others might find it. The following is a list of basic elements to in-
clude (see more detailed information about documenting specific types of
sources in Chapters 36–38).
Books Periodical Articles Online Sources
Author(s) Author(s) Author (if available);
editor or sponsor of site
Title Title Title of document and
title of site

12. 534 33i WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
Begin your working bibliography as soon as you start identifying sources.
Compiling a working bibliography will help you find out what is available on
a particular subject before you do extensive reading and notetaking. If your
search turns up very few sources, you may want to change your topic. If it re-
veals a vast number of sources, you definitely want to narrow your topic or even
choose a different one. At the outset, don’t leave anything out; even an un-
promising source may later prove useful. Expect to add and drop sources
throughout the research writing process. As a rough estimate, your working bib-
liography needs to be about twice as long as the list of sources you end up using.
You can record your working bibliography on note cards or on a computer.
On the one hand, note cards have the advantage of being easy to sift
through and rearrange. You can also carry them with you when you do library
research. At the end of your writing process, you can easily sort and alphabet-
ize them to prepare your final bibliography. Write only one source on each
card. Figure 33.2 displays a handwritten bibliography note card by Andrei
Gurov for his MLA-style research paper in section 36e.
Books Periodical Articles Online Sources
Publisher and place
of publication
Name of periodical,
volume number, issue
number
Name of database or spon-
sor of online source
Year of publication Date of issue Date of electronic
publication
Call number Page numbers of article Electronic address (URL)
Date you accessed the
source
(AUTHOR) (ARTICLE TITLE)
(NEWSPAPER TITLE) (DATE AND PAGE NUMBERS)
Print.
Figure 33.2 Sample bibliography note card in MLA style

13. What is an annotated bibliography? 33j 535
McKenna, K. Y., Green, A. S., & Gleason, M. E. (2003). Relationship formation
on the Internet: What’s the big attraction? Journal of Social Issues,
58, 9–31.
Two studies show that people who share “true selves” over
the Internet often form closer relationships than when they meet
face to face. One study surveyed Internet users. A second study
found that students who meet first on the Internet tend to like
each other better than students who meet first in person.
Miyake, K., & Zuckerman, M. (1993). Beyond personality impressions.
Journal of Personality, 61(3), 411–436.
This research study examines how both physical and vocal
attractiveness affect judges’ responses to individuals. The
researchers found that, for five different personality measures,
judges rate more attractive people more highly.
Figure 33.3 Section from an annotated bibliography in APA style
On the other hand, putting your working bibliography on a computer
saves you from having to type your list of sources later. If you use a computer
for this purpose, clearly separate one entry from another. You can organize the
list alphabetically, by author, or according to your subtopics.
Your library may even have a program like RefWorks or EndNote that al-
lows you to download bibliographic information directly onto your computer,
and then easily reformat it to the appropriate documentation style.
Whichever method you use, when you come across a potential source, im-
mediately record the information exactly as you need it to fulfill the require-
ments of the DOCUMENTATION STYLE you need to use for your assignment
(33h). Spending a few extra moments at this stage can save you hours of work
and frustration later on.
33j What is an annotated bibliography?
An annotated bibliography includes not only publishing information about
your sources but also your brief summary of each one, and perhaps a commen-
tary. Figure 33.3 shows part of an annotated bibliography for sources used in
the APA-style student paper in Chapter 37.

14. 536 33k WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
Illusion.
Print.
Figure 33.4 A handwritten content note card in MLA style
33k How do I take content notes?
When you write content notes, you record information from your sources. As
with your working bibliography, you can make content notes either in a com-
puter file or on index cards.
• If you’re using index cards, put a heading on each card that gives a precise
link to one of your bibliography items. Include the source’s title and the
numbers of the pages from which you’re taking notes.
• On the computer, keep careful track of the source of each idea. One strat-
egy is to open a new file for each. Later, after you’ve taken notes on many
of your sources, you can determine what subtopics are important for your
paper. You can then open a new file for each topic and use the “Cut” and
“Paste” functions to gather notes from all of your sources under each topic.
• On every note card or every file in your computer, do one of three things:
(1) Copy exact words from a source in a quotation, enclosing it in quotation
marks; (2) write a paraphrase of the source; or (3) write a summary of the
source. Keeping track of the kind of note you’re taking will help you avoid
PLAGIARISM. You might use the codes Q for QUOTATION, P for PARAPHRASE,
and S for SUMMARY. Or you might use a different typeface or ink color.
• As you’re taking notes, separately record your own reactions and ideas, but take
care to differentiate your ideas from those found in your sources. You might
write your own thoughts in a different colored ink (note card) or font (com-
puter); you might use the back of your note cards or a computer’s “Comment”
feature. You can also record your thinking in your RESEARCH LOG.
Figure 33.4 shows one of Andrei Gurov’s note cards for his paper in section 36e.2.

15. How do I draft a thesis statement for a research paper? 33l 537
33l How do I draft a thesis statement for a research paper?
Drafting a THESIS STATEMENT for a research paper marks the transition from the
research process to the writing process. A thesis statement in a research paper
sets out the central theme, which you need to sustain throughout the paper (see
section 2d, especially Box 2.3). As with any piece of writing, your research
paper must fulfill the promise of its thesis statement.
You might begin thinking of a preliminary thesis statement at some mid-
dle point in the research process, although it’s perfectly acceptable to wait until
you’ve completely finished researching. To start your thesis statement, you
might try to convert your RESEARCH QUESTION into a preliminary thesis state-
ment. Remember that a good thesis statement makes an assertion that conveys
your point of view about your topic and foreshadows the content of your paper
(see Quick Reference 2.3 in 2d). And not least, remember that your research
needs to support your thesis statement. Ask yourself whether the material you’ve
gathered from sources can effectively give support. If not, revise your thesis
statement, conduct further research, or do both.
Here are examples of subjects narrowed to topics, focused into research
questions, and then cast as thesis statements.
SUBJECT nonverbal communication
TOPIC Personal space
RESEARCH QUESTION How do standards for personal space differ among
cultures?
INFORMATIVE THESIS Everyone has expectations concerning the use of
STATEMENT personal space, but accepted distances for that space
are determined by each person’s culture.
PERSUASIVE THESIS To prevent intercultural misunderstandings, people
STATEMENT must be aware of cultural differences in standards for
personal space.
SUBJECT computers
TOPIC artificial intelligence
RESEARCH QUESTION How close are researchers to developing artificial in-
telligence in computers?
INFORMATIVE THESIS Scientists disagree about whether computers need
STATEMENT emotions to have artificial intelligence.
PERSUASIVE THESIS Because emotions play a strong role in human
STATEMENT intelligence, computers must have emotions before
they can truly have artificial intelligence.

16. 538 33m WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
Andrei Gurov (whose research paper appears in section 36e) revised his pre-
liminary thesis statement twice before he felt that it expressed the point he
wanted to make. Andrei also took the key step of checking that he would be
able to support it sufficiently with sources throughout the paper.
FIRST PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENT
Déjà vu can be explained by a variety of scientific theories. [Andrei real-
ized that this draft thesis would lead to a paper that would merely list, para-
graph by paragraph, each theory, and that the paper would lack synthesis.]
SECOND PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENT
Many people believe feelings of déjà vu have mysterious origins, but sci-
ence has shown this is not true. [Andrei liked this statement better be-
cause it began to get at the complexity of the topic, but he wanted to work
on it more because he felt the second part was too general.]
FINAL THESIS STATEMENT
Although a few people today still prefer to believe that feelings of déjà vu have
mysterious or supernatural origins, recent research in cognitive psychology
and the neurosciences has shed much rational light on the phenomenon.
33m How do I outline a research paper?
Some instructors require an OUTLINE of your research paper, either before you
hand in the paper or along with the paper. In such cases, your instructor is
probably expecting you to be working from an outline as you write your drafts.
Your research log often comes in handy when you group ideas, especially for a
first draft of your paper—and as you make an informal outline for it. An out-
line can serve as a guide as you plan and write your paper. For directions on
composing a formal outline, see section 2f. To see a topic outline of Andrei
Gurov’s research paper, turn to section 36e.
33n How do I draft a research paper?
DRAFTING and REVISING a research paper is like drafting and revising any other
piece of writing (Chapter 2). Yet to write a research paper, you need extra time
for planning, drafting, thinking, redrafting, rethinking, and creating a final
draft because you need to demonstrate all of the following:
• You’ve followed the steps of the research processes presented in Chap-
ters 32–35.

17. How do I revise a research paper? 33o 539
• You understand the information that you’ve located during your
research.
• You’ve evaluated the SOURCES you’ve used in your research.
• You haven’t PLAGIARIZED your material from someone else (35b).
• You’ve used sources well in your writing, correctly employing QUOTATIONS,
PARAPHRASES, and SUMMARIES (35f–35k).
• You’ve moved beyond SUMMARY to SYNTHESIS so that your sources are in-
terwoven with each other and with your own thinking, not merely listed
one by one (4f).
• You’ve used DOCUMENTATION accurately. (For MLA STYLE, see Chapter
36; for APA STYLE, see Chapter 37; for other documentation styles, see
Chapter 38)
Expect to write a number of drafts of your research paper. The first draft is
your chance to discover new insights and connections. Successive drafts help
you master the information you’ve learned and add it authoritatively to the
knowledge you already had about the topic. In the first draft, organize the
broad categories of your paper. Quick Reference 33.5 suggests some ways to
write your first draft.
33o How do I revise a research paper?
Before you write each new draft, read your previous draft with a sharp eye. For
best results, take a break of a few days (or at least a few hours) before begin-
ning this process. This gives you distance from your material, and a clearer vi-
sion of what you need to revise. For a more objective point of view, consider
asking a few people you respect to read and react to your first, or perhaps your
second, draft.
One key to REVISING any research paper is to examine carefully the evidence
you have included. Evidence consists of facts, statistics, expert studies and
opinions, examples, and stories. As a reader, you expect writers to provide solid
evidence to back up their claims and conclusions. Similarly, when you write,
readers expect you to provide evidence that clearly supports your claims and
conclusions. Use RENNS (3f) to see if you can develop paragraphs more
fully. Identify each of the points you have made in your paper, including
your thesis and all your subpoints. Then ask the questions in Quick Refer-
ence 33.6.
Experienced writers know that writing is really rewriting. Research papers
are among the most demanding composing assignments, and most writers re-
vise several times. Once you’ve produced a final draft, you’re ready to edit (2j),
proofread (2k), and format (2c.5) your work. Check for correct grammar,

18. 540 33o WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
Quick Reference 33.5
Suggestions for drafting a research paper
• Some writers categorize their notes and write a section at a time. They or-
ganize the notes into broad categories by making a separate group for
each topic. As patterns begin to emerge, these writers might move mate-
rial from one category to another. Each category becomes a section of the
first draft. This method not only assures writers that their first draft will
include all of the material from their research, but reveals any gaps in in-
formation that call for additional research. Of course, you may discover
that some of your research doesn’t fit your topic and thesis. Put it aside; it
might be useful in a later draft.
• Some writers generate a list of questions that their paper needs to address,
then answer each question, one at a time, looking for the content notes
that will help them. For example, writing on the topic of organic foods,
some possible questions might be, “What are organic foods? What bene-
fits do people see for eating them? Why do they cost more than regular
foods? Does everyone agree that they are beneficial?” Generating and an-
swering questions can be a way of turning a mass of information into
manageable groupings.
• Some writers finish their research and then slowly review half of the in-
formation they’ve gathered. Next, setting aside that information, they
write a partial first draft by drawing on the information they remember
from their reading. Then, they use the same process with the second half
of the information that they’ve gathered. Finally, with their two partial
drafts and all of their research notes in front of them, they write a com-
plete first draft. Writers who use this method say it gives them a broad
overview of their material quickly and identifies any gaps in information
that they need to fill in with further research.
• Some writers stop at various points during their research and use
FREEWRITING to get their ideas into words. Writers who use this method
say that it helps them recognize when they need to adjust their RESEARCH
QUESTION or change the emphasis of their search. After a number of
rounds of researching and freewriting, these writers find that they can
complete their first draft relatively easily.
• Some writers review their sources and create an OUTLINE before drafting
(2f). Some find a formal outline helpful, while others use a less formal
approach.

19. How do I revise a research paper? 33o 541
Quick Reference 33.6
Questions for evaluating your evidence
• Is the evidence sufficient? To be sufficient, evidence can’t be thin or triv-
ial. As a rule, the more evidence you present, the more convincing your
thesis will be to readers.
• Is the evidence representative? Representative evidence is customary
and normal, not based on exceptions. When evidence is representative, it
provides a view of the issue that reflects the usual circumstances rather
than rare ones.
• Is the evidence relevant? Relevant evidence relates directly to your thesis
or topic sentences. It illustrates your reasons straightforwardly and never
introduces unrelated material.
• Is the evidence accurate? Accurate evidence is correct, complete, and up
to date. It comes from a reliable SOURCE. Equally important, you present
it honestly, without distorting or misrepresenting it.
• Is the evidence reasonable? Reasonable evidence is not phrased in ex-
treme language, such as all, never, or certainly. Reasonable evidence is well
thought out and free of logical fallacies (4i).
punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (No amount of careful research and
good writing can make up for an incorrectly presented, sloppy, error-laden
document.)
Consult Quick References 2.8 and 2.9 to remind yourself of the general
principles of revising, and consult the research paper revision checklist in Quick
Reference 33.7. One of the best things you might do is apply the strategies of
critical thinking (Chapter 4) to your own writing. Read your own paper as if
you were an outside critical reader. Additionally, have a classmate or trusted
friend provide peer response (6c).
To see one example of the research writing process in action, turn to section
36e. There you’ll see the final draft of an MLA-style research paper; a narrative
of decisions that the student made during his research process; and commen-
tary (on the text page facing each page of the student’s paper) that gives you in-
sight into specific aspects of his paper.
For an APA-style research paper, turn to section 37h. There you’ll see the
final draft of a student’s paper and a narrative of the decisions that the student
made during his research process.

20. 542 33o WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
Quick Reference 33.7
Revising a research paper
If the answer to any of the following questions is no, you need to revise. The
section numbers in parentheses tell you where to find useful information.
WRITING
• Does your introductory paragraph lead effectively into the material? (3b)
• Have you met the basic requirements for a written thesis statement? (2d)
• Do your thesis statement and the content of your paper address your re-
search question(s)? (33e)
• Have you developed effective body paragraphs? (3d; 3f, Quick Ref-
erence 3.3)
• Does the concluding paragraph end your paper effectively? (3k)
• Does your paper satisfy a critical thinker? (Chapter 4)
RESEARCH
• Have you included appropriate and effective evidence? (3d and Quick
Reference 33.6)
• Have you deleted irrelevant or insignificant information? (3g)
• Have you used quotations, paraphrases, and summaries well? (35f–35k)
• Have you integrated your source material well without plagiarizing? (35c)
FORMAT AND DOCUMENTATION
• Have you used the correct format for your parenthetical citations or other
documentation style? (Chapters 36–38)
• Does each citation tie into an item in your WORKS CITED (MLA style)
or REFERENCES (APA style) list of sources at the end of your paper? (36d
and 37f)
• Does the paper exactly match the format you’ve been assigned to follow?
Check margins, spacing, title, headings, page number, font, and so on
(Chapter 45).
For more help with your writing, grammar, and research,
go to www.mycomplab.com