FE 657- Research Methodology and Seminar
in Financial Economics
Part II
The Research Process and Preparing the
Research Proposal

Contents of the lecture
1. Introduction
2. The Research Process
-Identification of a Research Topic
-Defining the research problem and objectives
-Development of working hypothesis
-The literature review, etc.
3. The research proposal

Introduction
 Previous discussions provided general perspectives and
understanding about research.
 Definition of research,
 Its role and purpose in the quest for knowledge
generation and understanding,
 The scientific method and ways of reasoning,
 Ethical considerations, etc.
 But, they did not provide guidance on how to do the
research.
 Some of the critical elements of the research process are
discussed in this part.

The research process
 Research can be broken down into a series of steps that are
interrelated and are sometimes revisited in an iterative
fashion.
 In other words, the research task is usually a sequential
process involving several clearly defined steps.
 i.e., from the formulation of a general idea to actual data
collection, and interpretation of the results and
conclusions.

The research process
 There are some conventionally acceptable standards that
should be achieved in order to gain credibility.
 Some researchers portray the steps in a linear form while
others put them in a cyclical form.

The research process
 The conventional steps involved in the research process
are:
 Selecting a research topic
 formulating the research problem with focus on the
main research questions
 Literature survey
 Preparing the research design and determining the
sample design and sample size
 Collecting and analyzing the data
 Generalizations and interpretations of results
 Preparing the report and presentation of the results

The research process
 In short: once a research idea is identified the research
process involves:
 Review of literature– new research is based on a
huge legacy of previous work.
 Understanding the nature of data –a good
understanding of the nature of data is required in
order to be able to collect and analyze it.

The research process
 Sampling – it is rarely possible to include every body or
everything in your research.
 How you select the sample is crucial to the
credibility of your research.
 Collecting data– a wide choice of collection methods
are available from which you can choose the methods
which are appropriate for particular types of
investigation.

The research process
 Analyzing data– what you do with the data after you
have collected it depends on the analytical methods you
adopt.
 Writing up – and presenting your research and findings
in a way that convinces others.
 Ethics–When doing research you need to take into
account all ethical issues to make sure that you do no
harm.

Identification of a Research Topic
 The first step in the research process is to find an idea
for a research study.
 i.e. formulating and clarifying the research topic is
the starting point of your research project
 Meaning deciding on the topic of the research and
finding a question which may be,
 an unresolved controversy, or
 Simply a gap in knowledge within the chosen
subject.

Identification of a Research Topic
 This is probably the most difficult, and yet the most
important, part of your research project.
 Without being clear about what you are going to
research it is difficult to plan how you are going to
research it.
 Once you have done this you will need to turn the
idea into research questions and objectives and to
write the research proposal for your project

Identification of a Research Topic
 What is a research problem?
 A research problem refers to any difficulty, which a
researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain
a solution for.
 Formulating and clarifying the problem is time
consuming .
 But, without spending time on this stage you are far
less likely to achieve a successful project.

Identification of a Research Topic
 Identifying a research topic typically involves two steps:
 First, selecting a general topic area,
 The general topic area is simply the starting point
that eventually will evolve into a very specific
research question.
 You need to find an interest in a broad subject area
(problem area).

Identification of a Research Topic
 Second, reviewing the literature in that general area to
find a specific research questions.
 This process will enable you to:
 Narrow the idea to a plausible topic.
 Question the topic from several points of view, and
 Define a rationale for your project.
 As you read through the research literature,
 you will become familiar with the current state of
knowledge and can determine what questions are still
unanswered.

Identification of a Research Topic
 Generally, there are three types of research titles:
 Indicative title:
 they state the subject of the research rather than
the expected outcomes.
 Example: The role of agricultural credit in
alleviating poverty in a low-potential areas of
Ethiopia.

Identification of a Research Topic
 Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part
followed by a more specific second part.
 Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-potential
areas of Ethiopia: the impact of agricultural credit’.
 Question-type titles are used less commonly than
indicative and hanging titles.
 Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty
in low-potential areas of Ethiopia?’

Identification of a Research Topic
Where do research topics come from?

Identification of a Research Topic
 There is no set formula for the identification of a topic
of research.
 In principle a topic must spring from the researcher’s
mind like a plant springs from its own seed
 i.e. it should be generated by the researcher

Identification of a Research Topic
 Ideas for a research topic can come from a variety of
sources including everyday experiences, books, journal
articles, or class work.
 The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a shortlist
of possible topics that have emerged from your reading
or from your own experience that look potentially
interesting.

Identification of a Research Topic
 A general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter
(agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may have to be
identified at first.
 The best guide is to conduct research on something that
interest you.
 (unemployment, pollution, poverty, etc.)

Identification of a Research Topic
A) Generated by the researcher.
 Own professional experience is the most important
source of a research problem.
 choose a topic in which if possible, already have
some academic knowledge.
 For instance, some researchers are directly engaged in
program implementation and come up with a topic based
on what they see is happening.
 attending conferences, seminars, and listening to
professional speakers, etc. are all helpful in
identifying research problems.

Identification of a Research Topic
B) Examining the literature
 Examining the theoretical or empirical literature in your
specific field.
 Published articles are excellent sources of ideas. They
help to…
 Explore findings discovered in previous research.
 Identify suggestions an author gives for further
research at the end of an article.
 Extend an existing explanation or theory to a new
topic or setting.
 Challenge findings or attempt to refute a relationship.

Identification of a Research Topic
C) Provided by a client
 Requests For Proposals (RFPs) are published by
government agencies, NGOs and some companies.
 They describes the problem that needs to be
addressed,
 the contexts in which it operates,
 the approach they would like you to take, and
 the amount they would be willing to pay for such
research - they are virtually handing the researcher
an idea.

Identification of a Research Topic
 But, if the topic is something in which you are not
interested you will have to weigh the advantage against
the disadvantage of a potential lack of personal
motivation.
d) Technological and Social Changes
 New developments bring forth new development
challenges for research.
E) Looking at Past Project Titles
 Scanning your university’s list of past project titles for
anything that captures your imagination

Identification of a Research Topic
 F) Scanning the Media
 Keeping up to date with items in the news can be a
rich source of ideas.
 The stories which occur everyday in the newspapers
 G) Discussion and Brainstorming
 Colleagues, friends, practitioners and university
tutors are all good sources of possible project ideas.

Identification of a Research Topic
 The most fundamental rule of good research is to
investigate questions that sincerely interest you.
 i.e. research which a researcher honestly enjoys
even if he/she encounters problems frustrating or
discouraging.
 The research process can be a long term, messy and
demanding enterprise.

Identification of a Research Topic
 Without motivation, it is very easy for a researcher to
get tired or bored and give up before the research is
completed.
 Subject which is overdone, should be avoided by the
average researcher since it will be difficult to throw any
new light in such cases for the average researcher.

Identification of a Research Topic
 So, choose a worthwhile issue which is
 New
 Catchy
 Focused
 Non-obvious conclusion
 You can get the data
 Doable

Identification of a Research Topic
 Remember: Keep Track of References
 Any literature cited must be listed properly in a
References section.
 Record the full references as you go!
 Author, title, journal name, volume and date,
page numbers, book publisher & location, date
 Always record page numbers.
 Give page numbers for all information, not just
quotations.

Attributes of a good research topic
 Your research topic must be something you are capable
of undertaking it and one that excites your imagination.
 Capability implies that:
 you feel comfortable that you can develop, the skills
that will be required to do the research.

Attributes of a good research topic
 Capability also means you must be reasonably certain of
gaining access to any data you might need to collect.
 Many people start with ideas where access to data will
prove difficult.
 It is also important that the issues within the research are
capable of being linked to theory.
 As a consequence you will need to have a knowledge of
the literature and to undertake further reading as part
of defining your research questions and objectives.

Attributes of a good research topic
 Your ability to find the financial and time resources to
undertake research on the topic will also affect your capability.
 Some topics are unlikely to be possible to complete in the
time allowed by your course of study.
 For example: topics that are likely to require you to
travel widely or need expensive equipment should be
disregarded unless financial resources permit.

Attributes of a good research topic
 Another attribute of a good topic is having clearly defined
research questions and objectives.
 These will enable you to assess the extent to which your
research is likely to provide fresh insights into the topic.
 Finally, it is important to consider your career goals.
 If you wish to become an expert in a particular subject area
or industry sector, it is sensible to use the opportunity to
develop this expertise.

Attributes of a good research topic: summary checklist
 Capability: is it feasible?
 ✔Is the topic something with which you are really
fascinated?
 ✔Do you have, or can you develop within the project time
frame, the necessary research skills to undertake the topic?
 ✔Is the research topic achievable within the available time?
 ✔Will the project still be current when you finish your
project?
 ✔Is the research topic achievable within the financial
resources that are likely to be available?
 ✔Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain access to
data you are likely to require for this topic?

Attributes of a good research topic: summary checklist
 Appropriateness: is it worthwhile?
✔Does the topic fit the specifications and meet the
standards set by the examining institution?
✔Does your research topic contain issues that have a
clear link to theory?
✔Are you able to state your research question(s) and
objectives clearly?
✔Will your proposed research be able to provide fresh
insights into this topic?
✔Does the research topic match your career goals?

Turning research ideas into research questions
 The problem of the research, which had been stated in
general terms, is now made specific through Research
Questions.
 A research question is a question that provides an explicit
statement of what it is the researcher wants to know about.
 Research questions force you to consider the issue of what it
is you want to find out about precisely and rigorously.

Turning research ideas into research questions
 Developing research questions is a matter of narrowing
down and focusing more precisely on what it is that you
want to know about.
 If you do not specify clear research questions,
 there is a great risk that your research will be
unfocused,
 that you will be unsure about what your research is
about, and
 unsure about what data you are collecting data for, etc.

Turning research ideas into research questions
 So, research questions will:
 guide your literature search;
 guide your decisions about the kind of research design to
employ;
 guide your decisions about what data to collect and from
whom;
 guide your analysis of your data;
 stop you from going off in unnecessary directions; and
 provide your readers with a clearer sense of what your
research is about

Defining the research problem and objectives
Statement of the Problem
 The next step is to define the research problem more
precisely.
 You must know exactly what the problem is before you
begin work on it.
 Problem definition (problem statement) is a clear
and precise statement of the question or issue to be
investigated.

Defining the research problem and objectives
Problem statement is
a clear statement about an area of concern,
a condition to be improved upon,
a difficulty to be eliminated, or
a troubling question
that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within
existing practice.
 Defining a problem involves the task of laying down the
boundaries within which a researcher shall study the
problem.

Defining the research problem and objectives
 Defining a research problem is more important than its
solution.
 A problem clearly defined is a problem half solved.
 Defining the problem clearly will help to find answers to
questions like:
 What data are to be collected?
 What characteristics of data are relevant and need to
be studied
 What relations are to be explored
 What techniques are to be used for the purpose.

Defining the research problem and objectives
 Therefore, in the definition of the problem you are
required:
 To describe the background of the study,
 Its theoretical basis and the underlying assumption,
 The specific and workable questions, and
 An explanation of why it is important or significant,
and what advantage (i.e. to society or to other
researchers) the research may deliver.

Defining the research problem and objectives
 The problem statement should make a convincing
argument that there is insufficient knowledge available
to explain the problem.
 The problem definition should also provide a brief
overview of the literature and research done in the
field related to the problem and of the gaps that the
proposed research intends to fill.

Defining the research problem and objectives
 The problem statement may focus on:
 Identifying a Gap: A research gap is an area where no
or little research has been carried out.
 Raising a question: The research problem is defined
by asking a question to which the answer is
unknown, and which you will explore in your
research.

Defining the research problem and objectives
 Continuing a previously developed line of enquiry.
Building on work already done, but taking it further (by
using a new sample, extending the area studied, taking
more factors into consideration, taking fewer factors
into consideration, etc.).
 or
 Counter-claiming: here a conflicting claim, theory or
method is put forward.

The research objectives
Objectives of the study:
 This is the step of rephrasing the problem into
operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the problem in
as specific terms as possible.
 Objectives are generally taken as evidence of the
researcher’s clear sense of purpose and direction.

The research objectives
 The general objective provides a short statement of the
specific goals pursued by the research.
 Using the general focus of your research question
you will develop a set of research objectives.
 The specific objectives are operational and indicate the
type of knowledge to be produced, audiences to be
reached, etc.

The research objectives
 The specific objectives are the objectives against which
the success of the whole research will be judged.
 in this section the specific activities to be performed
are listed.

The research objectives
 The objectives must be SMART:
 Specific. What precisely do you hope to achieve from
undertaking the research?
 Measurable. What indicators will you use to
determine whether you have achieved your objectives?
 Achievable. Are the targets you have set for yourself
achievable given all the possible constraints?
 Realistic. will you have the energy to complete the
research on time?
 Timely. Will you have time to accomplish all your
objectives in the time frame you have set

The Literature Review
 Scientific research is a collective effort of many
researchers who share their results.
 So, a literature review is based on the assumption that
knowledge accumulates and that we learn from and
build on what others have done.
 Hence, the researcher should undertake an extensive
survey of the literature related to the problem.

The Literature Review
 You should remember that others have also conducted
research that is related to the topic.
 i.e. current studies build on previous studies.
 By fully acknowledging the research of others you will
avoid charges of plagiarism and the associated
penalties.
 Reviewing the literature critically will provide the
foundation on which your research is built.

The Literature Review
 The purpose of the literature survey is:
 to provide the researcher with an understanding of
the literature as it relates to the current project;
 to enable the researcher to learn from the efforts of
others;
 to help refine further the research question(s) and
objectives;
 to highlight research possibilities that have been
overlooked in research to date;

The Literature Review
 to summarize the results of previous research and
lay the foundation of your own research;
 to help you to avoid simply repeating work that has
been done already;
 to provide insight into research approaches,
strategies and techniques that may be appropriate to
your own research question(s) and objectives.

The Literature Review
 The purpose is not to provide a summary of everything
that has been written on your research topic.
 But to review the most relevant and significant
research on your topic.
 You will need to demonstrate that you are familiar with
what is already known about your research topic.

The Literature Review
 Where to find the Research Literature
 The literature sources can be divided into three
categories: primary (published and unpublished),
secondary, and tertiary.
 Primary sources for instance, include:
 published sources such as reports and government
publications such as planning documents –
unpublished sources such as letters, memos and
committee minutes, proceedings, etc.

The Literature Review
 Secondary literature sources such as books and
journals.
 They are easier to locate than primary literature as
they are better covered by the tertiary literature.
 Tertiary literature sources, are designed either to help
to locate primary and secondary literature or to
introduce a topic - ‘search tools’
 They include indexes and abstracts as well as
encyclopedias and bibliographies.

The Literature Review
 In general, the following are the main sources:
 Computer: online and internet based sources-Google,
Web Pages, JSTOR, Econlit, etc.
 Books and Bibliographic indexes,
 Dissertations and theses,
 Government documents,
 Policy reports and presented papers,
 conference proceedings, magazines, etc.
 Usually one source leads to the next.

The available literature sources

Types of Literature Reviews
 1. Context reviews is a background review and places a
specific project in the big picture.
 It introduces the rest of a research and establishes
the significance and relevance of a research question.
 The review can summarize how the current research
continues a developing line of thought, or it can point to
a question or unresolved conflict.

Types of Literature Reviews
 2. Historical review traces the development of an issue
over time.
 It traces the development of an idea or shows how a
particular issue or theory has evolved over time.
 3. Theoretical reviews compare how different theories
address an issue.
 It present different theories and compare them for
the soundness of their assumptions, logical
consistency, and scope of explanation.

Types of Literature Reviews
 4. Methodological reviews point out how methodology
varies by study.
 In it researcher evaluates the methodological
strength of past studies.
 It describes conflicting results and shows how
different research designs, samples, measures, etc.,
account for different results.

Structuring the review
 The precise structure of the critical review is usually
your choice.
 Three common structures are:
 a single chapter;
 a series of chapters;
 throughout the project report as you tackle various
issues.

Structuring the review
 Summarize every article briefly; a sentence or two will
do
 Interpret the article in light of its relevance to your own
study
 Critique it, if necessary
 Show the stock of knowledge building up over the
course of the literature and show how your research
topic adds to this stock of knowledge

Structuring the review
 Several articles can be summarized in one mention
 Example: There have been numerous studies
attempting to measure the return to education (see
Becker (1963); Mincer (1968); Angrist and Krueger
(1988); Bound et al. (1991)).”
 How long should the literature review be?
 a useful guide is that your review is likely to be in the
region of 25–30% of your overall word count.

So far in this part we have discussed …
 The research process- research is broken down into a series
of steps.
 Steps involved in the research process
Identification of a Research Topic
The research questions
Attributes of a good research topic
 Capabilities
 Appropriateness- worthwhile
Defining the research problem and setting
objectives
The literature review

Development of working hypothesis
 After an extensive survey of the literature, researchers
should state in clear terms the working hypotheses.
 A hypothesis is a statement, which predicts the
relationship between two or more variables.
 It provides an anticipation of what will be found out
 It is a link between theory and the investigation.
 Formulating hypothesis is particularly useful for causal
relationships.

Characteristics of useable hypotheses
 There are some important criteria for judging the
goodness of a hypothesis.
 The hypothesis must be conceptually clear.
 This involves two things
 the concept should be clearly defined
 the hypothesis should be commonly accepted ones.
i.e. the hypothesis should be stated in simple terms.
 The hypothesis must be specific.
 assure that research is practicable and significance.

Characteristics of useable hypotheses
 The hypothesis should be related to available techniques.
 The hypothesis should be related to a body of theory.
 It should poses theoretical relevance.
 The hypothesis should be testable.
 hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it is
possible to verify it.

Planning and Preparing the Research Design
 Once the research problem has been formulated in clear
terms a research design is prepared.
 The research design is a plan that specifies the sources
and types of information relevant to the research
question.
 It is the plan or strategy of investigation within
which research is conducted.
 It constitutes the blue print for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data.

Planning and Preparing the Research Design
 The selection of an appropriate research design involves
factors like,
 the research objective,
 the costs involved in conducting the research,
 the availability of data sources.
 The design that gives the smallest experimental error is
the best design.

Planning and Preparing the Research Design
 The following elements are critical when making design
decisions
 What is the study about (purpose of the study)
 Why is the study being made (reasons for undertaking the
study)
 What type of data is required (data required)
 Where can the required data be found (source of data)
 What will be the sampling design
 What techniques of data collection will be used
 How will the data be analyzed (method of data analysis)
 In what style will the report be prepared (method of reporting)

Selecting the Sample
 How big should a sample be?
 Difficult question
 The bigger the sample size the greater will be its
precision.
 But for practical reasons, it is not feasible to select large
samples.
 A sample can be selected in two ways from a population
 through probability sampling, or
 through non-probability sampling.

Selecting the Sample
 With probability samples each element has a known
probability of being included in the sample.
 Probability samples are those samples based on
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling

Selecting the Sample
 But, non-probability samples do not allow the researcher
to determine this probability.
 Non-probability samples are those based on
 Convenience sampling
 Judgment sampling
 Quota sampling
 Several of the methods of sampling procedures may be
used in combination.

Execution of the Project
 Execution involves how the survey is conducted, by
means of structured questionnaire or otherwise, etc.
 The data may either be primary or secondary.
 Several ways of collecting the data exist.
 They may differ in terms of
 money costs
 time costs and
 other resources

Data Collection and Analysis
 There are several research techniques and a number of
data collection methods as well. For instance ..
 in the survey method-the data are collected by asking
the respondents to fill out a questionnaire.
 in the observation technique- the respondents are just
observed without their direct participation in the
research.
 Whatever the method used to collect the data, it is very
important that the data are collected without any errors.

Data Collection and Analysis
 After the data have been collected the researcher turns
to the task of analyzing them.
 The analysis may involve a number of closely related
operations such as:
 Editing of the raw data
 Summarizing and tabulation of the data
 Drawing statistical inferences, etc.

Interpretation, Generalizations and
Preparation of the Report
 Explaining and discussing of research results in line
with the theoretical framework is part of the
interpretation exercise.
 The research process is completed only when the
results are shared with the scientific community.
 For this task the researcher has to prepare the
report of what has been done by him.
 Writing the report must be done with great care.

Preparing the research proposal
 Every activity needs thorough planning.
 When you have thought out a research problem, you
must plan how the research will be carried out.
 This plan, which is like the building plan or blueprint to a
builder, is called Research Proposal.
 The research proposal is the main vehicle for the planning
of your research.
 The research proposals constitute the evidence of the
research plan.

Preparing the research proposal
 The proposal provides a basis for the evaluation of the
work and demonstrates clearly that the researcher know
what he/she wants to do.
 the proposal is the means through which evaluators
determine the intent of the research and its feasibility.
 It assures that the parties understand the project’s
purpose and the proposed method of investigation.
 It provides an inventory of what must be done and which
materials have to be collected

The purposes of he research proposal
 1. It has a planning function
 It describes what will be done, how it will be done and
in what time-frame.
 2. Organizing your ideas
 The proposal will help you to organize your ideas
into a coherent statement of your research intent.
 Your reader will be looking for this-objectives.
 It helps you to identify flaws or inadequacies.

The purposes of he research proposal
3. Convincing your audience
 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the
project and provides a systematic plan of procedure for
the researcher to follow.
 the proposal is used as the basis for vetting the quality
of the proposed research.
 However coherent and exciting your ideas, the research
plan is useless, if the proposal reveals that what you are
planning to do is simply not possible.

The purposes of he research proposal
4. Contracting with your ‘client’
 If you were asked to carry out a research project for a
commercial client you need to submit a clear proposal for
approval.
 Through the proposal you will specify what will be delivered
and how this will be achieved and would serve as a contract.

The purposes of he research proposal
 5. Educational function.
 the research proposal can act as an end-product in its
own right rather than serve as a prelude to an
empirical research project.
 Research proposals provide a useful learning exercise for
students.
 So, a research proposal is a pre requisite in the research
process.

Contents of a research proposal
 There are various formats for the research proposal and it
varies from Institution to Institution.
 However, most formats include the following:
 Introduction
 Background
 Statement of the problem
 Purpose of the study
 Significance of the study (Implications and Application)
 Operational definition of terms
 Assumptions of the study
 Scope and limitations of the study

Contents of a research proposal
 Theoretical Framework of the Study
 Review of the Related Literature
 Literature Review
 Appraisal/Summary of Literature review.
 Research Questions and Hypothesis

Contents of a research proposal
 Research Methodology
 Research Design
 Subjects (Population and sample; sampling
Technique)
 Instruments (construction and administration)
 Method of data analysis
 Statistical of Procedure to be used
 Budget and Time Schedule
 References

Contents of a research proposal
I. Introductory section – this part should include the
following information
 a) The title – the title should closely mirror the content
of your proposal.
 the title should be long enough to be explicit but
not too long so that it is tedious.
 It should contain the key words – the important
words that indicate the subject.

Contents of a research proposal
b) Statement of the Problem
 is a clear and precise statement of the question or issue
that is to be investigated.
 There is need to give convincing reasons for deciding to
work in this area.
 You should advance adequate reasons for choosing the
topic.
 i.e. you should tell the reader why you feel the research
is worth the effort.
 Example: out of the shortcomings of previous work, to
further knowledge in the area, etc.

Contents of a research proposal
 You will be expected to show a clear link between the
previous work that has been done in your field of research
and the content of your proposal.
 This is the largest section of the proposal.
 It introduces the research by giving the background,
presenting the research problem and indicating how
and why this problem will be “solved.”

Contents of a research proposal
c) Objectives of the study:
 The objectives of a particular research project delineate
the intentions of the researchers and the nature and
purpose of the investigations.
 The objectives list down the specific activities to be
performed.
 It is rather brief.

Contents of a research proposal
 Be careful to ensure that your objectives are precisely
written and will lead to observable outcomes
 The range of possible objectives can be listed as:
 to describe
 to explain and evaluate
 to compare
 to correlate
 to act, intervene and change……..

Contents of a research proposal
 d) Significance of the Study – this section justifies the
need for the study.
 It describes the type of knowledge expected to be
obtained and the intended purpose of its application.
 You should be able to justify the importance of your
study in terms of its implications or possible
applications.
 Does your study increase knowledge, solve problems
and answer some thorny questions in the field?

Contents of a research proposal
 e) Scope and limitations of the study:
 The research is often confronted with a number of
constraints during the course of an investigation.
 These are often beyond his/her control.
 They may place restrictions on the conclusions of the
work or their applications in other situations.
 Ranging from physical, human, financial, administrative
policies to invalidated data gathering instruments, time
and sampling technique, etc.

Contents of a research proposal
 These limitations should be clearly and concisely stated as
they affect your study- remedies
 boundaries of the study should be made clear with
reference to
 the areas to which the conclusions will be confined
 the sampling procedures, the techniques of data
collection and analysis, etc.

Contents of a research proposal
f) Review of the Literature:
 Both conceptual and empirical literature need to be
reviewed.
 The researcher has to make it clear that his problem
has roots in the existing literature but it needs
further research and exploration.
 The review of literature is a valuable guide to defining
the problem, recognizing its significance, suggesting
promising data-gathering devices, appropriate study
design and sources of data.

Contents of a research proposal
g) Definition of terms and concepts:
 Technical terms or words and phrases need to be
defined operationally.
h) Basic assumptions - statements of ideas that are accepted
as true.
 They serve as the foundation upon which the
research study is based.

Contents of a research proposal
II) Methodology section
 This will be the longest sections of the proposal.
 The methodology will explain how each specific
objective will be achieved.
 It will also justify your choice of method in the light
of those objectives.

Contents of a research proposal
 It shows how you are going to look for answers to the
research questions (including materials and methods to
be used).
 It will detail precisely how you intend to go about
achieving your research objectives.
 It must include enough details to demonstrate that you
are competent and the project is feasible.
 The proposed methods must be appropriate to the
type of research.

Contents of a research proposal
Procedures for collecting data – the details about the
sampling procedures and the data collecting tools are
described.
(i) Sampling – how the samples would be selected from
a large population need to be described.

Contents of a research proposal
 (ii) Tools (instruments) – which data gathering tools
such as observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc.
will be used.
 Will your research be based, for example, on a
questionnaire, interviews, examination of secondary
data or use a combination of data collection techniques?
 The proposal should explain the reasons for selecting a
particular tool or tools for collecting the data.

Contents of a research proposal
 Data Sources
 Involves primary and secondary data sources
 Primary data is collected directly from
respondents while secondary data is collected
from documented data sources.
 Sampling Techniques
 Describe the population from which the sample will
be drawn
 State the sample size and sample selection methods

Contents of a research proposal
 Data Collection Methods
 Give an outline of how research data will be collected
and administered
 The data collection instruments is/are identified,
defined and its/their relevance discussed.
 Sometimes pre testing of the instruments may be
necessary.

Contents of a research proposal
 In short, you should demonstrate to your reader that
you have thought carefully about all the issues
regarding your method and their relationship to your
research objectives.
 So, be sure to mention:
 Who your interview subjects are
 How you will interview them (if primary data)
 How the data were collected (if secondary data)
 You also need to include a statement about how you are
going to adhere to any ethical guidelines.

Contents of a research proposal
Procedures for treating data (method of analysis)
 In this section, the researcher describes how he/she
organizes, analyses and interpret the data.
 The details of the statistical techniques and the
rationale for using such techniques should be
described in the research proposal.

Contents of a research proposal
 Data analysis
 Justify data analysis tools and methods you intend to
use
 Explain how you intend to analyze and interpret
your results
 The methods of data analysis chosen depends on the
type of research
 The methods can range from simple descriptive
analyses to complex multivariate analysis.

Contents of a research proposal
 It is necessary for you to demonstrate that you have either
the necessary skills to perform the analysis or can learn
the skills in an appropriate time, or you have access to
help.
 (i) Statistical inference models
 Regression analysis is a good analytical tool, providing
a method to test various hypotheses relating to the
classical economic theory.
 A range of regression models.

Contents of a research proposal
Mathematical programming models
 An example of a mathematical programming model is
the linear programming model.
 There are also non-linear and dynamic mathematical
programming models that address a range of
economic and policy analysis questions and
hypotheses.
 The central theme is to optimize an objective function
subject to a set of constraints.

Contents of a research proposal
Simulation models
 Simulation is the operation of an abstract prototype of a
real system designed to trace out dynamic interactions.
 Simulation models have acquired substantial appeal
among policy analysts because of their ability to explore
the consequences of a wide range of alternative sets of
policies, plans and even management strategies.

Contents of a research proposal
iii) Budgeting and Scheduling the Research -Research costs
money.
 This may be for travel, subsistence, help with data
analysis, or preparation of questionnaires.
 Resource considerations may be categorized as finance,
data access and equipment.
 A proposal should include a budget estimating the
funds required for travel, printing, purchase of
equipment, tools, books, etc.

Contents of a research proposal
 The budget is a list of items that will be required to carry
out the research and their approximate cost
 It would include all or some of the following items:
 Management time
 Data collection
 Data analysis cost – software and hardware
 Transport cost
 Respondent’s incentives
 Think through the expenses involved and ensure that
you can meet these expenses.

Contents of a research proposal
 Time Schedule: Research must be scheduled
appropriately.
 Researcher should prepare a realistic time schedule
for completing the study.
 Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates for
the completion of each phase helps the researcher to
use is time systematically.
 Use time scheduling tools such as the Gantt or Pert
Charts

Gantt chart for a research project

Contents of a research proposal
 Produce a schedule for your research using a Gantt
chart.
 provides a simple visual representation of the
activities that make up your research project, each
being plotted against a time line
 The time schedule enables the researcher to asses the
feasibility of conducting a study within the given time
limits
 It helps the researcher to stay on schedule.

Contents of a research proposal
IV. Citations and references
 Every academic document should have a list of all cited
references, including those in tables and figures
captions.
 It is important that you correctly cite all consulted
published and unpublished documents that you refer to
in the proposal.
 This allows the reader to know the sources of your
information.

Contents of a research proposal
 Be sure to include every work that was referred to in
the proposal
 Formats vary slightly by journals and publishers, etc.
 A common format:
 For a book: Smith, Adam (1776). An Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London:
Dent and Sons
 For an article: Coase, Ronald (1937). “The Nature of
the Firm.” Economica 4, 386-405.

Contents of a research proposal
Appendix - Appendices such as questionnaires, maps sample
data or mathematical derivations should be included at
the end.
 Supporting documentation and evidence-
 letter from owner of data, etc.
 permission from any necessary authorities
 Evidence of material support
 Evidence of researcher qualifications, etc.

Criteria for evaluating research proposals
 The extent to which the components of the proposal fit together
 Your rationale for conducting the research should include a
study of the previous published research.
 The study should inform your research question(s) and
objectives.
 Your proposed method should flow directly from these
research question(s) and objectives.

Criteria for evaluating research proposals
 The viability of the proposal
 This is the answer to the question: ‘Can this research be
carried out satisfactorily within the timescale and with
available resources?’
 The absence of preconceived ideas
 Your research should be an exciting journey into the
unknown.