242015 A literature review compiles and evaluat.docx

2/4/2015
A literature review compiles and evaluates the research
available on a certain topic or issue that you are
researching and writing about. Because lit review formats vary
greatly, be sure to read your professor’s
instructions first and defer to them. A typical writing process
for a literature review follows these steps:
Use your research question as a guide for research. Once you
have completed the bulk of your research,
compile the topic and the research results into one coherent
thesis statement.
*
Refer to the Writing Center’s Argument, Research Tips &
Resources, and Thesis Statements handouts for more
information on these topics.
Define Topic
• What are you looking to explore?

• Example: The impact of service-
learning curricula on undergraduate
university students.
Research Question*
• Write a specific question to guide
your research.
• Example: How has service-learning
curricula impacted undergrads in
American Christian Universities since
2000?
Research*
• Find relevant sources.
• Read and take note of the main
points, conclusions, strengths, and
weaknesses of the research.
Analyze and Evaluate
• Assess how each source relates to
other research within the field.
• Group sources by theme, topic, or
methodology.
• Critically evaluate research.
Thesis Statement*
• Your thesis statement should contain

the overarching focus for your
literature review as well as the main
supporting points you found in the
literature.
• See back for example.
Write Literature Review
• Use an introduction, body
paragraph(s), and a conclusion.
• Include summary, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation (if appropriate).
• Lit review may be as short as a few
paragraphs or as long as a chapter.
Literature Review
● APU Writing Center ● (626)815-6000 ext.3141 ●
apu.edu/writingcenter ● apu.mywconline.com ●
2/4/2015
Literature Review Strategies
The following are brief descriptions of techniques that you
might use in your literature review. Choose the

approaches that are the most pertinent to your rhetorical
situation. Defer to your professor’s instructions.
Summary
Briefly state the
argument and main
points of relevant
research.
Synthesis
Combine ideas in order to form
an integrated theory or system
through critical evaluation,
compare/contrast, etc.
Analysis
Closely examine the
elements or structure of the
research and interpret

through the lens of the field.
Evaluation
Assess the research based on
criteria you choose, state, and
explain. Support your
evaluation with research.
Sample Literature Review (Short Version)
Thesis Statement: Service-learning programs implemented in
American undergraduate universities
since 2000 have not only proven beneficial for the individuals
or organizations being served but also for
the participating students by offering opportunities for
academic, emotional, and social growth.
Prior studies have identified many benefits for educational
institutions from
service-learning programs. These benefits include positive
perceptions of the university by
the community (Miron & Moely, 2006), enhanced student
retention rates (Eyler et al.,

2001), positive teaching and learning outcomes such as greater
student involvement and
participation in class (Caruso et al., 2007), and increased
opportunities for meaningful
research and scholarly activities (Strand et al., 2003).
In this study and related research, the individuals serving are
university students
who are collaborating with the community partner. The studied
benefits to individuals
serving include cultural awareness sharing (Crabtree, 2008), as
well as networking
opportunities and application of classroom learning to real-
world issues (Bowen et al.,
2009). Ultimately, service-learning stimulates student learning
and engages students in
their surrounding communities. Service learning creates new
goals for students such as
personal development, career development, moral development,
academic achievement,
and “reflective civic participation” (Lamb et al., 1998). These
types of projects allow
students to utilize material learned in the classroom to improve
societal conditions.

Integrating concepts and theories learned in the classroom with
everyday life
makes students more capable of highlighting the importance of
each course. Additionally,
material learned in business courses can be applied to benefit
the community through a
variety of tangible services, such as business planning or
marketing new programs.
Service learning is an excellent way for students to apply their
course lessons to real-world
situations and concurrently benefit the community.
Summary of
key research
Analysis and
Synthesis
Evaluation and
application to
thesis/topic
Sheet1Order # 53618899Part IX - Financial
DataRevenue2018201920202021Gifts/Grants/Donations/Contrib
utions$13,229$10,867$15,000$18,000Membership
Fees$0$0$0$0Gross Investment Income$0$0$0$0Net Unrelated

Business Income$0$0$0$0Other Income (Please describe this
income)$0$0$0$0Sales Income (Sale of
goods/services)$0$0$0$0Unusual Grants$0$0$0$0Fundraising
Income$0$0$0$0Total
Revenue$13,229$10,86715,000$18,000Expenses2018201920202
021Line 14 - Fundraising Expenses$0$0$0$0Line 15 - Grants,
Donations, Gifts to OthersFor
_____________________________$0$0$0$0For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0Line 17 - Director /
Officer compensation (Provide NAME & TITLE)For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0Line 18 - Other
salaries and wages (Provide NAME and/or TITLE)For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0For
_____________________________$0$0$0$0Line 19 - Interest
Expense$0$0$0$0Line 20 - Occupancy (rent, utilities,
etc.)$0$0Rent$0$0$0$0Utilities$0$0$0$0Line 21 - Depreciation
and Depletion$0$0$0$0Line 22 - Professional
Fees$0$0$0$0Line 23 - Other Expenses$0$0$0$0Program
Expenses (OVERHEAD EXPENSES. Please Itemize)Texas State
Formation of Azama Progressive Foundation Inc.
Expenses$459$0$0$0For ___Legal
Zoom__________________________$1,500$445$1,000$900For
Legal Zoom/Attorney Consultations/1yr Subscription
Expense$131$131$131$131For Website Development & 1yr.
Support/Hosting$930$300$300$250For 501©3 Recognition_&
Letter of Determination$620$0$0$0Formation of Azama
Progressive Foundation Inc.in Nigeria
Expenses$1,300$0$0$0Purchase of 2 New HP Laptops for the
Foundation in Nigeria$996$0$0$0Promotion for Scholarship
Expenses sent to Nigeria$894$375$450$600Scholarship Awards
to 100 Azama College Students$0$2,000$3,000$3,000Purcase of
100 Large School back packs /

shipment$0$1,507$0$1,600Purchase of 1.5 Acres of Virgin
Land for Cashew Plantion$0$3,500$0$0Labor Land
clearing/make ready for cashew planting/cashew seedling
transplant$2,000$0$1,500Misc. Expenses/Refreshment
for/Rental of chair & tables for scholarship
award$0$1,200$0$0Weeding/Ferterlizing/Establishment of
intercrops in the new cashew farm$0$0$1,200$1,200Barbwire
Fencing of the cash farm/Bill Board of the Foundation/No
Trespass Sign$0$0$1,500$0Office
Supplies$577$325$6001350Telephone$0$0$0$0Fax$0$0$0$0Int
ernet Expense$0$0$0$0Delivery & Postage$0$0$0$0Printing
Costs$0$0$0$0Reproduction (Copying)$0$0$0$0Transportation
Costs (Gas, Lodging, etc.)$0$0$0$0Parking$0$0$0$0Permits &
Licenses$0$0$0$0Insurance$0$0$0$0Other Expenses
Subtotal$7,407$11,783$8,181$10,531Total
Expenses$7,407$11,783$8,181$10,531Excess Revenue Over
Expenses$5,822($916)$6,819$7,469Additional
informationCurrent AssetsCash and Cash Equivalents$
2,000.00$ 2,200.00$ 2,420.00$ 2,662.00Short-Term
Investments$ 3,883.00$ 3,766.51$ 3,653.51$
3,543.91Inventory$ 500.00$ 485.00$ 470.45$ 456.34Other
Current Assets$ 2,578.00$ 2,500.66$ 2,425.64$
2,352.87prepaid expenses$ 1,765.00$ 1,712.05$ 1,660.69$
1,610.87Total Current Assets$ 8,726.00$ 8,464.22$
8,210.29$ 7,963.98Fixd assetsVehicles$ 36,831.00$
47,991.00$ 57,492.87$ 61,202.00Machinery$ 1,500.00$
1,500.00$ 1,650.00$ 1,815.00Less: Machinery
depreciationPlants$ 5,000.00$ 30,000.00$ 33,000.00$
36,300.00property and equipment$ 5,000.00$ 5,250.00$
5,775.00$ 6,352.50Property under capital lease$ 5,600.00$
5,880.00$ 6,468.00$ 7,114.80Good will$ 5,000.00$
5,250.00$ 5,775.00$ 6,352.50Total Fixed Assets$
58,931.00$ 95,871.00$ 110,160.87$ 119,136.80Current
LiablitiesShort term borrowings$ 2,684.00$ 2,818.20$
2,959.11$ 3,107.07Accounts Payables$ 1,500.00$ 1,575.00$
1,653.75$ 1,736.44Accrued Liabilities$ 2,500.00$

2,625.00$ 2,756.25$ 2,894.06Bank overdraft$ 476.00$
499.80$ 524.79$ 551.03Total Current Liability$ 7,160.00$
7,518.00$ 7,893.90$ 8,288.60Other commitments$
4,990.00$ 5,239.50$ 5,501.48$ 5,776.55Bank loan$
5,000.00$ 5,250.00$ 5,512.50$ 5,788.13contgencies and
commitments$ 4,250.00$ 4,462.50$ 4,685.63$
4,919.91Total Long term liabilities$ 14,240.00$ 14,952.00$
15,699.60$ 16,484.58common stock$ 5,000.00$ 5,250.00$
5,512.50$ 5,788.13Retained earnings$ 7,000.00$ 7,350.00$
7,717.50$ 8,103.38accumulated other comprehensicve income$
5,400.00$ 5,670.00$ 5,953.50$ 6,251.18Equity$
17,400.00$ 18,270.00$ 19,183.50$ 20,142.68
Sheet2
Sheet3
Running head: EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION ON
MARITAL SATISFACTION 1
The Effects of Communication Styles on Marital Satisfaction
Hannah Yager
University of West Florida
EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION ON MARITAL
SATISFACTION 2

Abstract
The differences in communication styles between men and
women have been a
topic of interest in the research world for many years. These
differences may lead to
miscommunication, conflict, and even dissatisfaction between
couples. This study
analyzes the communication styles among genders, more
specifically among married
couples. It questions how differences in communication styles
between married couples
married five years or less affect marital satisfaction. The study
will be conducted
through the use of an interaction analysis. Its goal is to increase
the amount of
knowledge regarding effective communication and how it
relates to marital satisfaction
in order to ultimately aid in the rise of marital satisfaction and
the decrease of the
divorce rate in the United States.

SATISFACTION 3
Today, divorce has become a very common part of life, and it
is likely that
ineffective communication plays a crucial role in the failure of
many marriages.
Communication may lead to the success of a marriage or to its
detriment, depending on
its level of effectiveness. This effectiveness of communication
is likely connected to the
overall satisfaction of married couples and is worthy to be
studied in order to increase
marital satisfaction.
Learning more about the differences in communication styles
between men and
women will aid in the more successful sending and receiving of
messages, both verbal
and nonverbal. For example, a woman may communicate in a
way that has meaning to
her. However, the man receiving the message may interpret it
differently than she
intended due to their differences in communication style. This
can cause conflict and
lead to further problems in the relationship. However, if the

man decoding the message
were familiar with his wife’s style of communication, he may
have interpreted it properly
therefore avoiding a conflict situation. The reverse, when men
are communicating to
women, is also true. Husbands and wives are interdependent,
and their level of
commitment and desire to maintain a healthy relationship often
depends on the other
person (Weigel & Ballard-Reisch, 2008).
Conventional wisdom says that there is no such thing as lack of
communication.
A person always communicates something, whether intentional
or not. Becoming more
aware of how one’s own self communicates will also aid in
more healthy communication
between spouses.
This literature review will discuss nonverbal communication
styles, including
flirtation, and conflict communication, including communicated
perspective-taking.

SATISFACTION 4
This study will further advance communication research by
helping people
discover more about their personal communication styles as men
and women and by
helping them communicate more effectively with their partners.
In a culture where
marriage is considered a risk, it is crucial to conduct studies
that will help further the
knowledge on how to have a successful marriage.
Review of Literature
Nonverbal Communication
To many, nonverbal communication may take a back seat to
verbal
communication. It is often overlooked and may be deemed
unimportant. However, this
aspect of communication speaks volumes. Nonverbal
communication may consist of
looking, smiling, frowning, touching, or expressions of surprise
as seen in Weisfeld and
Stack’s research study (2002). Women have been found to
exhibit these forms of
communication more often than men. Weisfeld and Stack

studied nonverbal behaviors
related to the closeness of a couple and found that women
looked at their partners for a
significantly longer amount of time as compared to men. The
average length of a wife’s
look was 7.5 seconds while the husband’s was 4.5 seconds.
However, while men
express less emotion and nonverbal communication, this may
not necessarily mean that
they are not listening when their wives speak to them. For
instance, Weisfeld and Stack
theorized that men may show less emotion because they have
been taught to dampen
emotions such as anger. When a husband and wife have a
disagreement, the situation
can escalate quickly if the husband fully expresses his emotions
by becoming violent.
Therefore, it was suggested that many men fail to show emotion
in general because
they have trained themselves to be “emotionless” in these
conflict situations. Sabatelli,
SATISFACTION 5

Buck, and Dyer (1982) also suggested that this is true. In their
study focusing on
nonverbal communication and its relationship to marital
complaints, they found that
wives who had husbands who were good communicators tended
to have more
complaints about their husbands. Their hypothesis was that
because men are expected
to tone down their emotions, having good nonverbal
communication skills may be seen
as socially unacceptable to their wives.
It is important to consider who the more effective
communicator is so that we can
learn from each other on how to communicate better. Noller
(1980) found that there is a
connection between a couple’s marital adjustment and their skill
at communication. She
had each participant first take the Marital Adjustment Test
(Locke & Wallace, 1959) to
determine their overall marital satisfaction. Then, after the
couples’ communication was
studied, the results showed that those with low marital
adjustment demonstrated

considerably fewer good nonverbal communications than those
with high marital
adjustment. However, the question must be raised: Do couples
have a higher marital
adjustment because they have good communication, or do
couples have good
communication because they are happy within their marriage?
Women were found to be better nonverbal communicators
across several studies
(Noller, 1980; Sabatelli et al., 1982). However, being an
effective communicator
involves both encoding and decoding messages. Women have a
natural tendency to be
more expressive. Therefore, men were found to make more
errors than women when
encoding messages (Noller, 1980). However, it was also found
that women were not
better decoders, or receivers of messages, than men. Though it
is quite possible that
this was due to the husbands’ poor ability to encode messages
effectively. The same
SATISFACTION 6

was found in other studies (Sabatelli et al., 1982; Koerner &
Fitzpatrick, 2002).
Additional findings by Sabatelli et al. and Koerner and
Fitzpatrick also suggest that
familiarity plays a role in how effective nonverbal
communication is. In both of their
studies, participants encoded and decoded messages to their
partners. The interaction
was recorded and evaluated by judges who attempted to decode
the same interactions.
Both studies revealed that the spouses were significantly more
skilled at decoding their
partners’ messages, implying that couples may become more
successful at interpreting
their spouses’ nonverbal communication over time.
Communication Styles When Flirting. Flirting is often
associated with the start
of a couple’s relationship. It is employed when one shows
interest in another person or
when one wishes to demonstrate sexual attraction. As
demonstrated in Horan and
Booth-Butterfield’s (2010) study, receiving affection is directly
related to relational

satisfaction. While giving affection is connected to commitment
in a relationship.
However, many may wonder if the act of flirting continues in
committed relationships
such as marriage. Is there a reason to flirt within marriage, and
if so, how do women
and men differ in their flirtation styles? In Frisby and Booth-
Butterfield’s (2012) study on
the purpose of flirtation, they found that a major reason for
flirtation within a marriage
was to create a private world between the couple and to
motivate sex. They also found
that women were more likely than men to use attentive flirting,
in which the woman
shows a great amount of concern for her husband. However in a
separate study on
flirtation motivation, men were also found to utilize attentive
flirting in order to make their
wives feel beautiful (Frisby, 2009). In concordance with
previous research, Frisby found
SATISFACTION 7
that men typically flirt to encourage sex, and women often flirt

to focus on attention, fun,
and interest in their spouses.
Another difference in flirtation style may occur due to the
differences in the
amount of expressiveness between men and women. Weisfeld
and Stack (2002)
conducted a study on nonverbal communication related to the
closeness of married
couples. Their research shows that on average, women smile
and laugh significantly
more than men. According to the same study, 78% of the
spontaneous touches that
occurred during the experiment were initiated by women,
demonstrating that women’s
flirtation style is much more animated.
Conflict Communication Styles
One inevitable aspect of any marriage is conflict. We as humans
will always have
disagreements that must be resolved, and as men and women,
we have many
differences in communication styles. It is possible that these
differences are the cause
of conflict situations within marriage. Hanzal and Segrin (2009)

found this to be true in
their study of negative affectivity, a personality trait that tends
to cause distressing
reactions to negative situations. They found that spouses’ use of
harmful
communication styles during conflict was directly related to not
only their own marital
satisfaction but also their partners’.
During conflict, husbands and wives may demonstrate positive
problem solving,
positive verbal communication, compliance, defensiveness,
stubbornness, conflict
engagement, withdrawal from interaction, contempt, anger, fear,
sadness, and whining,
as revealed by Gottman and Krokoff (1989). In their study on
what makes a marriage
satisfying, they found that the use of these types of
communication by certain spouses
SATISFACTION 8
may lead to dissatisfaction in a marriage. For example,
defensiveness, stubbornness,

and withdrawal were found to produce marital discontent over
time, especially when
exhibited by the husband. Based on this research study, it is
evident that marital
satisfaction is more related to negative communication than
positive. It was revealed
that, in particular, the wives’ sadness and the husbands’
whining, examples of negative
communication, were both connected to overall marital
dissatisfaction. Interestingly, it
was also discovered that spouses were more content in their
marriages when the wives
expressed anger during conflict and less content when they
expressed fear and
sadness. One explanation for this could be that men respond
better when their wives
communicate in similar way as they do such as being direct
when expressing
frustration.
Another aspect of conflict communication is partner appraisal,
or a spouse’s
perceptions of the other (Sanford, 2006). In Sanford’s study,
three types of appraisal
were studied: expectancies for partner understanding,

expectancies for partner negative
communication, and negative attributions for partner behavior.
He maintained that
based on a spouse’s appraisal of the other, his/her behavior will
change. For example, if
the wife expects her husband to be harsh and negative when a
conflict arises, she will
begin the argument already in a defensive mode. On the
contrary, if she expects her
husband to be accepting and kind, she will act in the same
manner. Sanford’s study
found that wives’ expectancies produced within-person behavior
change more so than
men’s, implying that women are more susceptible to the effects
of their appraisal.
Communicated Perspective-Taking. One way to resolve marital
conflict
effectively is for both spouses to see things through the other’s
point of view. Kellas and
SATISFACTION 9
colleagues (2013) referred to it as perspective-taking. It
demonstrates that a person

cares for his/her spouse and is making a conscious effort to
resolve any issues. The
research team found that the main way spouses sensed
perspective-taking from their
partners was through agreement behaviors such as confirmation,
supportiveness, and
taking ownership of faults. However, there were significant
differences in how husbands
and wives perceived perspective-taking individually. When
husbands observed negative
or unsupportive behaviors from their wives more often, they
were less likely to rate them
as understanding their perspectives. When husbands observed
attentiveness from their
wives, they were more likely to see them as taking their
perspectives. Conversely,
negative behaviors, such as inattentiveness and disagreement,
were the only factors
that related to wives’ perceptions about their husbands’
perspective-taking, verifying the
differences in communication preferences between men and
women. Overall, this study
demonstrates the great effects of negative communication on the
perceptions of

perspective-taking between spouses.
Communication among couples is a topic that has been
thoroughly studied.
However, further study of the differences in communication
styles between men and
women will lead to better understanding. Specifically,
communication among newlywed
couples should be studied in order to learn what may be causing
strife early in a
marriage and ultimately lead to better understanding of how to
maintain a successful
marriage. Therefore, the following research question is raised.
RQ: How do differences in communication styles between
married couples
married five years or less affect marital satisfaction?
SATISFACTION 10
Method
To answer the proposed research question, I would utilize
interaction analysis.

The sampling frame would consist of any person who has
obtained a marriage license
in Florida within the last five years, which would produce a
diverse group of newlywed
people who have varying incomes, careers, and education. To
choose the sample,
systematic sampling would be employed. The twenty third name
on the list would be
selected and every twentieth name from that point on would be
chosen. Forty couples
would be selected.
To begin the study, participants would first be asked to take the
Marital
Adjustment Test (Locke and Wallace, 1959) individually and in
private to determine their
satisfaction in marriage. In the next part of the research process,
three types of
communication would be examined: nonverbal, conflict, and
flirtation. To assess
nonverbal communication, couples would be placed in a room
that contained a kitchen
and everything they may need to cook a meal. Recipes would be
provided and couples

would be asked to make a three course meal with their spouses.
The interaction would
be videotaped and transcribed. A coding scheme would be
developed based on the
different types of nonverbal cues that occurred. To evaluate
conflict communication,
participants would be prompted to tell a story about a time when
they experienced a
stressful or tense time in their marriage. Again, the interaction
would be videotaped and
transcribed, and the coding scheme would be developed based
on the different types of
positive and negative conflict communication that occurred.
Flirtation among spouses
would be assessed throughout the entire research process
including cooking the meal
and discussing a stressful time in marriage. The data produced
would be compared to
SATISFACTION 11
participants’ scores on the Marital Adjustment Test to
determine how their
communication style relates to their marital satisfaction.

SATISFACTION 12
References
Frisby, B.B. & Booth-Butterfield, M. (2012). The “how” and
“why” of flirtatious
communication between marital partners. Communication
Quarterly, 60(4), 465-
480.
Frisby, B.N. (2009). “Without flirting, it wouldn’t be a
marriage”: Flirtatious
communication between relational partners. Qualitative
Research Reports in
Communicatio, 10(1), 55-60. doi: 10.1080/17459430902839066
Gottman, J.M. & Krokoff, L.J. (1989). Marital interaction and
satisfaction: A longitudinal
view. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(1), 47-
52.
Hanzal, A. & Segrin, C. (2009). The Role of Conflict
Resolution Styles in Mediating the
Relationship Between Enduring Vulnerabilities and Marital

Quality. Journal of
Familty Communication, 9(3), 150-169. doi:
10.1080/15267430902945612
Horan, S.M. & Booth-Butterfield, M. (2010). Investing in
affection: An investigation of
affection exchange theory and relational qualities.
Communication Quarterly,
58(4), 394-413. doi: 10.1080/01463373.2010.524876
Kellas, J.K., Willer, E.K., & Trees, A.R. (2013). Communicated
perspective-taking during
stories of marital stress: spouses’ perceptions of one another’s
perspective-
taking behaviors. The Southern Communication Journal, 78,
326-351. dio:
10.1080/1041794X.2013.815264
Koerner, A. & Fitzpatrick, M.A. (2002). Nonverbal
communication and marital
adjustment and satisfaction: The role of decoding relationship
relevant
relationship irrelevant affect. Communication Monographs,
69(1), 33-51. doi:
10.1080/03637750216537

SATISFACTION 13
Locke, H.J. & Wallace, K.M. (1959). Short marital-adjustment
and prediction tests: Their
reliability and validity. Marriage and Family Living, 21(3), 251-
255.
Noller, P. (1980). Misunderstandings in marital communication:
A study of couples’
nonverbal communication. Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology, 39(6),
1135-1148.
Sabatelli, R.M., Buck, R. & Dreyer, A. (1982). Nonverbal
communication accuracy in
married couples: Relationship with marital complaints. Journal
of Personality &
Social Psychology, 43(5), 1088-1097.
Sanford, K. (2006). Communication during marital conflict:
When couples alter their
appraisal, they change their behavior. Journal of Family
Psychology, 20(2), 256-
265. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.256
Weigel, D.J. & Ballard-Reisch, D.S. (2008). Relational
maintenance, satisfaction, and

commitment in marriages: An actor-partner analysis. Journal of
Family
Communication, 8(3), 212-229. doi:
10.1080/15267430802182522
Weisfeld, C.C. & Stack, M. A. (2002). When I look into your
eyes. Psychology, Evolution
& Gender, 4(2), 125-147. doi: 10.1080/1461666031000063656
Running head: LIVING WITH CHRONIC ILLNESS 1
Living with Chronic Illnesses 2
Living with chronic illnesses: How are those with a chronic
illness treated by their families since their diagnosis?
Maura K. Little
University of West Florida
EXAMPLE

Abstract
This study aims to figure out what the relationship and meaning
of the ways that a family treats a family member with a chronic
mental or physical illness. The exploration of the way those
with a chronic illness are treated since their diagnosis is
important to understand the perceptions, behaviors, and
communication that surrounds illness. Chronic mental illness
will be analyzed against chronic physical illness to assess
similarities and differences in family behaviors. Participants
included individuals selected from local support groups based
on their illness as well as family structure. An ethnographic
study would be used to compare both the verbal and nonverbal
relationship between the ill family member and the rest of the
family.
Introduction
This study aimed to focus on both physical chronic illnesses and

mental chronic illnesses and their effects on family
communication, particularly surrounding the diagnosis of the
illnesses.
Family has a large impact on the perceptions of illness. In
recent times, the publicity around individuals with chronic
illnesses, both mental and physical, has increased dramatically
in the media. From the production of films about those with
physical chronic illnesses to celebrity diagnosis of a mental
illness, illness is something our society is beginning to talk
about more frequently. However there are certain stigmas
attached to these illnesses that make it harder for patients and
their families to cope with their situation. Most often because of
the portrayals of chronic illness that romanticize illnesses and
do not necessarily show all of the effects of these illnesses on
the patient or their family.
Both mental and physical chronic illnesses are much more
complex than how they are portrayed in the media. These
illnesses often produce copious amounts of side effects that
bring a whole new level of challenges to the patient's struggle
through their daily life and readjustment after diagnosis. One
effect that is often not publicized as much as others is the
relationships that exist between the patient and their family.
These family relationships may change drastically with the
diagnosis of and grappling with a chronic illness, changing how
family members perceive one another, how they act, and even
how they communicate. All of these things depend upon the
nature of the family, and the illness and produce different
changes. However, through all different types of families and
illnesses, communication in situations like these is essential to
understanding one another. According to Rosland (2009),
several interviews and focus groups showed that family
members lowered stress, and are central to patient success. In
most instances, the family is the primary caregiver to someone
with a mental or physical chronic illness, and the family
relationship is important in the healing process due to proximity
and the support received from family members. The diagnosis of

a chronic illness has the potential to change the fabric of the
family dynamic to help accommodate to the family member who
is ill.
While it is clear that families often change to accommodate, it
is unclear how family members communication changes since
the diagnosis of a chronic illness, if change is present at all.
Which begs the question: How are those with a chronic illness
treated by their families since their diagnosis? Little research
exists regarding the potential changes associated with the new
found illness. Answering this question will help to make those
in a family with one or more person who is chronically ill more
aware of their own behavior, and will also shed light on the
patients perception of their illness, and how that has been
influenced by the family’s communication about the illness.
This study is essential to the communication field, particularly
health communication, because it adds to the ongoing
conversation about how to understand people who are
chronically ill and treat them in a world where in 2012, 117
million people had one or more chronic health issues (Ward et
al., 2014). This study will explore both chronic physical and
mental illness in the context of the family, focusing on
marriage, parent-child relationships, and the use of narratives.
This will help assess the problems that come with illness, and
find out what happens to family communication when a family
member gets diagnosed with a chronic illness.
Literature Review
Chronic physical illness and chronic mental illnesses are
reviewed separately here due to the tremendous differences in
the two. In this study they will be compared against one another
to cross analyze the differences and similarities in how the
family member is treated depending upon their type of illness.
Chronic Physical Illness
Chronic physical illnesses vary in types and intensity, but have
one characteristic in common: they recur throughout time,
usually at random intervals. The uncertainty that comes along
with a diagnosis along these lines can greatly effect family

communication and relationships.
Marriage. Marriage is the basis of most families in many
cultures. Keeping the marital bond strong could be very
difficult in the face of a chronic physical illness. A chronic
physical illness could potentially change the daily lives and
interactions of the entire marital relationship. It is important to
discuss the communication that occurs around theses illnesses
in order to understand how those who have one have been
treated since their diagnosis based on research already
conducted around similar communication processes. Badr and
Acitelli (2005) found that in couples that used relationship talk,
or talking about the nature and direction of the relationship,
chronically ill couples had more benefit than a couple that did
not include someone who had a chronic physical illness did.
This literature proves that in a situation where a spouse is
chronically ill, it is important to use communication to make
one another aware of certain things such as how one felt about a
situation, or what one needs or expects from their partners.
Talking about the state of the relationship can be helpful for
chronically ill people to express fears in relation to their illness
and the marriage. Berg and Upchurch (2007) suggested that
collaborative talk is the type of communication that is
commonly correlated with positive results. This shows that it is
important for married couples to talk about their situation
together to keep their relationship strong since these tactics
have been proven to be helpful for the couple. Shuff and Sims
(2013) add on to this by stating that couples that are aware of
their partner’s expectations of communication in the marriage
are more successful in supporting one another. Being aware of
the partner’s desires and being able to fill them is central to
satisfaction in the relationships’ functioning. Marital coping
and sharing is not limited to relationship talk though. Another
powerful way of sharing within the family is through narrative.
Narratives. Something that is strongly recognized and praised
throughout literature on chronic physical illnesses is narratives.
Several studies (Freeman & Couchonnal, 2006; Ott Anderson &

Geist Martin, 2003; Walker & Dickson, 2004) stress the
importance of narratives for the family healing process.
Narratives are beneficial because they allow research to capture
personal accounts of illness, and let the ill person be a
gatekeeper to their own information about their illness. Ott
Anderson and Geist Martin (2003) state that those with a
chronic physical illness are more likely to actively share if their
feelings and perceptions are confirmed by other people,
especially friends and family. Some chronic illnesses have a
negative social stigma to them, and confirmation that people
will be respectful is important to getting the patient to open up
about their experiences. Narratives and storytelling help
families to communicate about changes that have taken place.
Ott Anderson and Geist Martin (2003) conclude that the ever
changing identity in the face of illness never stops, it is an
endless development. Sharing through narrative in cases of
chronic physical illness has the potential to better family
communication because the patient is able to clearly and
concisely explain what is happening to them from their personal
point of view. This can help the family identify what the patient
has gone through, as well as understand new emerging
identities. However, Lorde (1980) points out an important
paradox where sometimes patients may be empowered by giving
a narrative account of their story, while others may feel anxiety
from reliving those moments of their life. According to
Grotcher and Edwards (1990), when participants used
communication to reduce their fear of their illness, they were
likely to communicate about their illness more often. Walker
and Dickson (2004) show that narratives are important in
understanding and meeting the expectations of the family
members when they are chronically ill. Often times people will
have expectations for their family members without verbally
expressing them, leaving family members more often than not
confused about what direction to take. However, a narrative or
forms of storytelling in the case of a chronic physical illness
may reflect some of the patients unfulfilled needs, and help

family members to identify them.
Chronic Mental Illness
A chronicmental illness can be extremely hard for families to
cope with given the negative social stigmas that exist about the
illness in most societies around the world today. A chronic
mental illness in a family member could lead to almost constant
care and monitoring, depending upon the illness and the
intensity. Families may find it difficult to cope with or come to
terms with a family member’s diagnosis of a chronic mental
illness due to the many challenges it presents. Much of the
literature surrounding mental illness in the family is psychology
based, and there is a strong need for communication based
studies to better understand these unique families.
Marriage. An important aspect of the family dynamic is
marriage. It is the foundation of most families, and gives people
feelings of stability. Communication is essential to marriage,
but little literature exists exploring the communication around a
diagnosis of a mental illness. However, much literature exists
on its effects on marriage. Perry (2014) focused on social
networks and stigma in relation to those with a serious mental
illness. A spouse is a very prominent and strong part of a
married person’s social network. If someone is entering or
exiting a marriage, their social network changes in many
different ways. Perry (2014) found that the stigma of a mental
illness had contact with the social network and the relationship
between the two works ambiguously together. Meaning that the
social network responded to the mental illness through their
own thinking, and proving that spouses typically control family
conversations. Spouses decide the climate of the family views
and values towards different topics as they raise their offspring,
if they choose to have any. Segrin (2006) shows that there is a
strong call for communication scholars to explore the way that
families interact, especially about mental illness, and that a
positive or a negative attitude can set a precedent for what
future family communication will be like based off of how
spouses interact. The different communication processes that

couples partake in set examples for children to interact based
on. Adding mental illness to the mixture, Schmaling and
Jacobson (1990) show that wives that are depressed are more
likely to make an aggressive comment to their husbands than
wives that are not depressed would, and depressed wives have
less positive discussions than their counterparts. These
aggressive statements could likely become a stressor for the
marriage or produce a negative schemata of marriage for
children or adolescents in the family. Segrin (2006) offers that
depression has a large impact on the family, and usually just
creates more problems that tends to result in fueling depression.
However this assertion could also be true of the communication
patterns surrounding may other types of mental illnesses in the
family.
Parent-Child. Looking at the parent-child relationship in
reference to mental illnesses, it is known that parents are the
primary caregivers to children and adolescents with chronic
mental illnesses. Literature mainly focuses on the illness from
the parents’ perspective, rather than the child’s, suggesting that
little is known about children’s perceptions of their parents’
mental illnesses. Richardson, Cobham, McDermott, and Murray
(2013) explained that parent’s feelings of loss about an adult
child with a mental illness focuses on grieving about ambiguous
losses, like the child’s loss of self or identity. This loss and
grieving process has the potential to shape the families
behaviors and patterns of communications. Since there are
usually no tangible effects of a mental illness, parents may
often find it hard to cope with a diagnosis and come to terms
with it. Even harder for families to process is the fact that in
most cultures and societies in the world, there is a negative
social stigma to having a mental illness. Richardson et al.
(2013) also noted that parental grief over the child’s mental
illness was not socially acceptable. Several studies (Richardson
et al., 2013; Chadda, 2014) discussed this notion that parents
felt as though the illness or their own grief should be hidden
because it is not socially acceptable. Most of the struggles that

parents in this situation face are with the topics of self-concepts
and identities, with variance to whether it is their own, or their
child’s’. Richardson et al. (2013) found that the child’s illness
changed the parents own identity. Since the identity and self are
such fluid concepts, it is important to understand the self and
different identities as well as the changes that occur with the
two in accordance to both the parents, and the children. There is
little literature in regards to mental health’s effects on self-
concepts and identities. Aside from the self, another important
factor to contend when discussing mental illness between the
parents and children is parenting styles effects on these children
with mental illnesses. Hamond and Schrodt (2012) explored the
effects of the different parenting styles on children’s mental
health and concluded that there was no statistically significant
evidence that the different styles had an effect on mental health.
However Hamond and Schrodt (2012) continued by noting that
findings indicated that acts of affection and authority make
limited, but important, improvements to the child’s mental
health. When it is the parent in the relationship who is mentally
ill, the communication process is entirely different. As found in
Van Loon, Van de Ven, Van Doesum, Witteman, and Hosman
(2014), where adolescents internalizing and externalizing
behaviors were correlated to parents mental illness. Parents with
mental illnesses were found to have a negative effect on the
adolescent or child, the whole family, and even the parent and
child’s interactions (Van Loon et al., 2014). This literature
exemplifies that parental mental illness controls more channels
of communication than a child or adolescent’s mental illness
does. While much literature exists about families and mental
illness, unfortunately very few scholars focus on the talk that
occurs about the family member with the illness, and the
communication around this topic.
Reviewing the literature leads back to the question: how are
those with a chronic illness treated by their families since their
diagnosis? Analyzing both mental and physical illnesses and the
family communication processes around them are essential to

furthering the conversation that communication scholars are
creating to understand these unique families.
Methodology
To answer the given research question, qualitative methods
would be most appropriate to find an answer. Literature on
related topics suggests that qualitative methods are most
appropriate (Badr & Acitelli, 2005; Berg & Upchurch, 2007;
Chadda, 2014; Freeman & Couchonnal, 2006; Hamond &
Schrodt, 2012; Ott Anderson & Geist Martin, 2003; Richardson
et al., 2013). An ethnographic study should be used because as
Keyton (2011) states, it “…allows the researcher to observe and
understand how communication is generated and responded to in
a particular context” (p. 300). This would aim to aid
researchers’ in their quest to understand the relationship of
participants who are ill in relation to their family members.
This would involve a nonrandom sampling strategy to get the
combination of characteristics needed for the study.
Specifically, purposive sampling, to be able to get close and
personal enough with the participants to have them share details
about their personal lives.
This purposive sample depends upon researchers knowing
what is typical and atypical of the populations they are
studying. A sampling frame of an exhaustive list of chronic
physical and mental illnesses will be created, and participants
will be selected based on whether or not they, or someone in
their immediate family, has one of the listed illnesses. The
sample will be selected by going to local support groups for
individuals with both mental and physical illnesses. A wide
array of illnesses will be selected, and age will be as varied as
possible. Participants who are selected will be contacted via e-
mail or phone call to ask them to participate in the study.
Once participants respond and confirm their consent to
take part in the study, the researcher will begin to go into the
family home and talk to family members. Since ethnography is
similar to a participant observation study, the researcher needs
to build a relationship with the families being studied,

especially with those who have the mental or physical illness, if
possible, to assess the changes that have occurred in behavior
since the diagnosis. Once trust is established, the researcher can
come in and begin recording the conversations about the
diagnosis time, and how participants felt. This data will be
compared to stories from before the diagnosis period, for both
mental and physical illness affected families. A list of
operationalized concepts such as: love, affirmation, avoidance,
and fear, will be created to classify the nonverbal actions
towards the ill family member. Collecting both verbal and
nonverbal accounts can give a better representation of the true
behaviors of family members’ actions, both verbally and
nonverbally towards the chronically ill family member. An
analysis of the responses in relation to the stories around the
diagnosis and before the diagnosis will be compared to the
observed actions of the families in relation to the ill family
member. Once this has been done for both chronic mental
illness and chronic physical illness, the results will be cross
analyzed to compare and contrast the different verbal and
nonverbal communication styles. Using ethnography will allow
for an in depth and lengthy analysis of these different families,
and the effects of mental illnesses and physical illnesses on
family communication.

References
Badr, H., & Acitelli, L. K., (2005). Dyadic adjustment in
chronic illness: Does relationship talk matter? Journal of Family
Psychology.19(3), 465-469. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.19.3.465
Berg, C. A., & Upchurch, R., (2007). A developmental-
contextual model of couples coping with chronic illness across
the adult lifespan. Psychological Bulletin.133(6), 920-954.
Chadda, R. K., (2014). Caring for the family caregivers of
persons with mental illness. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 56(3),
221-227. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.140616
Freeman, E. M., & Couchonnal, G., (2006). Narratives and
culturally based approaches in practices with families. The
Journal of Contemporary Social Services. 43(3), 198-208.
Grotcher, J. M., & Edwards, R., (1990). Coping strategies of
cancer patients: Actual communication and imagined
interactions. Health Communication.2, 255-266.
Hamond, J. D., & Schrodt, P., (2012). Do parental styles
moderate the association between family conformity orientation
and young adults’ mental well-being?. TheJournal of Family
Communication.12, 151-166. doi:
10.1080/15267431.2011.561149
Keyton, J., (2011). Communication research asking questions,
finding answers.New York: McGraw Hill.
Lorde, A., (1980). The cancer journals. San Francisco: Sheba.
Ott Anderson, J., & Geist Martin, P., (2003). Narratives and
healing: Exploring one family’s stories of cancer survivorship.
Health Communication.15(2), 133-143.
Perry, B. L., (2013). Symptoms, stigma, or secondary social
disruption: three mechanisms of network dynamics in severe
mental illness. Journal of Social and Personal

Relationships.31(1), 32-53. doi: 10.1177/0265407513484632
Richardson, M., Cobham, V., McDermott, B., & Murray, J.,
(2013). Youth mental illness and the family: parents’ loss and
grief. Journal of Child and Family Studies.22, 719-736. doi:
10.1007/s10826-012-9625-x
Rosland, A., (2009). Sharing the care: the role of family in
chronic illness. California Healthcare Foundation, 1-27.
Retrieved from
http://www.chcf.org/~/media/MEDIA%20LIBRARY%20Files/P
DF/F/PDF%20FamilyInvolvement_Final.pdf
Schmaling, K. B., & Jacobson, N. S., (1990). Marital interaction
and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 99, 229-236.
Segrin, C., (2006). Family interactions and well-being:
integrative perspectives. The Journal of Family
Communication.6(1), 3-21.
Shuff, J., & Sims, J. D., (2013). Communication Perceptions
Related to Life-Threatening Illness in a Relationship: A Q
Methodology Study. Florida Communication Journal, 41(2), 81-
96.
Van Loon, L. M. A., Van de Ven, M. O. M., Van Doesum, K. T.
M., Witteman, C. L. M., & Hosman, Clemens M. H., (2014).
The relation between parental mental illness and adolescent
mental health: the role of family factors. Journal of Child and
Family Studies. 23, 1201-1214. doi: 10.1007/s10826-013-9781-
7
Walker, K. L., & Dickson F. C., (2004). An exploration of
illness-related narratives in marriage: The identification of
illness-identity scripts. Journal of Social and Personal
Relationships.21(4), 527-544. doi: 10.1177/0265407504044846
Ward, B. W., Schiller, J. S., & Goodman, R. A. (2014). Multiple
chronic conditions among U.S. adults: A 2012 update.
Preventing Chronic Disease.11.
Individual Project: Part 2 Instructions
Based on the topic you chose for training (TOPIC- (New
Employee Orientation Program), please conduct a literature

review (NOT AN ESSAY) to support your training program.
The literature review should be written in APA format,
including a properly formatted title page, abstract, and
reference page (not Works Cited or Bibliography). The
literature review must be a minimum of 8 full pages, excluding
the title page, abstract, and references pages, and must include
at least 10 scholarly references. Textbooks do not count towards
the number of references. The Bible must be used as 1 of the
references; however, the Bible will only count as 1 source, no
matter how many verses are used. The remaining 9 references
must be scholarly articles from peer-reviewed journals,
published within the past 5 years. References may not include
websites, blogs, newspapers, magazines, books, textbooks, or
conference proceedings. Remember, a literature review is a
review of the current literature on a particular topic. The goal is
not to solve a problem, so there should not be a research
question.

242015 A literature review compiles and evaluat.docx

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