Organisational AnalysisPower, Control and Coalition.docx

Organisational Analysis
Power, Control and Coalition
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1
Organisational Power, Control and Conflict
Objectives:
Introduce the concepts of power, control, conflict and coalition
Understanding a subjectivist approach to analysis
Powerful internal and external stakeholders
Analysing the roots of dissatisfaction, dissent, suspicion and
coalition
Is worker coalition the answer?
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2
Critical Organisational Analysis and Strategy Development
Strategy Development
Resource Based View

External Environment
External Stakeholders
Internal
Stakeholders
Inward Looking
Outward Looking
‹#›
PESTEL
Political
Economic
Social
Technology
Environment
Legal
Strategy Development Framework
Outwards looking organisations
‹#›
A Precarious Balance of Power for Organisations
In strategic management:
We look at resources within the organisation
Internal stakeholder engagement
And we look outside organisational boundaries
External stakeholder engagement
Identifying social and environmental issues that matter most to
performance in order to improve decision-making and
accountability.

‹#›
Critical Theory as an Analytical Tool
Critical Theory as enabling managers to understand both sides
of an argument
Understand that arguments are intractable because they emanate
from people holding different assumptions
‹#›
The Need to Go Beyond “Rationality”
Organisations are portrayed as systems of oppression, rather
than as systems of order
Stories of social divisions, power, exploitation, inequality and
conflict within organisations
Social classes in organisations exist and are in conflict
Emergence of pejorative language in the description of
organisations:
“Capitalist organisations alienate and exploit workers”
(Burawoy, 1979)
‹#›
Critical Theory Analysis
Critical Theorist: Systems of Oppression

Systems of Production: Places of Work
Capitalist organisations alienate and exploit workers
Worker emancipation requires the establishment of a more
democratic and egalitarian organisation
‹#›
Organisations are analysed as capitalist class relations (i.e.
owner and labourer).
Organisations are portrayed in terms of
Capitalist mode of production characterised by exploitation and
alienation of the workers by the owners of the means of
production
Calls for worker emancipation, and for the establishment of a
more democratic and egalitarian organisation
The emergence of a ‘critical’ organisational discourse.
In the US:
C. Wright Mills (1956) The Power Elite
Alvin Gouldner (1954) Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy
(1955) Wildcat Strike
In the UK:
Ralf Dahrendorf (1959) Class and Class Conflict In An
Industrial Society
‹#›
Justification for Critical Theory Analysis

If organisations do not recognise and address problems, then
these problems are often exposed in more uncomfortable
settings:
Social media
News reports
“Haterade” (excessive negativity, criticism, or resentment)
“Clicktivism”
‹#›
Understanding the Critical Theory Viewpoint
Organisations experience social divisions from within and
outside
Differences stem from ideological differences
Major influence Karl Marx (1818-1882)
Concerned with social divisions, power, inequality and conflict
within organisations and broader society
‹#›
Limitations of Functional Analysis
Organisational ‘Truths’ are only partially represented by
process models
What is missing from Process Models?
Are Process Models incomplete?
Analysis of Organisations through Critical Theory

‹#›
Critical Theory
Ontology (World View)
There is an objective reality about organisations
But
Accounts of organisations are discovered through subjectivist
interpretations
‘Nature cannot be seen as it ‘really is’ or ‘really works’ except
through a value window’
Guba (1990: 24)
By “world view” it means some are ideologically oriented to see
“capitalist” organisations as exploitative and thus disputes
occur
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The uncovering or “reveal” of ideology
Inductive: a process of developing theory from observation and
interpretation:
Reflexive
Historical
Discourse Analysis
Self-awareness
Introspection

‹#›
Previously: Application of Science to Control Workers
Machine paced labour (Scientific Management Strategies):
Grounded in a technical rational paradigm that advantages
quantifiable information
Increase efficiencies by simplifying the production process into
specialised tasks
Management develops precise scheduling and organising of
work activities
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15
Inequality Regimes within Organisations
Critical Theory Analysis of Inequality Regimes
All organisations have inequality regimes (gender, age, etc)
Organisational members are misled by those in power
Systems of inequality are reinforced, embedded, routinised
Defined as loosely interrelated practices, actions, meanings that
result in and maintain class, gender, and racial inequalities
within particular organisations
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Unequal Systems and Resistance
How do workers redress the reduction in bargaining power or
inequalities?
How is freedom from oppression and exploitation attained?
‹#›
Calls for Emancipation: Workers as Active Agents Within
Organisational Relationships
Workers’ resistance to unequal power in the workplace:
Individual action:
Verbal complaints
Go-slows
‘Cheating’
Absenteeism
Looking for other work
Sabotage
Theft
Collective Action:
Strikes
Go-slows
‘Sick-out’
The formation of trade unions
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18

A Different Portrayal of Management
A more ‘critical’ analysis of dominant organisational ideas and
management practices.
‘critical theorists have shifted the image of management and the
theoretical agenda ‘from saviour to problem’
Crowther and Green (2004: 119).
‹#›
Unpacking stories from opposing perspectives
The organisation’s narrative is not only internal
communications, websites, annual reports, etc.
The organisation’s story comprises a totality of narratives
Allows us to interrogate, critically, the nature of any
institutionalised pattern of social relationships within a society
(and organisation) in the context of manifest imbalances of
power, i.e. between advantaged and disadvantaged
‹#›
Critical Theory: Discourse Analysis
Let us step through a number of examples of narratives
What is the truth?
What people accept as being the truth ‘Knowing’ the ‘truth’ is
‘tainted’ by dominant ideology and values of the those seeking
‘truth’.

‹#›
How do disputes manifest?
Linking awareness and human emancipation or improvement
‹#›
The Corporate Point of View
‹#›
Critical Studies of Power and Control
Portrayal of organisations as places exploitation
Organisations are excessively or obsessively driven by capital
accumulation
Greater the exploitation of labour—greater the profit.
Extension of the working day (for the same wages)
Efficiency drive to produce more in the same amount of time for
the same wages
Technological development (reduction of wages)
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24

Understanding why people resist
People resist systematic disparities in organisations
Unrest
Coalition, workforce organisation against management,
corporate greed
Managers need to be aware of the organising processes that
constitute inequality regimes in organisations, that are related
to the “economic decision making that results in dramatically
different local and regional configurations of inequality”
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Giving Voice to the Exploited
‹#›
Emancipation through Worker Coalition
Organisational members (workers) are misled by those in power
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Issues are heavily contested
The purpose is, therefore, to develop appropriate organisational
practices to address the problems
What Outcome are We Trying To Achieve?

‹#›
Do Coalitions, themselves, become Exploitative?
THE former Health Services Union leader was leading a
charmed life.
Kathy Jackson appeared to be a wealthy woman who was living
in luxury.
She travelled the world and bought expensive cars and designer
clothing.
But her world has come crashing down as she has been charged
with 70 theft and deception offences by union corruption
investigators…………………
‹#›
Do Coalitions, themselves, become Powerful?
Construction unions using bikies as 'hired muscle' in industrial
disputes: Victoria Police
By Alison Savage
Updated 8 Jan 2016, 2:50pm
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Summary: Why Critical Theory?
Contrasting a Modernist-Functionalist mindset with a Critical
Theory mindset (ontology)
To show different world-view (ontological) assumptions
Ideologies have fundamental different assumptions
Explains why some ideologies conflict
Managers have to analyse the roots of conflict
Some organisational problems are intractable
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References
Dahl, R. A. (1957). The concept of power. Behavioral science,
2(3), 201-215.
Freund, J. (1969). TheSociology of Max Weber.
Giddens, A. (1985). The nation-state and violence (Vol. 2).
Univ of California Press.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life.
Hamilton, P. (Ed.). (1991). Max Weber, Critical Assessments
2 (Vol. 2). Taylor & Francis.
Hatch, M. J., & Cunliffe, A. L. (2012). Organization theory:
modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. Oxford
university press.
Dahrendorf, R. (1959). Class and class conflict in industrial
society. Stanford University Press.
Durkheim, E. (2014). The division of labor in society. Simon
and Schuster.
Gouldner, A. W. (1954). Patterns of industrial bureaucracy.
Guba, E. G. (Ed.). (1990). The paradigm dialog. Sage
Publications.
Mills, C. W. (1999). The power elite. Oxford University Press.
Guy, G. (2011). Language, social class and status.
In R. Mesthrie (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of

sociolinguistics (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 159–185
‹#›
Critical Theory
In: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods
By: John M. Budd
Edited by: Lisa M. Given
Book Title: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research
Methods
Chapter Title: "Critical Theory"
Pub. Date: 2012
Access Date: October 6, 2018
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks
Print ISBN: 9781412941631
Online ISBN: 9781412963909
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909

Print pages: 175-179
© 2008 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods.
Please note that the
pagination of the online version will vary from the pagination
of the print book.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909
Critical theory is a foundational perspective from which
analysis of social action, politics,
science, and other human endeavors can proceed. Research
drawing from critical theory has
critique (assessment of the current state and the requirements to
reach a desired state) at its
center. Critique entails examination of both action and
motivation; that is, it includes both what
is done and why it is done. In application, it is the use of
dialectic, reason, and ethics as means
to study the conditions under which people live. This entry
describes the development of critical
theory and its applications to a variety of research questions.
Background

Critical theory has a considerable history; from its beginnings
with the Frankfurt School to the
current time, it has undergone some changes. That said, its
usefulness as a means of inquiring
into questions of social structure and action is undeniable.
Critical theory retains its
fundamental postpositivist character even in its transformed
state.
Origins
Approximately seven decades ago, Max Horkheimer articulated
the foundations of the social-
theoretic school of thought that would be called critical theory.
Horkheimer, along with Theodor
Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and others affiliated primarily with
the Institute for Social Research at
the University of Frankfurt am Main, began to revisit Karl
Marx's critique of capitalism and apply
it to contemporary society.
The Frankfurt School founders drew to some extent from the
idealism of George Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel as well in their development of dialectical
means of analysis. The Hegelian
source was far less important, however, than were Karl Marx
and Max Weber. The difference of

their approach was to situate it in immanent (knowledge within
the realm of possible
experience) terms rather than transcendent (the condition of the
possibility of knowledge)
terms. The role of history was central to Horkheimer, Adorno,
and Marcuse. For that reason,
historical examination was, for them, an important element of
analytical method. The historical
was not merely artifactual; it was essential to understanding of
the social situatedness of
contemporary social life.
Second Phase
Critical theory is usually separated into three stages. Following
the work of the Frankfurt School
members, some transformation of underlying principles, and so
methods, was begun. Jürgen
Habermas studied with founders of the Frankfurt School; his
early work demonstrated his
intellectual and practical debts to them. His analysis of the
public sphere was firmly historical in
SAGE Research MethodsSAGE
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The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research MethodsPage

2 of 9
that he drew his analysis from the manifestation of public
political and social behavior.
Habermas then began to turn to communication and language as
the analytical and normative
bases for inquiring into social action. The normative aspect is
important as a distinguishing
mark between his work and that of others who are linked to a
movement sometimes called the
“linguistic turn.” One element of consistency between the first
and second stages of critical
theory is the denial of relativism that can characterize other
theoretical and methodological
approaches.
Third Phase
Some students of Habermas further transformed some of the
conceptual and analytical bases
of critical theory. The third stage of work built on Habermas's
critique of instrumental reason—
something that he continued, but altered, from the Frankfurt
School founders. During the third
stage, the force of ideology and its influence on social action

became more particularized.
Analysis became, if anything, more immanent. The situatedness
of specific human actors—and
their historical development—was a methodological
centerpiece. Also, the connection of
ideology and the ethical analysis was strengthened.
Critical Theory and Method
Although there are three identified stages of critical theory, all
three conceptions have
methodological value. There are some conceptual and
foundational differences among the
three stages, but there are questions as to which methodological
specifics of each stage can
be applied. The realm of social theory generally is extremely
broad; any historical, political,
economic, and technological elements can be studied in depth.
Furthermore, conceptions of
ideology can be applied to analysis in numerous ways.
Therefore, the changes to critical theory
do not represent supersessive variables. Because of the breadth
of critical theory's brush,
many kinds of questions may be amenable to its application.
Historical Analysis

Because all of critical theory relies on a particular kind of
historicism (the starting point that
people are historical agents who are participants in action as
well as being subject to action),
the analysis of historical situatedness is an important
methodological component. The historical
analysis of critical theory is of a specific sort. Rather than being
explanations of events, it is
intended to be indicative of current states. Because much of
critical theory owes a debt to Marx,
the political and economic investigation that it supports depends
on examination of the
genealogy of capitalism. The historical analysis generally
focuses on societal action and the
impact of large-scale policies and decisions on the behavior of
individuals in society. If a
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particular Marxian starting point is adopted, for example, the
analysis might examine class

differences and the distinctions of the ways in which people of
different classes live. The
Marxian approach is emblematic of the first stage of critical
theory, but it is a bit less
pronounced during the latter two stages. Although that emphasis
is less pronounced, it still
informs analysis to some extent. The historical examination
could seek evidence for the loci of
decisions that affect the study of society. A single decision
could have varying effects on
different segments of society; what benefits one group may be
detrimental to another group.
The kinds of differences, and their sources, are of interest to
researchers.
Historical evidence comes substantially from documentation.
Official documents are usually the
most authoritative sources for the decision-making activities of
the state. This sort of
documentation can record policies relating to zoning,
transportation, infrastructure, taxation,
education, and other areas that have direct impacts on people's
lives. The locations of schools
and the paths of public transportation, for instance, are largely
matters of public record and are

open to examination. Other documentation, however, might be
necessary materials for
researchers to gain a purchase on deliberation and debates and
on responses to the policies.
Newspapers are among the sources that a researcher could
consult. In the cases of more
recent events, there might be archives of community access
broadcasts that record public
meetings and community-led discussions. The entirety of the
documentary record might need
to be consulted in an effort to understand the critical events and
discourse that affect society.
Historical evidence is one building block of critique. That is,
the critical theorist will interpret
evidence in terms of effects on those individuals and segments
of society that can be least
likely to be positioned to influence policymaking. A tenet of
critical theory follows from Kant's
dictum that people should always be treated as ends—never as
means—that guides
interpretation. An implication of the tenet is that historical
analysis is particular, not universal.
Individuals’ lives are affected by turns of events; the events
themselves are brought about by

humans. The particularistic historicism requires that, so far as
possible, people's interpretations
of their own states should be taken into account.
Observation
Methodologically, the understanding needed by the researcher
can be achieved in part through
observation. Daily lives of, say, the working poor can be
followed. The observation consists of
the living conditions of individuals, the kinds of work being
done and the places where the work
is done, and spatial limitations that effectively limit movement,
living space, and other kinds of
existence. The observation is informed (shaped) by critical
theory. That is, the theory identifies
restricting factors as well as potentialities for emancipation.
The Marxian aspect of the theory is
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especially important in shaping observation. Living conditions
(including, but not limited to,

housing) are economically determined, but they may also be
affected by several other social
and other components. Race, as well as economic class, may
also be a factor involved with
circumstances affecting people's lived lives. The observation
follows from the numerous
instruments that influence much of life. Reason, underlying
observation, enables the
researcher to understand the “other.” So, the individuals who
are observed are not objects of
study but rather people whose conditions are genuine.
Opportunities for observation in the critical theoretic framework
exist in the normal course of
events. For example, a city may plan to rejuvenate a downtown
area that has fallen into a state
of deterioration. The plan could involve housing, retail
business, office space, and other
elements. Initially, the plan will likely be subject to review at
several levels, including community
response. Hearings and meetings could help and could be
observed as they occur. In keeping
with critical theory, the researcher could trace who speaks—
where the individuals live, what
their interests are, and so on—and what they say. Speakers may

indicate what their interests
are and how the plan will serve or disrupt those interests.
Enactment of the plan probably
entails dislocation of some people; the disposition of the people
can be followed. The economic
states of all involved in the plan can be observed as well, and
the observation can be extended
over time. There are numerous other conceivable examples that
necessitate observation.
Interviewing
Observation, in the application of critical theory, is not
sufficient even if it is necessary.
Individuals, who are other selves, apprehend their lived lives in
some particular ways. For
instance, spatial limitations might be perceived not merely as
geographic boundaries but also
as social and cultural boundaries. The meaning of perceptions
can be comprehended by
researchers only by inquiring of the individuals. Asking people
what they believe is open to
them and what is closed is the practical application of reason by
the researcher. The
interviewing process also opens the potential practice of reason
on the part of the interviewees.

At this point, the act and product of critique is vital.
Interviewees may be constrained in their
perceptions and their interpretations of their own perceptions by
instrumental reasoning. Their
reasoning may be guided by the expression of interests other
than their own. Once again, the
Marxian character of critical theory provides the interpretive
impetus for the researcher.
Questioning may elicit responses indicating that interviewees do
not perceive their labor as their
own, that people's perceptions are influenced by capitalist
culture, and/or that senses of value
and belonging do not exist. The interviewing process must be
open (as in not directed by the
interviewer) so that forthright responses are given.
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Public Participation
The second and third stages of critical theory, in particular, pay
attention to people's lived lives.

The second stage is especially influenced by Habermas's work
in communicative action and
discourse ethics. During this stage, a more pragmatic focus to
inquiry is evident. Examination of
what people say and how they say it (especially in public) is
frequently foremost. In terms of
theory, the pragmatism of communication and discourse
constitute norms. There are ideal ways
in which to communicate, discourse is bound by reason, and
there is an ethical imperative that
guides people's discursive interactions. According to this
normative theory, there is a gauge
against which human action can be assessed. With regard to
public discourse, human agents
are bound to apply practical reason and ensure that ethical
responses are given to others’
speech. Such normative standards influence research practice.
Reason
One factor that pervades all three stages of critical theory is the
recognition that reason is
possible and necessary for human action. The practice of
critique depends both on reason as a
tool for the practice and on observation of practical reason.

Reason as applied by the
researcher entails the avoidance of e n g a g i n g i n h u m a n
b e h a v i o r a n d a c t i o n a s
instrumentalities. From t h e i n q u i r e r ' s s t a n d p o i n t ,
t h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s d e v e l o p i n g a n
understanding, informed by practices described subsequently, of
difference. For example, the
lives lived by the poor are materially and qualitatively different
from the lives lived by others.
The difference is likely to affect all aspects of existence.
Reason is applied in defining not just
the material differences but also the qualitative and other
differences. What people do is
important to critical theory, but why people do what they do—
and also what they cannot do—is
also important.
Reason also is intended to supply a link between the immanent
and the transcendent. That is,
throughout the entirety of critical theory, the actions of people
should be guided by truth that is
provided by the exercise of reason. Application of critical
theory, in light of reason, is also
intended to connect theory to the interests that people have.
Critical theory, then, is not an

abstraction; it is a way of examining normative elements of
human action in terms of the many
and varied material interests that lead to action. Critical theory
is also a mechanism by which a
researcher can assess honesty as well as truth, for example, can
evaluate what people say
they believe in and what they do. This form of evaluation
permits the analysis of differences
between practical reason and instrumental reason and the
outcomes of the use of the one as
opposed to the other. A researcher's inquiry into the use of
reason necessitates employing
historical analysis, observations, and interviews as well as
examination of some underlying
social and communicative dynamics.
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Ideology
Analysis grounded in critical theory includes examination of
ideological forces and statements

that influence human action. Once again, this aspect of critical
theory signals its Marxian basis;
capitalism is a major ideology that has been, and continues to
be, the focus of much attention.
During the first stage, capitalism was the dominant perceived
ideology. During the latter two
stages, the study of ideology was broadened to include many
aspects of race, gender, class,
and other things. The purpose of including ideology in analysis
is, as always, critique. The
existing conditions of people are the focus of analysis, as is the
possibility for emancipation
from current conditions. Study of the communicative actions of
people can unveil some of the
ideological presumptions that underlie what p e o p l e s a y a
n d d o . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e
communication and discourse may reveal processes of inclusion
and exclusion. Study can
investigate who is given voice and who is not as well as the
agency of the speakers (the extent
to which their voices are heard and acted on).
The researcher is challenged by the study of ideology. The
sources of belief might not be

readily apparent because the ideological origin can be deeply
rooted through history and
situation. Analysis of ideology requires examining the discourse
that is used in a variety of
settings, perhaps especially official settings, and the definitions
and applications of discursive
terms. For example, in critical theory, “Enlightenment” carries
ideological import that may
shadow particular kinds of control. Other emblematic terms may
also serve similar purposes. It
is important to note that critical theory embraces much more
than just the economic elements
of life. All aspects of lived lives, including association,
mobility, and schooling, fall under the
purview of critical theory.
Challenges for the Research
Because critical theory has been developed and reshaped over
several decades, the
researcher must be aware of all the nuances and influences of
the key figures. In fact, the
researcher must apply historical analysis to critical theory itself
so as to form the clearest
understanding of the framework it supplies. The most pressing
challenge for the researcher

rests with ideology. Any commitment to investigation of
ideological underpinnings of human
action necessitates initial inquiry into any potential ideological
baggage that the researcher may
carry. Ideology tends to be suffused throughout society;
successful ideological forces are those
that are less than conscious in their influence over action. The
researcher may be required to
engage in some self-critique—investigation into beliefs that are
held and internal situatedness
—prior to conducting analysis. Only then can the effects of
ideological policies, discourses, and
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the like be fully comprehended.
T h e w a r n i n g s t h a t c u s t o m a r i l y a p p l y t o o
b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d y , interviewing, and
phenomenological research in general also apply with regard to
critical theory. Errors or
insufficiencies in those areas could have deleterious effects on

the process and product of
critique. Because critique is the intended outcome of
investigation, it is essential that the
researcher apply the theory with care and vigilance. This
application of critical theory involves a
substantive difference from grounded theory, which is
inductive. There is a perspective that
informs critical theory; the assumptions that reason can yield
truth, that instrumental reason
can subvert practical reason, and that ideology shapes the
relations between people and
between groups of people all provide epistemological and
ontological starting points for inquiry.
When it comes to methodology, there is an onus on the
researcher to make the assumptions
very clear. There is also an onus on readers of critical theory-
based research to be aware of the
point of view that the theory adopts. These challenges do not
render critical theory irrelevant or
impossible; rather, they position research rooted in critical
theory within a particular political,
social, economic, and dialectical framework.
John M. Budd

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909.n89
See also
Interviewing
Observational Research
Phenomenology
Further Readings
Adorno, T., &Horkheimer, M.(1987). The dialectic of
enlightenment ( Edited by: J.Cumming,
Trans.). New York: Continuum.
Benhabib, S.(2002). The claims of culture: Equality of diversity
in the global era. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Habermas, J.(1993). Justification and application: Remarks on
discourse ethics ( Edited by:
C.Cronin, Trans.). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Edited by: Hohendahl, P.-U., &Fisher, J. (Eds.). (2001).
Critical theory: Current state and
future prospects. New York: Berghahn Books.
Marcuse, H.(1964). One-dimensional man: Studies in the
ideology of advanced industrial
society.Boston: Beacon.

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Overview for referencing in written reports,
essays and assignments
College of Business
Dr Peter Chomley
The academic challenge: Understanding how

you communicate
The RMIT College of Business Guidelines are based on the
Style manual for
authors, editors and printers (2002), referred to here as Style
manual (2002)
which is published on behalf of the Commonwealth of Australia,
and is the
Commonwealth Government’s preferred style. The Style manual
(2002) can be
used to provide guidance on areas which are not covered in the
RMIT Business
document, but if there is any inconsistency you should follow
the RMIT
Business document.
RMIT University 2018 College of Business v.4 2010 2
What is referencing?
• Referencing means acknowledging someone else’s work or
ideas. It is
sometimes called ‘citing’ or ‘documenting’ another person’s
work.
• Referencing is a basic University requirement.

• It is mandatory for all students to cite or acknowledge
information that has
come from other sources.
• Without appropriate referencing students are in effect
‘stealing’ the work of
others - this is tantamount to academic fraud.
There are consequences if students fail to reference their
assignments. These
may include:
• Reduction in marks for assessment tasks.
• Failure in a course of study.
• Expulsion from a program.
Note: The Harvard system has many variations. You must use
this version
known as the AGPS style.
3RMIT University 2018
When do I reference?
You reference whenever you have used a piece of information
that comes from

• Text books
• Journals
• Published papers, (e.g. conference or working paper)
• Newspapers
• Websites
• TV/Radio interviews
• Personal communication
• Others
You must cite the origins of the information you are using,
whether you have
copied the words directly or whether you have paraphrased.
• If in doubt----REFERENCE!
Referencing
Whenever you rely on someone else’s work you must
acknowledge that by
providing details of the source.
In this system, each reference is indicated in two areas of your
work:

• in the text (in-text citation) by using the name of the author(s)
and the date of
publication of the work.
• In the reference list, where the full details of each reference,
including the title
and publishing details are given
In-text citations
There are two ways of referencing in-text:
• Paraphrasing - ideas of the author(s) are expressed in your
own words.
• Direct quotes
How to reference in-text
There are two options for in-text referencing
• Adding the citation at the end of the sentence.
• Using the author’s name as part of your sentence.
• When paraphrasing include the author’s name and date of
publication.
e.g.

– Lack of variability in a product is an important measure of its
quality
(Shannon 2003).
OR
– Shannon (2003) describes the role of statistics in minimising
product
variability.
General rules for reference in-text (1)
Where the name(s) of the authors are given:
• For books, journals, websites, conference papers and
newspapers, the
general rule is to use the family name and the date.
7
One author
Family name
Year of publication
Kumar (2007) argued that…

...(Kumar 2007).
Two or three authors
Family name
Year of publication
Brown and Lee (2008) offer the opinion that…
....(Brown & Lee 2008).
Four or more authors
The name of the first author followed by
‘et al.’
Year of publication
Note: Family names of all authors, and
initials, to be used in the reference list
Ng et al. (2004) stated that…
…(Ng et al. 2004).
RMIT University 2018
Where the name(s) of the authors are NOT given:
• For books, journals, websites, conference papers and

newspapers, the
general rule is to use the organisation name and the date.
8
Newspapers from a database or hard copy
Name of paper – in italics
Date
Page
Date viewed
Database if applicable
In-Text Reference
As stated in the Financial Review (1 August
2007, p. 62, viewed 27 August 2007, Factiva
Database)…..
…. (Financial Review, 1 August 2007, p. 62,
viewed 27 August 2007, Factiva Database).
Websites – corporations / institutions
An organisational publication with no
individual author e.g. a corporate website or

report, treat the company as the author
Name of authoring body, corporation /
institution
Year of publication
Telstra (2007) provided the latest….
...,(Telstra 2007).
Several items with same author and year):
9
If you are referring to more than
one work written by the same
author in the same year, the
letters a,b,c etc are added to the
date to indicate which one you
mean.
In the reference list the works

are listed alphabetically
according to the title. If the title
starts with ‘A’, ‘An’, or ‘The’, the
alphabetical order is determined
by the second word in the title
Hill, CWL 2004a, Global
business today, 3rd edn,
McGraw Hill / Irwin,
Boston.
Hill, CWL 2004b, Strategic
management theory: an
integrated approach, 6th
edn, Houghton Mifflin,
Boston.
Hill (2004a) suggests that...
Hill (2004b) suggests that...
...(Hill 2004b).
...(Hill 2004a).

Secondary citation (citation within a citation):
• A secondary citation is when you refer to the work of one
author cited by
another author.
• Primary sources are preferred.
10
If the original source is not
available you must include
the name of both writers for
in-text references.
Only the source you have
read appears in the reference
list.
Horton, S 2006, Access by
design: a guide to universal
usability for web designers,

New Riders, Berkeley,
California.
‘Form ever follows function’
(Sullivan, cited in Horton
2006, p. 1).
In 1896 Louis H. Sullivan
observed that ‘form ever
follows function’ (cited in
Horton 2006, p. 1).
How to use quotes (1)
Direct quotes
• Direct quotes show where another person's original thoughts,
words, ideas,
images etc have been used word-for-word in someone else's
work. Direct
quotes should be kept to a minimum.
Quotations are used to:

• acknowledge the source of your information, eg ideas, words,
thoughts, images
etc
• enable the reader independent access to your (re)sources.
Using the author’s name as part of your sentence.
e.g.
– Research shows the ‘Lack of variability in a product is an
important measure
of its quality’ (Shannon 2003, p. 147).
OR
– Shannon (2003) describes the ‘lack of variability in a product
is an important
measure of its quality’ (p. 147).
Direct quotes (short)
• Follow these steps to use direct quotes in your assignments.
• Copy the exact words from the original source.

• Use quotation marks ' ' at the beginning and end of the copied
text.
• Reference with appropriate author, year and page number
information.
Also:
McShane and Travaglione (2003) state ‘work motivation and
performance
increase when employees feel personally accountable for the
outcomes of
their efforts’ (p. 199).
Blockquotes (long direct quotes)
• For citations over 4 lines, blockquotes should be used. A
blockquote is
indented and written as a separate paragraph. It does not have
quotation
marks around it.
Reference lists (1)

A reference list:
• The publication details of every item cited / used in your
writing need to be
included in the reference list at the end of your paper. Any
websites used
must also be documented in full. This enables the reader to
locate the source
if they wish.
• Each reference list entry requires a specific format depending
on the
reference type i.e. whether it is a book, book chapter, journal
article, website,
etc.
• You must use a variety of sources in your written work e.g.
books, journals
and websites etc. This indicates that you have researched
widely.
Note: RMIT Business requires all students to use a reference
list in
assessment tasks unless otherwise instructed by your lecturers

Reference lists (2)
Order of entries:
Note: No full stops are used between an author’s initials, and no
comma is
used after the last author's initials. The dots following the
entries’ names
indicate the details of the reference that should follow.
15
Reference list order rules Reference list
The reference list is arranged first alphabetically
by author, and if the authors are the same then
by date.
A reference with multiple authors follows single
author entries beginning with the same author
name.
Where an item has no author it is listed by its
title.
Where several works have the same author and
year of publication, add the letters a, b, ... etc
according to the alphabetical order of the titles in
the reference list, ignoring the initial articles A,
An or The.
Jones, AB 2000, ...
Origin Energy 2005, …

Smith, AK 1990, ...
Smith, AK 1999, …
Smith, AK 2004, …
Stein, B 2003, …(single author entry)
Stein, B, Lee, HK, Yin, CX & Singh, GS 2000, … (plural and
alphabetical
author entry, that is, Lee comes before Reynolds in the English
alphabet.)
Stein, B & Reynolds, JS 1995, …
Stein, B & Reynolds, JS 2000, … (This reference is sorted by
its date, it
has the same authors as the reference before it but was written
at a later
date)…
Style manual for authors, editors and printers 2002, ...
Young, JC 1988a, Economic indicators …
Young, JC 1988b, A quick guide … (Economic comes before
quick in the
English alphabet)
Young, JC & Smith, AK 1988, …
Reference lists (3) - examples
Textbook

• Schermerhorn, J Davidson, P Factor, A Woods, P Simon A &
McBarron, E
2016, Management, Wiley, Milton, Qld.
Journal article
• Cole, B, & Salimath, M 2013, ‘Diversity identity management:
an organizational
perspective’. Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 116, no.1, pp.
151–161.
eBook
• Karlsen, F 2013, A world of excesses: online games and
excessive playing, Routledge,
Proquest Ebook Central.
Book Chapter
• Ahmadjian, C 2006, ‘Japanese business groups: continuity in
the face of change’, in S
Chang (ed.), Business groups in East Asia: financial crisis,
restructuring, and new
growth, 3rd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 22-51.
Website
• World Health Organization 2014, WHO recommendations for
routine immunization –

summary tables, World Health Organization, viewed 1 May
2014,
<http://www.who.int/immunization/policy/immunization_tables/
en/>
RMIT Resources
https://emedia.rmit.edu.au/dlsweb/bus/public/referencing/secon
dary_sources/s
econdary_sources.html
http://mams.rmit.edu.au/lp7zndovilp7.pdf
http://www1.rmit.edu.au/browse;ID=8rwjnkcmfoeez
http://www.lib.rmit.edu.au/easy-cite/
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/1_studyskills/study
_tuts/studysmart/
referencing.html
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/1_studyskills/study
_tuts/harvard_ll/
harvard.html
https://emedia.rmit.edu.au/dlsweb/bus/public/referencing/secon

dary_sources/secondary_sources.html
http://mams.rmit.edu.au/lp7zndovilp7.pdf
http://www1.rmit.edu.au/browse;ID=8rwjnkcmfoeez
http://www.lib.rmit.edu.au/easy-cite/
Cover page
Contents
1Introduction3
1.1Problem statement3
2Methodology – Demonstration of Critical analysis – thinking
(how)3
3Literature Review (Find and Generate)4
4Analysis/Response:
Solution
Development and Proposal5
5Discussions5
6References5
7Discussion6
8References6
9Appendices6

Introduction
Students need to articulate the various issues they have
identified drawn from the case study details.
Students should identify the issues and make substantive or
critically engaging comment about the relevant paradigm
perspectives involved, as well as identifying related course
concepts, including. Do not be descriptive, make sure you
engage with the paradigm.Problem statement
The problem statement is an incisive, insightful, powerful and
engaging statement of the problem. This section conveys your
groups’ identification of the problem. Remember, what an
organization states as being the problem may be vague and it is
the result of your group’s critical engagement with the problem
that has resulted in your group’s statement of what you present
the problem to be.
How do you, as an individual, see what the problem is? This
problem statement also drives your search for literature for
inspiration to solve your problem. What themes did you
identify? What have others done?
· The pre-campaign functionalist approach of the mining
company. Assumptions such as: that it is merely an organisation
going through a commercial process - 'making money =
sustainability ?Methodology – Demonstration of Critical

analysis – thinking (how)
To help you write the methodology, you must draw from the
given readings from Assignment 1 when constructing this
section.
As reminder, one of the required readings is: Hirschheim, R.
and Klein, H. K. (1989). Four Paradigms of Information
Systems Development. Communications of the ACM, 32(10),
pp. 1199-1216.
Which two of the given readings did you identify and de-
construct as being Radical Structuralist and Neohumanist?
Importantly, how did you apply these perspectives in
developing your solution?
Literature Review (Find and Generate)
Find scholarly resources, that will help you ground your
solution proposal
What themes would you search? Do this on your own and try to
identify researchable questions or themes, worth asking. These

themes can help you to build your solution, you do not re-invent
the wheel but identify gaps in knowledge.
You may create a hierarchy of themes based on “find and
generate”. For example, you might think about:
· Risk management frameworks?
· Project planning, life-cyles?
· Reputational risk?
You might create a list of sub-themes if necessary to convey
how you wish to organize your literature.
·
Importantly, identify gaps, are these frameworks too functional,
and if so, what do they miss out?
·
Analysis/Response:

Organisational AnalysisPower, Control and Coalition.docx

Organisational AnalysisPower, Control and Coalition.docx

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