Reading notes

1. Tshen Tashi (59064484)
How Languages are Learned
Pasty M. Lightbown and Nina Spada
Chapter 6: Second Language Learning in the classroom
Proposals for teachings
Many theories investigated to find an answer for
‘What is the best way to promote language learning in classrooms?’
1. Get it right from the beginning
- Grammar translation approach: Emphasis on written language, rule learning, translating
literary works.
- Audiolingual approach: Emphasis on oral language, repetitive drill, memorization
1.1 Research findings
- preferred by adult learners but may lead to early fossilization
- little benefit for school students
1.2 Interpreting the research
- meaning-based instruction is advantageous than form-based instruction
2. Just listen ... and read
- emphasis is on providing comprehensible input through listening and/or reading activities.
2.1 Research findings
- listening and reading strategies can lead to a better understanding
- reading enhance vocabulary skills
- input floods allow for high-frequency exposure to grammatical forms
2.2 Interpreting the research
- comprehension-based learning is an excellent way to begin learning and is a good supplement.
- input-based instruction is t effective in guided learning and listening/reading for meaning.
3. Let’s talk
- learners ‘negotiate for meaning’ to express and clarify their thoughts
- negotiation leads learners to acquire the words and grammatical structures
- involves requests for clarification or requests for confirmation, repetition with rising intonation
3.1 Research findings
• Learners talking to learners (Long and Porter, 1985)
- learners tend to speak more with other learners
- produce a longer conversation with advanced speakers
• Learner language and proficiency level (Yule and MacDonald, (1990)
- students with higher proficiency tend to overpower lower proficiency
3.2 Interpreting the research
- develop fluency and communication abilities in conversational interaction.

2. - hard for learners to give each other critical feedback in conversational interaction.
- corrective feedback (e.g. recasts) in conversational interaction help learners in accuracy and
development of language forms.
4. Get two for one
- content-based language teaching (CBLT): Learners acquire a second or foreign language as
they study subject matter taught in that language.
- effective for encouraging meaningful interaction
- give students an increased amount of exposure to the language
4.1 Research relevant to ‘Get two for one’
• French immersion programs in Canada (Harley and Swain, 1984)
- subject matter should incorporate instruction on language form as well
• Late immersion under stress in Hong Kong (Johnson, 1997)
- environment and other cultural factors are important for students
• Dual immersion (Lightbown, 2007)
- better outcomes in English as well as content knowledge
• Inuit children in content-based programmes (Spada and Lightbown, 2002)
- student troubles in understanding the content
4.2 Interpreting the research
- Advantages of content-based language teaching: Increases amount of exposure to L2, creates a
genuine need to communicate, and cognitively challenging.
- Challenges of content-based language teaching: Children need many years to acquire language
for cognitively challenging academic material. In content-based language teaching, both
language and content must be attended to.
5. Teach what is teachable
Pienemann (1988) and his colleagues suggest that:
- variational features can be taught at any time
- developmental features should be taught according to the learners’ internal schedule
- instruction cannot change the natural order of acquisition
5.1 Research relevant to ‘Teach what is teachable’
• Ready to learn (Pienemann, 1988)
- learners cannot be taught what they are not developmentally ready to learn
• Readies, unreadies, and recasts (Mackey and Philp, 1998)
- readies in the interaction + recast were found progressive than readies with no recast
• Developmental stage and first language influence (Spada and Lightbown, 1999)
- L1 influence is responsible for the learners’ inability to generalize their knowledge
5.2 Interpreting the research
- other factors can affect L2 learning; type of instruction/feedback & L1
- teaching according to developmental level is not necessary
- not all language features have developmental sequences
6. Get it right in the end
- not everything has to be taught but some must be taught explicitly

3. - meaning-focused instruction is crucial
- some form-focused instruction is beneficial
- learners accessed to form-focused instruction will perform better
- benefit in efficacy and proficiency
- focus instruction allows learners to notice target features in input and interaction
- learners need to know their errors
6.1 Interpreting the research
- form-focused and corrective feedback improve knowledge and use of grammatical features
- the rule in some language features are complex
- timing of form-focused instruction and feedback may make difference in L2 learning
- learners benefit more from feedbacks
- in feedback, some studies report recasts is beneficial than prompt but another report opposite
- needs to consider counterbalance hypothesis
Assessing the proposals
Classroom research supports from within communicative and content-based interaction
1. ‘Get it right from the beginning’:
- does not correspond to the majority of successful L2 learners have acquired their proficiency.
2&3. ‘Just listen and read’ and ‘Get two for one’:
- no support for the hypothesis that language acquisition will take care of itself if L2 learners
focus exclusively on meaning/content.
4. ‘Let’s talk’:
- conversational interactions can lead to increased fluency and the ability to manage
conversations in the L2.
- learners may make slow progress on acquiring more accurate and sophisticated language if
there is no focus on form.
5. ‘Teach what is teachable’:
- no strong evidence that teaching according to learners’ developmental level is necessary or
desirable, or that it will lead to long-term benefits.
- helps teachers to set realistic expectations about the way learners’ interlanguage may change in
response to instruction and that ‘progress’ does not always appear as increased accuracy.
6. ‘Get it right in the end’:
- form-focused instruction within the context of communicative and content-based language
teaching is more effective in promoting L2 learning
- decisions about balancing form-focus and meaning-focus must take into account differences in
learners’ characteristics
Summary
- It is not desirable to choose between form-based and meaning-based instruction.
- The challenge is to find the best balance between these two orientations.
- Many questions about L2 teaching remain to be answered by classroom-based research on L2
learning.