Running head: QUALITATIVE INQUIRY METHODS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE 1 QUALITATIVE INQUIRY METHODS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE 8 Use of Qualitative Inquiry Methods in Criminal Justice Student’s Name Institution Name Use of Qualitative Inquiry Methods in Criminal Justice Introduction The criminal justice field deals with people and their actions and that is why the best approach to use in studying criminal justice is a qualitative approach. A qualitative inquiry makes it possible for a researcher to understand criminals as well as those charged with the responsibility of ensuring that justice prevails. Qualitative inquiries are ideal for studying criminal justice because they are scientific methods of observation that are used to collect non-numerical data. There are numerous qualitative inquiry methods; however, there are four that are ideal for the study of the criminal justice field. The four methods are ethnography, narrative, phenomenological, and case study. Ethnography Ethnography is the most common qualitative research method. The method involves researchers immersing themselves in the target participant’s environment. The main focus of ethnography is for a researcher to understand the challenges, culture, goals, and themes that emerge in a participant’s environment. In the case of criminal justice, researchers get to understand the factors that make crime possible as well as the factors that make administering justice difficult. Rios, V. M., Carney, N., & Kelekay, J. (2017). Ethnographies of race, crime, and justice: Toward a sociological double-consciousness. Annual Review of Sociology, 43, 493-513. The publication looks at how the ethnography qualitative research method is useful at revealing, explaining as well as offering solutions for issues that revolve around justice, crime, and race. According to the article, ethnography helps to shed light on the day to day contexts in which law, crimes, and punishment are produced. The article details how effective the ethnography method is useful in crime, justice and law enforcement. The article is appropriate as it captures how ethnography works. It as well details the pros and cons of the qualitative inquiry method. The article is appropriate considering its less than three years old and that it touches on the subject that its of concern. Doll, A., & Walby, K. (2019). Institutional ethnography as a method of inquiry for criminal justice and socio-legal studies. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 8(1), 147. The article focuses on the use of institutional ethnography to help understand activities and the organization of criminal justice. According to the article, the inquiry method was invented by Dorothy Smith, a Canadian sociologist. The article focuses on the analysis of texts and the mapping of textual work in legal and criminal justice organizations. The article reveals how people are governed and ruled by proc.

1. Running head: QUALITATIVE INQUIRY METHODS IN
CRIMINAL JUSTICE 1
QUALITATIVE INQUIRY METHODS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE
8
Use of Qualitative Inquiry Methods in Criminal Justice
Student’s Name
Institution Name
Use of Qualitative Inquiry Methods in Criminal Justice
Introduction
The criminal justice field deals with people and their actions
and that is why the best approach to use in studying criminal
justice is a qualitative approach. A qualitative inquiry makes it
possible for a researcher to understand criminals as well as
those charged with the responsibility of ensuring that justice
prevails. Qualitative inquiries are ideal for studying criminal
justice because they are scientific methods of observation that
are used to collect non-numerical data. There are numerous
qualitative inquiry methods; however, there are four that are
ideal for the study of the criminal justice field. The four
methods are ethnography, narrative, phenomenological, and
case study.
Ethnography
Ethnography is the most common qualitative research method.
The method involves researchers immersing themselves in the
target participant’s environment. The main focus of ethnography
is for a researcher to understand the challenges, culture, goals,
and themes that emerge in a participant’s environment. In the

2. case of criminal justice, researchers get to understand the
factors that make crime possible as well as the factors that make
administering justice difficult.
Rios, V. M., Carney, N., & Kelekay, J. (2017). Ethnographies of
race, crime, and justice: Toward a sociological double-
consciousness. Annual Review of Sociology, 43, 493-513.
The publication looks at how the ethnography qualitative
research method is useful at revealing, explaining as well as
offering solutions for issues that revolve around justice, crime,
and race. According to the article, ethnography helps to shed
light on the day to day contexts in which law, crimes, and
punishment are produced. The article details how effective the
ethnography method is useful in crime, justice and law
enforcement. The article is appropriate as it captures how
ethnography works. It as well details the pros and cons of the
qualitative inquiry method. The article is appropriate
considering its less than three years old and that it touches on
the subject that its of concern.
Doll, A., & Walby, K. (2019). Institutional ethnography as a
method of inquiry for criminal justice and socio-legal
studies. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social
Democracy, 8(1), 147.
The article focuses on the use of institutional ethnography to
help understand activities and the organization of criminal
justice. According to the article, the inquiry method was
invented by Dorothy Smith, a Canadian sociologist. The article
focuses on the analysis of texts and the mapping of textual work
in legal and criminal justice organizations. The article reveals
how people are governed and ruled by processes in legal and
criminal justice organizations. The article is appropriate
considering it discusses how institution ethnography can
contribute to studies in the fields of social legal and criminal
justice. In addition, the article is fairly new considering it was
published in 2019. Furthermore, it focused on sociology which
is the building block of ethnography.
Narrative

3. The narrative qualitative approach weaves a sequence of events
or phenomena from one or two people to form a cohesive story.
Researchers spend their time interviewing individuals, reading
documents to understand how a person’s narrative of an event
came to be. In the case of criminal justice, researchers get to
understand the views of criminals or law enforcers as regards
events or activities under study by going through narratives of
identified individuals.
Presser, L. (2019). The story of antisociality: Determining what
goes unsaid in dominant narratives. The Emerald Handbook of
Narrative Criminology.
The article was published in 2019 and focuses on the failure of
capturing everything that is said or expressed in dominant
narratives in the criminal justice field. The study was done after
it was identified that a lot of information goes uncollected or
undocumented due to the overlooking of figurative language and
other ambiguities. Based on the article, a lot of information is
left out during interviews when using the narrative method and
this adversely affects studies in criminal justice. Presser tries to
find solutions that would make the use of the narrative method
more accurate than it is in studies of criminal justice. The
article is excellent as it not only captures how the narrative
method is used in criminal justice but it also captures the
limitation of the method.
Helfgott, J. B., Gunnison, E., Collins, P., & Rice, S. K. (2020).
The power of personal narratives in crime prevention and
reentry: Process evaluation of the Seattle Police Department’s
IF Project. Corrections, 5(2), 65-88.
The article was written in reference to a project that was
launched in 2009 in Seattle. The project named the IF project
was set up so that the Seattle police department can work with
ex-offenders rejoining the community after prison time to
prevent crime. The police department sits with the ex-offenders
and they receive the narratives of the offenders. The narratives
touch on how crime happens in Seattle. The article is
appropriate considering it touches on criminal justice as well as

4. the use of the narrative qualitative inquiry method. The article
details how the police use the study method to gather
information that can help in crime prevention.
Phenomenological
The phenomenological approach involves researchers
interviewing participants, visiting places, watching videos as
well as reading documents to understand the meanings
participants place on phenomena’s under study. To properly
utilize the phenomenological method, researchers do not start
with a well-formed hypothesis rather they form it at the end of
their studies. In the case of criminal justice, researchers get to
understand the views of not only criminals and law enforcers
but get to understand the perception of victims as regards
criminal events or activities under study.
Polizzi, D. (2019). The impossibility of criminal justice ethics:
toward a phenomenology of the possible. International journal
of offender therapy and comparative criminology, 63(1), 135-
153.
The article uses the phenomenological method to collect data
that supports the difficulty of criminal justice ethics. Polizzi
conducted a study to understand why prison life is hard for
majority of people and why ethics seem to be disregarded once
one is in the walls of a prison. He interviewed and studied
several publications on his research topic. According to him,
criminal justice ethics can't exist in prison. For the few
incidences where were observed, the offenders’ crimes were not
serious and neither was their incarceration. The use of the
phenomenological method helps to explain a phenomenon in
criminal justice. The article supports how the phenomenological
inquiry method can help in the formulation of theories as well
as explanations in the criminal justice field.
Durjava, L., Visick, A., & Banbury, S. (2018). Heroin addiction
in British prisons: an interpretative phenomenological
analysis. MOJ Addiction, Medicine & Therapy, 5(2), 62-67.
The article was published after a study that was conducted in
2018. The study was interested in establishing why there are

5. many heroin users in British prisons. To collect data that would
help explain the phenomena the research team used the
phenomenological method. They conducted semi-structured
interviews with four convicts that were diagnosed as addicts of
heroin. Several themes were identified in the phenomenological
analysis. One of the themes was that heroin was used as an
emotion regulator. Through the study, the research team was
able to come up with an explanation of why so many British
convicts are heroin convicts. The article is appropriate as it is
recently published, it looks at the pros and cons of the
phenomenological method and it captures how the
phenomenological method can be used for data collection in the
criminal justice field.
Case Study
The case study method involves a deep understanding of
phenomena or events through the use of multiple data sources.
Case studies can either be descriptive, explanatory or
exploratory. The method involves researchers going through
multiple data sources to identify trends, themes or even theories
that can best explain the phenomena under study. In the case of
criminal justice, researchers get to understand crime, criminals,
law enforcers, victims as well as the justice system by going
through several cases and as a result, an explanation or a
description of an event can be shared.
Todak, N., White, M. D., Dario, L. M., & Borrego, A. R.
(2018). Overcoming the Challenges of Experimental Research:
Lessons From a Criminal Justice Case Study Involving TASER
Exposure. Evaluation review, 42(3), 358-385.
The publication was in reference to a study that was carried out
to determine the impact of Taser exposure. The objective of the
study was to offer guidance criminologists in their use of
Tasers. The research team used the case study approach and as a
result, was able to come up with two conclusions. First,
empirical research methods should be more frequent in the
study of phenomena that affect criminologists. Secondly, the
exposure to Taser is not as harmful as expected to

6. criminologists. The article is appropriate considering it touches
on the use of case studies in qualitative research around
criminal justice. The article is limiting in that it does not
capture the limitations of using the case study methodology to
collect data.
Kulig, T. C., Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2017). Revisiting the
Stanford Prison Experiment: A case study in organized
skepticism. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 28(1), 74-
111.
The article was published in reference to the famous Stanford
prison experiment. The researchers were interested in
establishing whether organized skepticism should be adopted
more in criminal justice studies. The research team went
through several articles and cases that touch on the experiment.
The team discovered that majority of the studies’ conclusions
had widely accepted and embraced the famous experiment’s
conclusions. The article uses the case study methodology well
however it does not state the limitations of the methodology.
The article is appropriate considering it is relevant and that it is
up to date; it was published in 2017 and touches on criminal
justice.
Conclusion
The use of qualitative inquiry methods can be useful in criminal
justice as evidenced by the several articles that were reviewed.
The study has proven that the use of a qualitative inquiry
approach depends on the event or phenomenon under study. The
inquiry methods are useful considering that they helped
researchers observe participants as well as events that have non-
numerical data.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 2

7. LITERATURE REVIEW 1
Literature Review
Student Name
Institution
Course Title
Date
The Framework of Evidence-Based Policing and How it Can Be
Beneficial to the Criminal Justice Field.
Abstract
This paper focuses on the literature review on the framework of
evidence-based policing and how it improves the field of
criminal justice. Most of the police departments and other
polices agencies have embraced the use of scientific-based
policing to improve the efficiency of the criminal justice field.
The literature shows there is great interconnectedness between
research-based policing and advanced technology. This is
because evidence-based policing leads to the evaluation of
scientific methods and information to base their evidence.
Policies use evidence-based in conducting an investigation,
evaluating physical and forensic evidence, and connecting with
offenders, which is beneficial to both policing department and
field of criminal justice. Another scholar has established the
link between criminal justice and evidence-based policing
practices by ensuring there is substantial evidence presented in
the court. It has led to a more effective way of conducting an

8. investigation, presenting evidence and store of evidence for
future relevance and retrieval. Other scholar focuses on the
integration of evidence-based policing in changing the
traditional culture through training to adopt the new culture of
using scientific-based research. The literature also reviews
some of the shortcomings of using evidence-based policing,
such as lack of time, limited resources, lack of technical skill to
utilize scientific method and data, and lack of support from
management.
Introduction
Over the past decades, the issues of evidence-based policing
have gained more support from a scholar on ways to improve
their roles and duties based on collected evidence to improve
the criminal justice field. Some of the features that have
emerged recently are the positive partnership, interaction, and
problem-solving as the essential tactical elements of policing to
support the criminal justice system. The government needs to
depend on available literature to provide a working framework
of research-based policing that will improve the current image
of the police and be beneficial to the criminal justice field. This
paper focuses on scholarly literature review for evidence-based
policing and its beneficial impact on the criminal justice field.
Literature Review
Recently, technology accelerating at a high pace through
innovation of mobile phone, wireless technology, visual and
audio technology, data computing, advanced analytical, increase
internet usage, and other advanced technology. According to
Chapman (2016), policing and technology have been
interconnected for a decade that has been used to promote the
collection and presentation of crime evidence. Many policing
departments have adopted the latest technology to improve
efficiency and outcome, mostly when the policing departments
have limited resources (Chapman, 2016). The integration of
technology with policing activities has been used to enhance

9. police-citizen relationship and interaction.
According to Chapman (2016), find that the link between
advanced technology and policing strategies improve policing
activities through enhancing zero tolerance in policing.
According to Chapman (2016), more than two hundred and fifty
departments of the police in the United States have improved
their agencies through the adoption of technology. It has led to
the adoption of hot spot policing philosophies and intelligence-
led policing. It has improved policing strategies to emphasize
problem-oriented policing leading to evidence-based.
According to Chapman (2016), technology can be used to
improve the criminal justice system by ensuring the evidence
can be automated and stored as long as the court needs it.
Technology such as computer-aided dispatch and automated
management systems have been used to improve the policing
system to enhance the policing agencies national wide
(Chapman,2016). It is vital for generating the information that
human beings cannot be achieved by our hands or eyes to
improve the efficiency of collecting evidencing and presenting
materialized poof in court.
The current technology that has improved evidence-based
policing activities include body-worn cameras used as a video
recording system to promote policies activities transparency and
accountability (Chapman,2016). According to Chapman (2016),
it accumulates video evidence that can be used in the court of
law while ensuring law enforcement agencies are accountable
for their wrongdoing. Car cameras are used to collect evidence
during a police car patrol. According to Chapman (2016),
technology has been used to prioritize in the criminal justice
system since it provides knowledge used in understanding
nausea related to upcoming surveillances and event capture
systems.
Other technologies that advance evidence-based policing
include data mining tools that can recover evidence data lost in
computers and other electronics. Crime mapping that uses an
information technology system and other software by police

10. agencies to map and location of crime areas visualize, and
analyze crime incident (Chapman,2016). License plate readers
who are a type of surveillances mount in highways and bridges
to control passing motor or track vehicles.
According to Tilley & Laycock (2018), there is continuous
effort to improve the knowledge-based activities of police
agencies and the criminal justice field to reduce illegal
activities in society. According to Tilley & Laycock (2018), one
of the methods that promoted evidence-based policing is
through the implementation of crime reduction programs that
were launched two decades ago. The program has positively
impacted the criminal justice field by reducing the number of
crimes activities.
According to Tilley & Laycock (2018), since the introduction of
crime reduction programs in the policing agencies, the criminal
activities had reduced from forty percent in 1993 to fifteen
percent in 2017. It provides evidence of the appropriate method
that should be used to promote evidence-based policing and
improve the criminal justice system by achieving three
significant goals of the program (Tilley & Laycock, 2018). It
includes achieving a sustainable reduction in crimes, improves
knowledge accessibilities of police, and maximize the use of
cost-effective crime reduction techniques such as technology.
According to Tilley & Laycock (2018), the effectiveness of
crime reduction programs depends on how they are integrated
with other law enforcement programs, strategies, and the
criminal justice field. The success of the program has been
embedded with other applications and aspects of innovation.
According to Tilley & Laycock (2018), it has have shown
substantial evidence when integrated with technology, crime
prevention programs, randomized controlled trials, and
economic, social, and research council that has been used to
provide a scientific understanding of crimes.
According to Johnson, Lebold, & Elam (2018), there is a big
gap between the uses of research evidence in the policing
making and criminal justice system and practices by criminal

11. justice professionals. It has led to ineffective policy
implementation in law enforcement agencies since most of them
are not based on research evidence but rather assumption.
According to Johnson, Lebold, & Elam (2018), most of the case
in the court has been based on unsubstantial evidence collected
by the policy. The criminal justice system fails to provide
effective strategies in the use of evidence-based research in
their practice.
According to Johnson, Lebold, & Elam (2018), the criminal
justice administration and practitioner in the field criminal
justice and law enforcement have failed to incorporate scholarly
evidence in evaluating programs, policies, strategies, practices
of their department. According to Johnson, Lebold, & Elam
(2018), incorporation of evidence-based is essential in
improving policing-based policymaking and practices while
establishing a partnership with the partnership.
According to Johnson, Lebold, & Elam (2018), there is a need
to identify the problem that policy marker and practitioner in
the field of criminal justice experience in utilize research-based
evidence to improve the policing system. Most professionals
and polices officer fail to use evidence-based research in their
daily operations due to lack of time and limited job duties and
responsibilities. According to Johnson, Lebold, & Elam (2018),
there need for more research to identify the barriers to the
effective utilization of scientific-based policing and its impact
in the criminal justice field.
According to Posick & Hatfield (2017), human error assessment
and reduction techniques are one of the best evidence methods
used in law agencies in evaluating human error in the criminal
investigation. The model has been in the front line in
restraining the community- policy relationship. According to
Posick & Hatfield (2017), the human error assessment and
reduction techniques have to increase police-citizen interactions
since it promotes citizen interaction with policies and fairness
police departments.
According to Lum & Koper (2015), evidence-based policing is

12. one of the essential activities through the use of studies,
valuation, analysis, systematic process in the criminal justice
system to make an informed decision. According to Lum &
Koper (2015), there two vital techniques of using evidence-
based policy to improve police agencies and the criminal justice
field. First is the use of systematic methods and results in the
evaluation of law enforcement techniques and strategies to
guide decision making.
The second techniques focus on generating and applying
analytical knowledge gotten form the law enforcement agencies
analysis for both internal and external issues and crime
problems. According to Lum & Koper (2015), the use of
technical data and strategies to inform the public policies and
law agencies exhibits a standard value in the field of criminal
justice. It promotes the principles, standards, and ethics of
governance through transparency, accountability, and reduced
harm in the field of criminal justice and law enforcement
agencies.
According to Lum & Koper (2015), most of the research
supports the use of proof-based policing that was established a
decade ago. This is because since the evidence-based policies
were established, it has provided a positive impact in the police
department and the criminal justice field. It has positively
benefited the criminal justice system in making an informed
decision in various criminal cases since evidence submitted in
court is based on facts or scientific interpretations.
According to Fleming & Rhodes (2018), the use of a variety of
knowledge and evidence-based policing have been of great
impact in decision making by the police department and other
law enforcement agencies. The United Kingdom has
demonstrated a great impact on the use of evidence policing in
making informed decisions and policymaking, which impact the
department of criminal justice (Meško, 2018). The use of
scientific knowledge has been embraced in many countries as
they to remove the human error in decision making and
formulation of effective strategies.

13. According to Fleming & Rhodes (2018), there two factors that
affect the utilization of evidence-based policing. First is the
limit to social science knowledge, such as lack of time,
incomplete information, limited cognitive, and techniques skill
affects the effectiveness and efficiency use of evidence used in
policing. Policymakers in law enforcement agencies suffer from
this limitation when using evidence-based policing (Sherman &
Murray, 2015). The complex and ambiguous policy process
limits the use of research-based use in police and criminal
justice.
The second factor is the experience of using evidence
knowledge in the police department. Factor affecting the
experience of use evidence base includes occupational cultures
that affect organizational socialization and professionalization
of police. According to Fleming & Rhodes (2018), the
traditional culture in the police affects the use of evidence-
based practice in modern police practices. Experience as local
knowledge that has developed in the police community of
practitioners and law enforcement agencies that affect the
common use of scientific-based policing (Lum & Koper, 2014).
Lastly is the institutional memory that entails collective
knowledge and learning experience in the police department and
law enforcement agencies.
According to Telep, & Lum (2014), police officer expresses
their willingness to adopt the new system of technology-based
policing strategies to make the decision. Empirical research
shows that the use of research-based policing has advanced the
way policies officer conduct their duties and responsibilities
while improving the qualities of evidence presented in the
criminal justice system. According to Telep, & Lum (2014),
advance in technology has led to valued experience in the
research in guiding the police department and criminal justice.
According to Telep (2016), researcher and scholars should
expand their evidence-based policing through training and
education to change their traditional cultures and adopted a new
method of investigation. The scope of evidence-based policing

14. has proven to be useful in improving the criminal justice system
and decision making in policing decisions. According to Telep
(2016), the scholar should focus more about the future of
research-based by integrating new strategies of moving
forwards.
According to Parker (2017), the way to improve criminal justice
work through the integration of scientific-based information and
advanced technology. It focuses on the application of theories
and evidence to change the culture of the criminal justice
workplace (Lum & Koper, 2014). Evidence-based policing
improves the organizational culture through the change of
occupation, organizational behavior, and management of worker
heaths as they depend on scientific evidence and technology to
make a decision.
According to Bowers, Tompson, Sidebottom, Bullock, &
Johnson (2017), there needs to shift our focus on experience in
traditional evidence-based policing to the modernized evidence-
based practices that focus on improving the whole criminal
justice system. The new experience should focus on looking for
evidence in the scene of the crimes, developing practitioner
reports, and promoting primary investigation and evaluation to
benefit the criminal justice field (Lum & Koper, 2014). It is the
primary way policing can encourage significant support in the
court system through substantial evidence presentation.
According to Heaton & Tong (2016), the use of evidence-based
policing can lead to cost-effectiveness through the improvement
of current practices of the police officer and reducing the time
spent collecting evidence and presenting to the court. Cost-
effectiveness had been witnessed in the US and the UK through
the implementation of randomized control measures. It has also
led to quality-adjusted life years through the improvement of
realist evidence in the police department (Annie, 2020). It has
led to the development of principle to police, leading to quality
policies services such as interaction with citizens and change of
police perspective toward crimes.
Conclusion

15. The primary way to improve the body of knowledge, mostly in
policing department and criminal justice area, is through
adopting evidence-based policing. The benefits of integrating
advanced technology and evidence-based practice have been
proven by many scholars in improving the criminal justice areas
as well as the policing department. The review of literature has
reviewed some limitations that exist when utilizing evidence-
based policing, such as lack of time, resources, support from
management, and techniques tool to utilize scientific evidence.
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