Career Counseling: A Holistic Approach Theories of Career Development Part I Theories of Career Development This chapter reviews 9 theories.Grouped according to Gelso and Fretz (2001): Trait-oriented Social learning and cognitive Developmental Person-in-environment Theories of Career DevelopmentInitially vocational psychology focused on using assessments for job placement.Beginning in the early 1950s, the field began to include other factors: Self-concept Self-knowledge Developmental issues Theories of Career DevelopmentTheories have been criticized. Vague about how to use findings Out of touch with what practitioners need – a more direct link between theory and practice Theories of Career DevelopmentWhat is a theory?What a theory is notTheories can help us with guidelines for counseling. Trait-Oriented TheoriesEmbedded in Parson’s paradigmIndividuals are attracted to occupational environments that meet their personal needs and provide them with satisfaction.Include: Trait-and-factor Peron-environment-correspondence John Holland’s typology Trait-and-Factor TheoryParsons (1909) maintained that vocational guidance is accomplished by: Studying the individual Surveying occupations Matching the individual with the occupation.This process is called trait-and-factor theory. Trait-and-Factor TheoryParson’s three-step procedures may at first glance be judged to be completely dominated by test results.Brown, Brooks, and Associates (1990) argued that advocates of trait-and-factor approaches never approved of excessive use of testing.Test results are only one means of evaluating individual differences (Williamson, 1939). Trait-and-Factor Theory Sharf (2002) summarized the advantages and disadvantages of trait-and-factor theory. It is a static theory rather than a developmental one.The following assumptions also raise concerns about this theory: There is a single career goal for everyone. Career decisions are primarily based on measured abilities. Trait-and-Factor TheoryPrediger (1995) suggested that person-environment fit theory has enhanced the potential for a closer relationship between assessment and career counseling.Prediger suggested a similarity model, designed not to predict success or to find the “ideal career,” but to provide a means of evaluating occupations that are similar to people in important ways. Practical ApplicationsMajor role of early approaches = diagnosis.Contemporary practices expanded the use of test data. Example Holland’s typology Instead of predicting success in particular career, the counselor interprets test data and informs client of similarities to workers in particular careers. Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)Previously referred to as the theory of work adjustment (TWA).The theory of work adjustment and person-environment-correspondence counseling (Dawis, 1996) involve workplace reinforcers that can lead to job satisfaction. PEC TheoryWork is more than step-by-step ta ...

1. Career Counseling: A Holistic Approach
Theories of Career Development
Part I
Theories of Career Development
This chapter reviews 9 theories.Grouped according to Gelso and
Fretz (2001):
Trait-oriented
Social learning and cognitive
Developmental
Person-in-environment
Theories of Career DevelopmentInitially vocational psychology
focused on using assessments for job placement.Beginning in
the early 1950s, the field began to include other factors:
Self-concept
Self-knowledge
Developmental issues
Theories of Career DevelopmentTheories have been criticized.
Vague about how to use findings

2. Out of touch with what practitioners need – a more direct link
between theory and practice
Theories of Career DevelopmentWhat is a theory?What a theory
is notTheories can help us with guidelines for counseling.
Trait-Oriented TheoriesEmbedded in Parson’s
paradigmIndividuals are attracted to occupational environments
that meet their personal needs and provide them with
satisfaction.Include:
Trait-and-factor
Peron-environment-correspondence
John Holland’s typology
Trait-and-Factor TheoryParsons (1909) maintained that
vocational guidance is accomplished by:
Studying the individual
Surveying occupations
Matching the individual with the occupation.This process is
called trait-and-factor theory.
Trait-and-Factor TheoryParson’s three-step procedures may at

3. first glance be judged to be completely dominated by test
results.Brown, Brooks, and Associates (1990) argued that
advocates of trait-and-factor approaches never approved of
excessive use of testing.Test results are only one means of
evaluating individual differences (Williamson, 1939).
Trait-and-Factor Theory Sharf (2002) summarized the
advantages and disadvantages of trait-and-factor theory.
It is a static theory rather than a developmental one.The
following assumptions also raise concerns about this theory:
There is a single career goal for everyone.
Career decisions are primarily based on measured abilities.
Trait-and-Factor TheoryPrediger (1995) suggested that person-
environment fit theory has enhanced the potential for a closer
relationship between assessment and career counseling.Prediger
suggested a similarity model, designed not to predict success or
to find the “ideal career,” but to provide a means of evaluating
occupations that are similar to people in important ways.
Practical ApplicationsMajor role of early approaches =
diagnosis.Contemporary practices expanded the use of test data.
Example
Holland’s typology
Instead of predicting success in particular career, the counselor
interprets test data and informs client of similarities to workers
in particular careers.

4. Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)Previously referred
to as the theory of work adjustment (TWA).The theory of work
adjustment and person-environment-correspondence counseling
(Dawis, 1996) involve workplace reinforcers that can lead to
job satisfaction.
PEC TheoryWork is more than step-by-step task-oriented
procedures.
Work includes human interaction and sources of satisfaction,
dissatisfaction, rewards, stress, and many other psychological
variables.
Individuals seek to achieve and maintain a positive relationship
with their work environments.
PEC TheoryAccording to Dawis and Lofquist, individuals bring
their requirements to a work environment, and the work
environment makes its requirements of individuals.To survive,
the individual and the work environment must achieve some
degree of congruence (correspondence).To achieve this
agreement, the individual must successfully meet the job
requirements, and the work environment must fulfill the
individual’s requirements.
PEC TheoryExamples of occupational reinforcers:
Achievement
Authority
Advancement
Coworkers
Activity
Security

5. Social service
Status
VarietyLofquist and Dawis (1984) found a strong relationship
between job satisfaction and work adjustment.
PEC TheoryImplication of the theory of work adjustment:
Job satisfaction should be evaluated according to several
factors.
Job satisfaction is an important career counseling concern but
does not alone measure work adjustment.
Job satisfaction is an important predictor of job tenure.
PEC TheoryImplications of the theory of work adjustment:
Individual needs and values are significant components of job
satisfaction.
Individuals differ significantly in specific reinforcers of career
satisfaction.
Career counselors should consider the reinforcers available in
work environments and compare them with individual needs of
clients.
PEC TheoryCareer counselors use occupational information to
assist clients in matching individual needs, interests, and
abilities with patterns and levels of different reinforcers in the
work environment.
A worker’s attempt to improve his or her fit within the work
environment is referred to as work adjustment.

6. Practical ApplicationsDepends heavily on client
assessment.Major concern = abilities/skills and
valuesPresentation of assessment information should be tailored
to client’s abilities, values, and style.
Highly verbal Verbal presentation
High spatial ability Graphic presentationWork adjustment
in today’s society
John Holland:
A Typology ApproachAccording to John Holland (1992),
individuals are attracted to a given career by their particular
personalities and numerous variables that constitute their
backgrounds.
John Holland:
A Typology ApproachCareer choice is an expression of, or an
extension of, personality into the world of work followed by
subsequent identification with specific occupational
stereotypes.Congruence of ones’ view of self with occupational
preference establishes what Holland refers to as the modal
personal style.
Holland’s Modal Personal Styles and Occupational
Environments
Holland (1985, 1992)

7. Personal Styles
Themes
Occupational Environments
May lack social skills; prefers concrete vs. abstract work tasks;
may seem frank, materialistic, and inflexible; usually has
mechanical abilities
Realistic
Skilled trades such as plumber, electrician, and machine
operator; technician skills such as airplane mechanic,
photographer, draftsperson, and some service occupations
Very task-oriented; is interested in math and science; may be
described as independent, analytical, and intellectual; may be
reserved and defers leadership to others
Investigative
Scientific such as chemist, physicist, and mathematician;
technician such as laboratory technician, computer programmer,
and electronics worker
Prefers self-expression through the arts; may be described as
imaginative, introspective, and independent; values aesthetics
and creation of art forms
Artistic
Artistic such as sculptor, artist, and designer; musical such as
music teacher, orchestra leader, and musician; literary such as
editor, writer, and critic
Prefers social interaction and has good communication skills; is
concerned with social problems, and is community-service-
oriented; has interest in educational activities
Social
Educational such as teacher, educational administrator, and
college professor; social welfare such as social worker,
sociologist, rehabilitation counselor, and professional nurse
Prefers leadership roles; may be described as domineering,
ambitious, and persuasive; makes use of good verbal skills
Enterprising
Managerial such as personnel, production, and sales manager;
various sales positions, such as life insurance, real estate, and

8. car salesperson
May be described as practical, well-controlled, sociable, and
rather conservative; prefers structured tasks such as
systematizing and manipulation of data and word processing
Conventional
Office and clerical worker such as timekeeper, file clerk, teller,
accountant, keypunch operator, secretary, bookkeeper,
receptionist, and credit manager
John Holland’s TypologyHolland’s 6 occupational
environments/personal orientations can be arranged in a
hexagon.
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
John Holland’s TypologyThe categories next to each other on
the hexagon are most similar.The categories opposite of each
other on the hexagon are most dissimilar.
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
John Holland’s Typology A code is used to represent the

9. relative strength of client characteristics.
Example: SEC
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
The Hexagon of General Occupational Themes (GOTs)
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
GOT: Realistic
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic

10. Realistic: The DoersLike to work with their hands,
tools/machines, computersRugged, practical, physically strong,
sensible, self-reliantEnjoy fixing, building, repairing, working
outdoorsMotivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible
results
Work Environments
Sample JobsManufacturing or industrial firmsConstruction,
mining and energy industriesTransportation fields (air, trucking,
local transit, etc.)The outdoors; small, rural
communitiesSituations permitting casual dressStructured
settings, clear lines of authority
ForesterLaw
EnforcementMilitaryCarpenterEngineerVeterinarianComputer &
ISRadiology Technologist
Interests:Motivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible
results Likes to work with their hands, tools, machinery,
computer networksRugged, practical, physically
strongDescribed as practical, persistent, adventurous, sensible,
self-reliantBuys boats, campers, hiking equipment
WorkplaceManufacturing or industrial firms with tangible
productsConstruction, mining and energy
industriesTransportation fields (air, trucking, local transit,
etc.)The outdoors; small, rural communitiesSituations
permitting casual dress
Sample Job titles:ForesterCarpenterVeterinarianRadiological
Technologist

11. GOT: Investigative
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Investigative: The ThinkersLike to gather information, uncover
new facts/theories, and interpret dataPotentially competent in
science, math, analysisDescribed as curious, independent,
reserved, non-conformingMotivated to probe questions of
intellectual curiosity
Work Environments
Sample Jobs
Unstructured organizations that allow freedom in work
stylesResearch and design laboratories and firmsUniversities
and collegesMedical facilitiesComputer-related
industriesScientific foundations and think
tanksChemistSoftware DeveloperR&D ManagerVeterinarian
University ProfessorPhysicianScience Teacher
Interests:Motivated to probe questions of intellectual
curiosityLikes to gather information, uncover new
facts/theories, and interpret dataPotentially competent in
science, math, analysis, writing and problem solving Described
as curious, independent, reserved, rational, non-
conformingBuys telescopes, computers, electronic equipment,
sailboats, etc.

12. WorkplaceResearch and design laboratoriesUniversities and
collegesMedical facilitiesScientific foundations and think tanks
Job titlesChemistR&D ManagerVeterinarian Respiratory
TherapistScience Teacher
GOT: Artistic
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Artistic: The CreatorsLike art, music, drama, etc.Enjoy writing,
creating or appreciating art, acting/performingDescribed as
impulsive, non-conforming, independentMotivated to express
themselves through their work
Work Environments
Sample JobsUnstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-
expressionArt studiosTheaters and concert hallsInstitutions that
teach artistic skills (universities, music & dance schools, art
institutes, etc.)Museums, libraries, galleriesAdvertising, public
relations, graphic design and interior-design
firmsArtistArchitectLibrarianAttorneyJournalistMedical
IllustratorPublic Relations DirectorMusician

13. Interests:Motivated to express themselves through their
workExpress their interests in leisure as well as vocational
activitiesDescribed as impulsive, non-conforming &
independentBuys art objects, books, instruments
WorkplaceUnstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-
expressionInstitutions that teach artistic skills (universities,
music & dance schools, art institutes, etc.)Museums, libraries,
galleries
Job titlesLibrarianUrban & Regional PlannerBroadcast
JournalistMedical IllustratorPublic Relations DirectorMusician
GOT: Social
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Social: The HelpersLike to work with people, often in
groupsEnjoy helping, nurturing, and teachingSolve problems
through discussions and interactions with othersDescribed as
humanistic, idealistic, cooperativeMotivated to help and
empower
Work Environments

14. Sample JobsSocial service agenciesSchoolsReligious
organizationsHuman resources departmentsMedical service and
healthcare facilitiesMental health clinicsSocial WorkerAthletic
TrainerSchool CounselorRegistered NurseElementary School
TeacherDietitianCommunity Service Director
InterestsMotivated to help and empower Likes to work with
people, often in groupsEnjoy helping, nurturing, and teaching,
especially young peopleSolve problems through discussions of
feelings and interactions with othersMay enjoy working with
people through leading, directing and persuading.Described as
humanistic, idealistic, cooperativeSpends money on social
events and charity
WorkplaceMedical service and healthcare facilitiesMental
health clinics
Job titlesParks & Recreation ManagerSchool CounselorSchool
AdministratorRegistered NurseElementary School
TeacherDietitian
GOT: Enterprising
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic

15. Enterprising:The PersuadersEnjoy working with people and
leading them toward organizational goals and/or economic
successLike to lead, manage, persuade, give speechesSeek
positions of leadership, power, statusDescribed as persuasive,
competitive, energetic, sociableMotivated to persuade others of
the merits of an idea or product
Work Environments
Sample JobsIndustrial and manufacturing firmsGovernment and
political organizationsSeats of power and finance (large
corporations, brokerage firms, executive offices, etc.)Retail and
wholesale firmsFund-raising organizationsIndependently owned
businessesInvestments ManagerRealtorBuyerMarketing
ManagerHuman Resources ManagerChefElected Public Official
Interests:Motivated to persuade others of the merits of an idea
or productEnjoy working with other people and leading them
toward organizational goals and/or economic successSeeks
positions of leadership, power, statusLikes to lead groups, give
speeches, manage people and projects, persuade Described as
persuasive, adventuresome, competitive, energetic, sociable,
optimisticBuys country club memberships, sporting event
tickets, nice cars
Workplace:Industrial and manufacturing firmsSeats of power
and finance (large corporations, brokerage firms, executive
offices, etc.)Retail and wholesale firms
Job titles:Investments ManagerRestaurant
ManagerRealtorOperations ManagerBuyerMarketing
ManagerHuman Resources Manager

16. GOT: Conventional
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Conventional:The OrganizersLike activities requiring attention
to detail, organization, accuracy and data systemsEnjoy
mathematics and data management activities Described as
practical, organized, systematic, accurate,
conscientiousMotivated to organize information, bring order to
data and things
Work Environments
Sample JobsLarge corporationsBusiness officesFinancial
institutions (banks, credit companies, etc.)Accounting
firmsQuality control and inspection departmentsStructured
organizations with well-ordered chains of
commandBankerComputer Systems
AnalystParalegalActuaryFinancial AnalystAccountantBusiness
Education Teacher
InterestsMotivated to organize information and bring order to
data and things Likes activities requiring attention to detail,
organization, accuracy and data systems.Enjoys mathematics

17. and data management activities Described as practical,
organized, systematic, accurate, conscientiousBuys hobby
collections (stamps, antiques, etc), home improvement supplies,
games
WorkplaceLarge corporationsBusiness officesAccounting firms
Job titlesParalegalFinancial AnalystAccountantNursing Home
AdministratorFood Services ManagerBusiness Education
Teacher
The Hexagon of General Occupational Themes
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Holland’s Theory - AssumptionsMost people can be categorized
as one of six types.There are six kinds of environments.People
search for environments that will let them exercise their skills
and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on
agreeable problems and roles.

18. Holland’s Hexagonal ModelConsistency: The closer the types
are on the hexagon, the more consistent the individual is.
Example: ESA would have higher consistency than
RAE.Differentiation: Individuals who fit a pure personality
type will express little resemblance to other types.
Those who fit several personality types are considered
undifferentiated.
Holland’s Hexagonal ModelIdentity: Individuals who have a
clear and stable picture of goals, interests, talents.Congruence:
When an individual’s personality type matches the
environment.Calculus: The theoretical relationships between
types of occupational environments lend themselves to
empirical research.
John Holland’s TypologyKnowledge of both self and
occupational environment is critical. Theory is primarily
descriptive.RIASEC model has been tested with wide range of
ethnically diverse individuals.
John Holland’s TypologyTheory emphasizes the accuracy of
self-knowledge and occupational information necessary for
career decision making.Impact on interest
assessmentsPracticalityMost of Holland’s propositions are
clearly defined and lend themselves to empirical evaluations.
John Holland’s Typology - Practical ApplicationsSeveral
inventories available designed by Holland and others for use

19. with his theory:
Vocational Preference Inventory
My Vocational Situation
The Position Classification Inventory
Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory
Self-Directed Search (SDS)
Steps in using the SDS
Trait-Oriented Theories -- SummaryEmphasize how
standardized tests are used.Human traits can be matched with
work environments to evaluate potential work sites.Individual’s
work needs can be compared with components of job
satisfaction found in certain occupational environments.Self-
knowledge is essential for evaluating career information.
Trait-Oriented Theories -- SummaryOne should consider a
number of occupations that matches their personal needs and
abilities.More attention needs to be given to work adjustment,
job satisfaction, and problems faced by people in career
transition.
Individuals in the 21st century will change jobs several times
over their life span.
The job market will continue to fluctuate.
Workers will be required to adapt quickly, will be challenged
with new procedures, tools, requirements, culturally diverse
coworkers, etc.
Holland’s Modal Personal Styles and Occupational

20. Environments
Holland (1985, 1992)
Personal Styles Themes Occupational Environments
May lack social skills; prefers concrete vs.
abstract work tasks; may seem frank,
materialistic, and inflexible; usually h as
mechanical abilities
Realistic Skilled trades such as plumber, electrician,
and machine operator; technician skills such
as airplane mechanic, photographer,
draftsperson, and some service occupations
Very task-oriented; is interested in math and
science; may be described as independent,
analytical, and intellectual; may be reserved
and defers leadership to others
Investigative Scientific such as chemist, physicist, and
mathematician; technician such as laboratory
technician, computer programmer, and
electronics worker
Prefers self-expression through the arts; may
be described as imaginative, introspective,
and independent; values aesthetics and
creation of art forms
Artistic Artistic such as sculptor, artist, and designer;
musical such as music teacher, orchestra
leader, and musician; literary such as editor,
writer, and critic
Prefers social interaction and has good
communication skills; is concerned with social
problems, and is community -service-oriented;
has interest in educational activities
Social Educational such as teacher, educational
administrator, and college professor; social
welfare such as social worker, sociologist,
rehabilitation counselor, and professional
nurse

21. Prefers leadership roles; may be described as
domineering, ambitious, and pe rsuasive;
makes use of good verbal skills
Enterprising Managerial such as personnel, production,
and sales manager; various sales positions,
such as life insurance, real estate, and car
salesperson
May be described as practical, well -controlled,
sociable, and rather conservative; prefers
structured tasks such as systematizing and
manipulation of data and word processing
Conventional Office and clerical worker such as
timekeeper, file clerk, teller, accountant,
keypunch operator, secretary, bookkeeper,
receptionist, and credit manager