Description Total Possible Score 6.00General ContentSubje.docx

Description:
Total Possible Score: 6.00
General Content/Subject Knowledge
Total: 2.10
Distinguished - Addresses all aspects of the prompt in
accordance with the parameters of the discussion and
demonstrates in-depth knowledge of the discussion topic.
Proficient - Addresses all aspects of the prompt in accordance
with the parameters of the discussion and demonstrates
knowledge of the discussion topic.
Basic - Addresses all aspects of the prompt in accordance with
the parameters of the discussion and demonstrates basic
knowledge of the discussion topic.
Below Expectations - Addresses all or most aspects of the
prompt in accordance with the parameters of the discussion and
demonstrates limited knowledge of the discussion topic.
Non-Performance - There is no initial discussion post, or the
post does not address the discussion prompt at all.
Critical Thinking
Total: 1.50
Distinguished - Comprehensively explores the ideas, thoughts,
and elements of the topic and provides relevant evidence and
information that demonstrates all of the following as applicable
to the discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth, breadth, use
of information resources, and logic.
Proficient - Explores the ideas, thoughts, and elements of the
topic and provides relevant evidence and information that
demonstrates most of the following as applicable to the
discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth, breadth, use of
information resources, and logic.
Basic - Explores the ideas, thoughts, and elements of the topic
and provides relevant evidence and information that

demonstrates some of the following as applicable to the
discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth, breadth, and use of
information, and logic.
Below Expectations - Attempts to explore the ideas, thoughts,
and elements of the topic and provide relevant evidence and
information, but demonstrates few of the following as
applicable to the discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth,
breadth, use of information resources, and logic.
Non-Performance - There is no attempt to explore the ideas,
thoughts, and elements of the topic and provide relevant
evidence and information in either the original post or
subsequent response posts within the discussion, or no post is
present.
Written Communication
Total: 0.60
Distinguished - Displays clear control of syntax and mechanics.
The organization of the work shows appropriate transitions and
flow between sentences and paragraphs. Written work contains
no errors and is very easy to understand.
Proficient - Displays control of syntax and mechanics. The
organization of the work shows transitions and/or flow between
sentences and paragraphs. Written work contains only a few
errors and is mostly easy to understand.
Basic - Displays basic control of syntax and mechanics. The
work is not organized with appropriate transitions and flow
between sentences and paragraphs. Written work contains
several errors, making it difficult to fully understand.
Below Expectations - Displays limited control of syntax or
mechanics. The work does not include any transitions and does
not flow easily between sentences and paragraphs. Written work
contains major errors.
Non-Performance - Fails to display control of syntax or
mechanics, within the original post and/or responses.
Organization is also not present.

Engagement/ Participation
Total: 1.80
Distinguished - Contributes to classroom conversations with at
least the minimum number of replies, all of which were
thoughtful, relevant, and contributed meaningfully to the
conversation. Fully engages in the conversation with
appropriate topic-based responses.
Proficient - Contributes to classroom conversations with the
minimum number of replies that are somewhat thoughtful,
relevant, and contributed meaningfully to the conversation.
Attempts to fully engage in the conversation with appropriate
topic-based responses.
Basic - Contributes to the classroom conversations with the
minimum number of replies. Attempts to fully engage in the
conversation, but the responses are not relevant or fully aligned
with the discussion topic.
Below Expectations - Attempts to contribute to the classroom
conversations with fewer than the minimum number of replies;
however, the replies are not thoughtful and relevant, or they do
not contribute meaningfully to the conversation.
Non-Performance - There is no contribution to the discussion.
Powered by
Chapter 5
Principles of Universal Design for Learning
AP Photo/Janet Hostetter
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
· Describe the intrinsic barriers associated with efforts to design
for the average student and provide an example of how this type
of design might look in the classroom.
· Summarize the conceptual foundations of universal design for
learning.

· Demonstrate three methods for improving the accessibility of
text.
· Identify the accessibility barriers found in audio files and
video files, and suggest what features must accompany these
types of media to make them universally accessible.
· Demonstrate how you could implement universal design for
learning in your classroom using the principles of multiple
means of representation or multiple means of expression.
5.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
When designers create a new product, they are seeking to solve
a problem through innovative design. Perhaps you have heard
the phrase, "Build a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a
path to your door" (Kassinger, 2002, p. 128). This statement
speaks to the value of innovative design for solving practical
problems. However, design and invention are always
contextualized within a time period and a specific culture, and
are subject to the limitations of contemporary technologies and
materials.
As a result of recent advances in technology, it is now possible
to design tools, products, and information resources in ways
that make them accessible to diverse individuals. In this
section, readers will be introduced to principles from the field
known as accessible design. You will learn how designs that
focus on the special needs of individuals with disabilities can
improve the user experience for these individuals while also
having secondary benefits for everyone.
Design for the Mean
One common design strategy is known as "design for the mean."
As shown in Figure 5.1, using this approach, the designer is
focused on creating a product that will reach the largest number
of people to ensure that it is commercially successful.
Figure 5.1: Design for the mean
A product that is designed for the mean seeks to achieve

commercial success by reaching a large percentage of people in
the mainstream. The blue line represents the standard bell
curve. The shaded area below the peak indicates the target mass
market of the average user.
In education, "design for the mean" takes on the form of one
textbook that is written, purchased, and distributed to every
student at a specific grade level. Similarly, design for the mean
is the key instructional principle when a teacher decides that all
students will write a three-page book report to demonstrate that
they have read and understood a specific book. Another example
of design for the mean is the traditional lesson plan book where
teachers record their plans for covering content (see Figure 1.7
in Chapter 1).
When designers assume that everyone is like them (e.g., average
height and weight, able to read at grade level), the product they
create will inevitably meet the needs of only a limited range of
users. As an example, consider the fiasco with the Amazon
Kindle where designers failed to recognize that blind readers
would want to use a handheld reading device and that they
would need voiced navigational menus—a design decision that
was reversed after 6 months of complaints and disability
advocacy (Amazon.com, 2009).
Without an appreciation for the fundamental ways that people
are different, it is unlikely that designers will be able to design
products that meet the accessibility and usability needs of all
learners because they will not understand the special needs of
some. Clearly, there is much more to learn about how to meet
the instructional needs of diverse learners, and until we begin
describing the salient nature of these differences in ways that
inform design (see Table 5.1), it is unlikely that we will design
products that meet the needs of all learners.
Table 5.1: Diversity and instructional design
Student Performance Variable
Range of Diversity

Memory
Students develop increased capacity in short- and long-term
memory as they grow. Some disabilities interfere with
information storage and retrieval and therefore may require
explicit strategy instruction.
Motivation
Students will display varying levels of persistence in
completing a task that may be related to their previous success
with similar previous tasks. Therefore, choice of challenge and
dependency on adults are important aspects to monitor. Over
time, learners develop intrinsic motivation for completing
challenging tasks.
Sustained Attention Span
Ranges from 8 seconds for 2-year-olds to 40 minutes for young
adults. Attention deficit disorder may affect attention span.
Over time, learners develop expanded attention spans that allow
them to focus on complex cognitive tasks.
Speech and Language
Speech and language begins developing in very young children
and provides a foundation for accelerated development once
children reach school-age. Some disabilities will impair a
child's oral communication skills and therefore may require
other methods of communication, such as a communication
board or augmentative communication system.
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor tasks require a level of eye–hand coordination and
fluency that is first learned as a preschooler and evolves over
time. Some disabilities will impair fine motor skills, and this

has applications for student work that may involve handwriting,
keyboarding, and manipulating objects such as turning pages in
a book or using a computer mouse, etc.
Reading
Children's early learning experiences frequently prepare them
for formal reading instruction. Reading skills are measured by
grade levels and Lexiles. The goal is to match the difficulty of a
text with the student's independent or instructional reading
level. It is common to find a range of reading levels at every
grade level (some students will be reading at several levels
below grade level, and some students will be reading at levels
above grade level).
Problem Solving
As in each of the other areas, children's mathematical and
problem-solving skills will vary considerably at each grade
level. Young children and students who have difficulty with the
conceptual processes of problem solving benefit from the use of
manipulatives. Older students learn how to support their
problem-solving skills by using tools such as graphing
calculators and spreadsheets.
At this point, it is important to understand two related concepts:
accessibility and usability. Accessibility refers to the inclusive
goal of designing tools, products, and information resources to
be usable by all people regardless of their skills or abilities.
Usability, in turn, refers to how easy it is to learn and use a
product. When considering any tool, product, or information
resource, it is necessary to evaluate both the accessibility and
usability (Lazar, 2007). A key principle of accessible design
involves understanding that the special needs of individuals
with disabilities can produce solutions that benefit other groups.

For example, knowing that some people have a vision
impairment can translate into a design principle that all text
should be adjustable, if necessary, by users so that they can
enlarge the text to a size sufficient for comfortable viewing.
Although vision impairments are a specific disability, the same
text enlargement intervention can benefit most adults who
experience decreased visual acuity as they age.
The fundamental problem of the design for the mean approach is
that the resulting tool, product, or information may be
inaccessible for many individuals. That is, because the designer
focused on only meeting the needs of a specific segment of the
population (Hackos & Redish, 1998; Lidwell, Holden, & Butler,
2010), the product may not be accessible or usable by many
others. Again, consider the textbook that is written with the
expectation that all students read at grade level. Quite readily
we can identify at least three groups of students whose needs
will not be met. For example, a student who is blind will not be
able to access the printed textbook. A student with a reading
disability will not be able to independently read the
information. Third, while a gifted student will be able to read
the information, she may not be sufficiently challenged to learn
at a level commensurate with her ability. As a result, design for
the mean involves assumptions about the average student and
fails to meet the needs of students whose skills and abilities fall
outside that range.
The printed textbook had many positive attributes in the early
20th century. Clearly the technical advances that allowed
printing costs to be reduced such that each student could study
from his or her own textbook was an important advancement in
education. However, the historical one-size-fits-all textbook is a
poor match for the needs of diverse learners in the 21st century
because of the fixed layout, font size, reading level, and
language. This situation creates the need for accommodations
and modifications to make the textbook accessible to diverse
individuals by converting it to a digital format that will permit
the student who is blind to access the text through refreshable

Braille, the student with a reading disability to listen to the text
with a text-to-speech tool, and the gifted student to pursue more
advanced topics through hyperlinks.
A characteristic of innovation is the development of new
technologies. Therefore, if we consider the achievement gap to
be a result of the limitations of traditional instructional design
in education, it is necessary to explore instructional designs that
are more inclusive (Burke, Hagan, & Grossen, 1998; Coyne,
Kameenui, & Simmons, 2004; Edyburn, 2010).
Design for More Types
The principles of universal design have emerged from our
understanding of the design of physical environments for
individuals with disabilities. As a result, the term universal
design is most commonly associated with architecture (Preiser
& Ostroff, 2011; Steinfeld & Maisel, 2012). These
developments have provided important insights regarding the
need to prepare architects and designers to understand special
needs to ensure that their designs are accessible from the outset,
rather than requiring costly building modifications later.
Perhaps the best example of the success of universal design
principles is curb cuts. Originally designed to improve mobility
for people with disabilities within our communities, curb cuts
not only accomplished that goal, but they also improved access
for people navigating their community with baby strollers,
roller blades, bicycles, and so on.
Curb cuts addressed the special needs of people in wheelchairs
by providing better accessibility.
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Another well-known example of accessible design in the built
environment is what is known as the zero-entry swimming pool.
This type of pool design was created to provide access for
individuals in wheelchairs but has proven to be excellent for
anyone seeking to enjoy the water without becoming completely
submerged.
Readers may also encounter the term universal design in the

context of the home remodeling industry if you are caring for an
aging parent. Thus, home remodelers have discovered that
specific types of changes to the living space (i.e., kitchen,
bathroom, bedroom) make a home more accessible, and safer,
for aging adults. Many families explore universal design home
remodeling options, such as changing out door knobs, altering
countertop heights, and modifying toilets and showers, as a
cost-effective alternative to nursing homes. Indeed, many of the
universal design interventions for individuals with disabilities
are also relevant for facilitating the independence of older
adults.
Another application of universal design concepts was created in
the 1990s as the underlying principles were applied to
computers. Gregg Vanderheiden at the TRACE Center at the
University of Wisconsin–Madison, spearheaded conversations
among the disability community and technology developers
concerning initiatives to include disability accessibility
software as part of the operating system. At the time, a person
with a disability would need to seek out the services and
assistance of an assistive technology specialist in order to be
able to independently use a computer. Vanderheiden argued that
many accessibility needs could be addressed, not only for
individuals with disabilities but also for older adults, by
installing the specialized accessibility software on each
computer when it was shipped, rather than being added later as
an accommodation.
After a period of time, the computer manufacturing industry
found Vanderheiden's argument persuasive and agreed to install
an accessibility folder within the operation system. As a result,
since the mid-1990s, every computer that is shipped in the
United States has an accessibility control panel that allows
users to customize the operation of the computer to
accommodate physical, sensory, and, to a limited extent,
cognitive disabilities. Thus, accessibility control panels on
computers represent a powerful example of universal design that
moves the construct from simply focusing on the built

environment to one that illustrates the importance of making
tools and information accessible.
The historical lessons learned through these cases have led to a
statement that serves as a mantra for universal design: "Good
design for people with disabilities can benefit everyone." While
universal design is often advocated for as "design for all," in
practice this has been difficult to achieve. A more practical way
to think about universal design is "design for more types" (see
Figure 5.2). This means that we seek to understand the
accessibility and usability barriers that individuals encounter
and create new tools, products, and information resources that
are inclusive to more individuals than would be the case with
ordinary design for the mean approaches (see Figure 5.1). We
will explore the practical implications of this concept further in
Section 5.3.
Figure 5.2: Design for more types
Design for more types reflects the goal of universal design by
expanding the zone of accessibility and usability beyond a small
segment of the population (as contrasted with Figure 5.1) in
order to include as many individuals as possible.
Recognizing and Responding to Differences
As discussed in Chapter 3, over a lifetime, each of us, or
someone we know, will encounter limitations due to aging,
disease, accident, and/or disability that may impair basic life
functions such as hearing, seeing, self-care, mobility, working,
and learning. While some of us may be born with a disability or
disease that will require us to overcome limitations throughout
our lives, others will need to learn how to respond to challenges
that arise from an accident or simply as a result of growing
older.
In other words, we must learn to recognize that differences and
limitations are fundamentally part of the human condition. In
the classroom, it is important to think about learner differences
as part of the instructional planning process. For example,
shouldn't we expect to find great variation in students'

knowledge and skills? When we walk into any classroom, we
should anticipate differences among students relative to the
following:
attention span
persistence
reading ability
handwriting legibility
number sense and problem-solving skills
oral communication skills.
Diverse students encounter a variety of barriers in school, both
obvious and hidden, as demonstrated here.
Obvious Barriers
Stairs for a person in a wheelchair or a person on crutches
Print for a person who is blind
Audio for a person who is deaf
Video for a person who is blind
Hidden Barriers
Attitudes
One-size-fits-all approaches
Text that is fixed
Poor design
Time limits
Often learner differences are viewed as a negative, outside of a
range that we think we can manage (e.g., "Oh, I can't teach that
student; he's blind."). When we fail to recognize the range of
diversity found in the population, there will be a need for an
accommodation (i.e., "We'll see if we can get a copy of the
textbook in Braille.").
Contrary to this narrow and often negative approach to
diversity, the goal of universal design is to proactively value
differences—that is, to anticipate learners' differences before
they enter the classroom so that we can support their academic
performance before they fail. This is consistent with McLeskey
and Waldron's (2007) description of the goal of special
education as "making differences ordinary." As a result, we
need not only to recognize diverse learners in our classrooms

but also to respond to their needs before they fail. Universal
design for learning is a specialized application of universal
design and is an approach that holds considerable promise for
meeting the needs of diverse learners.
5.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
The origin of the term universal design for learning is generally
attributed to David Rose, Anne Meyer, and their colleagues at
the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) (Edyburn &
Gardner, 2009). However, a fact that is often overlooked is that
the principles of UDL were developed during the period before
and after the 1997 reauthorization of the Individuals With
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). During that time, both
general and special educators were preoccupied with issues
associated with implementing inclusion. While students with
disabilities had gained physical access to the general education
classroom through inclusion, concerns were being raised about
how students would gain "access to the general curriculum." An
interpretive document about universal design for learning
(Orkwis & McLane, 1998) was disseminated extensively and
served to generate the first wave of national attention to the
construct.
McLaughlin (1999) reported that IDEA reauthorization
contained several specific mandates relative to making the
general curriculum accessible for students with disabilities:
Statements of a child's present level of educational performance
to specify how his or her disability affects involvement and
progress in the general curriculum.
IEP teams to design measurable annual goals, including short-
term objectives or new benchmarks, to enable the child to be
involved—and progress—in the general curriculum.
A statement of the special education and related services and
supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child.
A description of any program modifications or supports for
school personnel necessary for the child to advance
appropriately toward the annual goals, to progress in the general
curriculum, and to be educated and participate with other

children both with and without disabilities.
IEP team members to document an explanation of the extent, if
any, to which the child will not participate with children
without disabilities in the general class and activities.
Readers interested in a legal analysis of the issues associated
with access to the curriculum are encouraged to review Karger
and Hitchcock (2004). These issues were at the forefront of
CAST's work, and in 1999 CAST received a federal grant to
establish the National Center on Accessing the General
Curriculum, which became instrumental in garnering national
attention for the potential of UDL.
As CAST's insights about UDL were taking shape, staff
members presented their work at the annual Office of Special
Education Project (OSEP) Director's conference in 2000. CAST
also used publication outlets to describe its ideas about how
universal design could be applied within education (Meyer &
Rose, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000).
The second wave of widespread attention to UDL came in 2002
when Rose and Meyer published a book called Teaching Every
Student in the Digital Age, which has become the definitive
work about UDL (also available online,
http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/ideas/tes/). The
authors elaborated on the conceptual framework of UDL,
pointing out that it is grounded in emerging insights about brain
development, learning, and digital media. Rose and Meyer also
called attention to the disconnect between an increasingly
diverse student population and a one-size-fits-all curriculum,
arguing that these conditions would not produce the desired
academic achievement gains expected of 21st-century global
citizens. Challenging educators to think of the curriculum as
disabled, rather than students, their translation of the principles
of universal design from architecture to education are nothing
short of a major paradigm shift (Edyburn & Gardner, 2009).
CAST advanced the concept of universal design for learning as
a means of focusing research, development, and educational
practice on understanding diversity and applying technology to

facilitate learning. CAST's philosophy of UDL is embodied in a
series of principles that serve as the core components of UDL:
Multiple means of representation to give learners various ways
of acquiring information and knowledge;
Multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives
for demonstrating what they know; and
Multiple means of engagement to tap into learners' interests,
challenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn.
Multiple means of representation may be understood as
providing students with alternatives to learning information
beyond solely using a textbook. Teachers today have many
choices when it comes to presenting instructional content to
students: Watch a YouTube video, listen to a podcast, read text
on a webpage, look up a topic using Wikipedia, and more. The
key notion is to break out of the one-size-fits-all model, which
assumes that all students learn in the same way, and to
encourage teachers to use a wider palette of information
containers to reach diverse students.
A teacher takes his class on a field trip to learn about
ecosystems. What are some other ways teachers can present
information to students without using a textbook, while
capturing different learning styles?
Multiple means of expression draws attention to the need to
provide students with multiple methods of demonstrating what
they know. Some teachers recognize the value of this principle
as they allow students a choice of writing a paper, preparing a
slideshow presentation, recording a video, and so on. The key
notion is to provide students with choices in how they
demonstrate what they have learned and the media they use to
express themselves. Twenty-first century educators will likely
need to alter their instructional practices in order to place
students in the role of Goldilocks: that is, allowing them to try
multiple options to determine which option is "just right" for
ensuring that their performance meets increasingly high

standards. Principles of fairness dictate that equity is achieved
when every student receives what he or she needs (Welch,
2000).
Of the three principles above, perhaps the most important is
multiple means of engagement, which is based on the learning
principle that deep learning is only accomplished through
sustained engagement. Access to the curriculum is a
prerequisite to engagement. However, sustained engagement is
achieved by activities that are interesting, motivating, and at the
right challenge level, what Vygotsky (1962) calls the Zone of
Proximal Development. Indeed, research has demonstrated the
relationship between deep learning and high levels of
performance and expertise (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Schlechty,
2002).
CAST has elaborated on these core principles through the
development of UDL Guidelines (CAST, 2011). As illustrated in
Figure 5.3, each of the three core principles has been expanded
to include three guidelines that speak to the instructional design
features that are needed to implement each principle. Teachers
and instructional designers can use these guidelines as they
create instructional materials.
Figure 5.3: CAST's UDL principles
By following the core guidelines for providing multiple means
of representation, action and expression, and engagement,
teachers can help shape more informed, goal-oriented, and
determined learners.
Source: CAST (2011). Universal design for learning guidelines
version 2.0. Wakefield, MA: Author. http://www.cast.org.
Policy Foundation
The impact of universal design for learning can be traced
through U.S. federal special education law. Thus, in the 2004
reauthorization of the Individual With Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA), which governs special education, the term
universal design was officially defined (20 U.S.C. § 1401):
The term universal design has the meaning given the term in

section 3 of the Assistive Technology Act of 1998. (U.S.C. §
3002)
Following the backward chain of legal reference, the definition
of universal design as it was included in the Assistive
Technology Act of 1998 is as follows:
The term "universal design" means a concept or philosophy for
designing and delivering products and services that are usable
by people with the widest possible range of functional
capabilities, which include products and services that are
directly usable (without requiring assistive technologies) and
products and services that are made usable with assistive
technologies. (U.S.C. § 3002)
Next, consider how the terms are defined in the Higher
Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (Public Law 110-315,
Section 103, a):
(23) UNIVERSAL DESIGN. – The term 'universal design' as the
meaning given the term in section 3 of the Assistive Technology
Act of 1998 (29 U.S.C. 3002).
(24) UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING. – The term
'universal design for learning' means a scientifically valid
framework for guiding educational practice that –
(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in
the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills,
and in the ways students are engaged; and
(B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate
accommodations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high
achievement expectations for all students, including students
with disabilities and students who are limited English
proficient.
As illustrated, the definition of universal design for learning
evolved from a concept or philosophy in 1998 to a scientifically
validated framework in 2008. Of concern is the fact that to date,
although there is a significant body of work on universally
designed assessment (e.g., Ketterlin-Geller, 2005; Thompson,
Johnstone, & Thurlow, 2002), there has been little research on
UDL. Thus, without an adequate base of primary research, an

analysis of research evidence that establishes UDL as a
scientifically validated intervention is not yet possible
(Edyburn, 2010). Evidently, the work CAST compiled to
support various components of UDL design principles (CAST,
2011) was mischaracterized by lobbyists and written into
federal law. Unfortunately, the claim that UDL has been
scientifically validated through research cannot be substantiated
at this time.
Over the past 10 years, universal design for learning has
captured the imagination of policymakers, researchers,
administrators, and teachers. Universal design for learning
provides a vision for breaking the one-size-fits-all mold and
therefore expands the opportunities for learning for all students
with learning differences. Recognizing and responding to
diversity is a core motivation for engaging in UDL practices.
Finally, the expectations associated with No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) makes UDL an important and timely strategy for
enhancing student academic achievement. The mantra that
evolved from our understanding of the value of curb cuts,
"Good design for people with disabilities benefits everyone,"
provides a powerful rationale for exploring large-scale
application of UDL in education.
One of the significant flaws in a federal law that states that
UDL is a scientifically validated framework is that CAST's
UDL framework does not feature a component associated with
the measurement of student learning outcomes. All three of the
"multiple means" statements by CAST focus on the provision of
multiple concurrent interventions. As a result, within existing
conceptualizations of UDL, there is no clear way to measure
claims that UDL is effective for enhancing the academic
performance of diverse students. This is a significant
shortcoming for anyone trying to operationalize, implement, and
evaluate a UDL program.
The Potential of Universal Design for Learning
Anne Callies, Assistive Technology Lead for the San Diego
Unified School District, speaks about how new technology

promotes accessability. How does this technology support UDL
frameworks?
Translating UDL Theory Into Practice
Without seeing a class list, in a class of 30 middle school
students, one can anticipate that 5–7 students have below grade-
level reading skills, 3–5 students will have learning disabilities,
1–2 may have vision or hearing difficulties, and 1–2 students
may have a primary language other than English. The current
model of curriculum accommodations requires that these
students first be identified as having special needs, and then
special support services will be provided.
The promise of universal design for learning suggests that
instructional materials can be designed to provide adjustable
instructional design controls. One way to think about these
controls is to consider a volume control slider that is adjustable
to be off or some level between low and high. Tomlinson (1999)
speaks of this concept as equalizers. As illustrated in Figure
5.4, universal design control panels could be included in all
instructional software and be accessed by students and teachers
when an adjustment is needed. Just think of it: Do you need
reading materials at a lower readability? Just go into the control
panel and reset the slider, and the same information could be
presented at a lower reading level.
Figure 5.4: Model of equalizers
Table 5.2: Instructional designs that proactively value
differences
Instructional Challenge
Strategy
Technology Options
Design instructional materials that support diverse learners
before they fail.
Create multilingual instructional materials that include a variety
of levels to engage students at different skill levels.
Literacy Center Education Network

http://www.literacycenter.net/lessonview_en.php
Create instructional text at multiple levels to account for
different reading levels and interest levels.
Ben's Guide to U.S. Government for Kids
http://bensguide.gpo.gov/
Create tiered instructional text and offer audio support for the
easier levels.
StarChild
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/StarChild.html
Create tiered instructional materials for adults to understand the
importance of just-in-time support.
The Brain: From Top to Bottom
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/
The figure shows a model of equalizers that could be used to
adjust the difficulty of curriculum and/or the type of supports
that are activated to support diverse learners.
Many find it difficult to visualize what universally designed
curricula might look like. Table 5.2 identifies digital resources
that can help us understand the potential of UDL. As you
explore each resource, consider how it was designed to support
the success of all learners by embedding supports that can be
used by any learner as needed. Also consider the question:
Would these instructional materials be helpful to a single
student (if so, it might be considered assistive technology), a
small group of students (if so, it might be useful as a Response
to Intervention [RTI] Tier 2 intervention), or might there be
value in giving them to the entire class in order to reach those
who we know will struggle as well as many other students
whom we cannot identify in advance? Finally, consider the

difference between traditional textbooks (design for the mean;
see Figure 5.1) and these types of digital learning materials that
feature embedded supports that can be used by any learner
(design for more types; see Figure 5.2).
5.3 Universal Access to Text
The text found in textbooks is fixed. That is, the font is a
certain size. The leading (the space between lines) is fixed. The
margins are fixed. The font color is usually black (to provide a
striking contrast against the white paper). While the
characteristics of print and books have changed little since the
invention of the printing press, we now know that to some
people the book is a difficult container in which to access
information. For example, consider the child who was born
without arms. How does he turn the pages of the book or carry
the book from his desk to his locker? What about the child who
has a vision impairment and needs the text enlarged to be able
to see the print? What about a child whose first language is not
English, of what use is the textbook to her? And what about the
student who cannot read independently at grade level?
By converting printed text into digital format, you can make
text more accessible to students. What are other advantages to
students accessing text digitally?
Typically, the first step in making the information accessible is
to scan the text into the computer (see Chapter 6) to create a
digital version of the text. Digital text is inherently flexible.
That is, the size, font, and color of the text can be readily
altered. In addition, digital text can be manipulated in ways that
provide physical, sensory, and cognitive access. To meet the
needs of diverse learners, it is becoming increasingly clear that
21st-century curricula should be developed, stored, and used in
a digital format, and print-on-demand tools should be used as
needed. Notice how the traditional paradigm has been flipped.
Rather than creating print books that have to be converted into
digital format, books should be created and distributed in

electronic formats and printed when the need arises.
This section outlines a series of design interventions that make
text universally accessible. The goal is to present resources,
strategies, and tools that you can use in your classroom to
ensure that your students will have universal access to text-
based information.
Text Creation
Today, almost all information is created through the use of a
keyboard and a computer. This means that most text is "born"
digital. As you learned while mastering your word processor, it
is easy to save, change, and print documents when the text is
saved in a word processor. As a result, few people who have
mastered the basic mechanics of a word processor want to go
back to using a typewriter or writing entirely by hand.
One of the simplest strategies that teachers can use to make text
accessible to their students is to provide digital copies (i.e.,
created on a word processor) of their handouts. In fact, many
school districts support this strategy by providing teachers with
an online workspace on a local area network (i.e., intranet) or a
content management system (e.g., Moodle). These types of tools
allow teachers to post documents online. In both cases, students
learn to retrieve documents from the server that they can open
and view in their own word processor or web browser.
Alter the View
Students who need to alter the view of a document can use the
zoom feature in their word processor (Click on View menu,
Click on Zoom, select appropriate size) or web browser
(Command + or Command -) to increase the font size. This is
another excellent example of universal design. That is, while
zoom was originally developed for people with visual
disabilities, nearly everyone periodically discovers the need to
enlarge text in order to see information more comfortably.
A key design principle for making text accessible on webpages
uses a web development technique known as Cascading Style
Sheets (CSS). CSS is a preferred web development practice
because it separates content from the display of information.

This is really a significant development for accessibility
because in the past all decisions about the appearance of text
were made by the designer or publisher. By separating content
from the characteristics of how information is displayed, the
control has shifted from the publisher to the reader, who
determines what is the "just right" format.
Visit the following website to experience CSS:
CSS Zen Garden
http://www.csszengarden.com
What you will notice is that as you click on each link on the
CSS Zen Garden site, the content of the pages stays exactly the
same, but the graphic design, layout, text style, and so on,
change. The magic of CSS is accomplished by saving the text in
one file and saving the CSS variables that affect the appearance
of the page in a second file. The point of this website is simply
to illustrate that accessible design can be beautiful. When you
see webpages that have a series of boxes with the letter A or T,
this is an indication that the webpage has used CSS to build in
text enlargement. Simply click on the letter to enlarge the text
to a comfortable size.
The value of text enlargement has led to a number of new tools,
some of which are designed to work within your web browser
(i.e., browser plugin or bookmarklet). Increasingly common is
the need for these same kinds of tools to work on smartphones
given the very small screen size and the need to remove the
clutter found on many webpages (see Table 5.3). Hence we are
seeing another example of universal design that is transforming
what was originally an assistive technology intervention into a
universal design feature that benefits everyone.
Table 5.3: Bookmarklets and apps that alter readability features
of text
Strategy
Technology Options

Need to modify the screen presentation of text to improve its
readability.
Download a bookmarklet to be used when reading in a web
browser.
Readability
http://www.readability.com/bookmarklets
Evernote Clearly
http://evernote.com/clearly/
Download an app to improve the readability of webpages on a
smartphone screen.
Readability
http://www.readability.com/apps
Another important strategy for making text accessible involves
styles. Perhaps you used style sheets when you learned to word
process; unfortunately, most of us did not (to learn more, visit
http://webaim.org/techniques/word/). The purpose of using a
style sheet is that headings and text elements are consistently
tagged regarding their function (i.e., Heading 1, body text).
While visual users can see the difference in subheadings, blind
users cannot. As a result, screen readers rely on style sheets to
read the tagged elements of a document and provide the user
with the opportunity to move around a document (i.e., using
heading tags to jump from one section to another). Styles also
offer authors the opportunity to view the headings that they
have created in a document in an outline view to ensure that
they are being consistent in their writing style.

Saving the Text File
After you have created your text, you have many choices
concerning the file format in which you save your document.
Table 5.4 summarizes some of the common text file formats.
Today, most word processing programs and web browsers can
easily open and view documents created in any of these common
file formats. In most environments, Microsoft Word® files
saved as .doc or .docx are universally accessible because
Word® has become the word processing standard. Be
considerate of the needs of your students when selecting a file
format in which to save the information. For example, if you
create a document in WordPerfect® or Pages®, these
specialized formats cannot be opened on most computers that do
not have these programs installed. In this situation, the student
may need to use an online conversion service (see Table 5.5) to
convert the file to a format he can open and view.
Table 5.4: Common file formats for text
File format
Attributes
.asc
ASCII, a generic text file with no formatting properties. A
universal standard for the lowest level of text-based
information.
.doc, .docx
Proprietary formats associated with Microsoft Word. Requires
Microsoft Word or a compatible word processor to open.
.html
A file format containing information formatted for the Web.
HTM and HTML files will open in a web browser.

.pdf
A proprietary format created by Adobe to facilitate the transfer
of documents between computers to ensure compatibility when
one user may not own the software that was used to create the
original document. Generally recognized as a universal storage
format.
.rtf
Allows some basic formatting (i.e., bold, italics) to be included
in the text. The rich text format file type opens in all word
processors.
.txt
A file containing text with no formatting. This text file type
opens in all word processors.
Table 5.5: File conversion tools
Strategy
Technology Options
Unable to open and view a digital file because it is saved in a
format that is not compatible with the software on one's
computer.
Access an online conversion service to upload the file and
convert it into another format.
Zamzar
http://www.zamzar.com

You Convert It
http://www.youconvertit.com
Media Converter
http://www.mediaconverter.org
Manipulating Digital Text
Once students have access to a digital text file, they are able to
manipulate the information in a variety of ways to make it more
accessible. Essentially, the only technology skills needed to do
so involve copying and pasting.
One important strategy for many struggling readers involves
altering the cognitive accessibility of the text. This can be
accomplished by copying and pasting digital text into a
summarization tool. Search your favorite app store to find
summarization products that will work on your smartphone.
One example of a free web-based summarization tool is:
Text Compactor
http://www.textcompactor.com
With this tool, students use a slider to determine how much of a
summary they want to read, and the summarized text appears in
a box on the page. This tool is an interesting application of
UDL. Teachers might use it in a class because of a few
struggling readers. However, to reach those targeted students,
the teacher introduces the tool to the entire class. The potential
of UDL indicates that the tool will help not only the small
group of targeted students but also a larger number of students
in the class—many of whom the teacher could not know in
advance would need, want, or benefit from such a tool.
This case illustrates that the outcomes of UDL should be
considered in terms of primary and secondary beneficiaries. If
only a small number of targeted users end up using the tool, it

functions more like assistive technology. However, if the
secondary beneficiaries are a larger group, it is likely we have
discovered a UDL application in the same way that we notice
the beneficiaries of the zero-entry swimming pool.
Once students have a summary of the text, they can choose to
copy and paste it into a text-to-speech program. This allows
them to listen to information that they may not be able to (or
choose not to) read (see Table 5.6).
Table 5.6: Text-to-speech tools
Strategy
Technology Options
Student would like to listen to text that she cannot or does not
want to read.
Copy text and paste into a text-to-speech tool.
Vozme
http://www.vozme.com
SpokenText
http://www.spokentext.net
Read the Words
http://www.readthewords.com
Finally, digital text affords the opportunity to convert text from
English into another language. Some students whose first
language is not English will struggle to extract meaning from
text found in grade-level readings. Such students may benefit
from translation tools that offer the text and audio formats in
English and more than 55 languages.

Google Translate
http://translate.google.com
The purpose of this section has been to show how something as
simple as making digital text available to students in turn
allows students to manipulate information to enhance the
physical, sensory, and cognitive accessibility of the information
in ways that benefit all students. Given the importance of
learning from text in American schools, the design of accessible
text is a primary starting point for efforts to implement UDL.
5.4 Universal Access to Media
The accessibility of instructional media is another important
consideration in UDL. While media often supplements text and
adds meaning for struggling readers and students who are visual
learners, audio and video represent intrinsic barriers for
students who have hearing or visual impairments. Thus, efforts
to improve accessibility for one population may increase
barriers for others. This means we must constantly be attentive
to assumptions about our learners and the barriers associated
with specific types of information containers we select to use in
instruction. However, because of the routine use of audio and
video for learning, there are clear guidelines for how to make
multimedia content accessible.
Accessible Design of Audio
Audio files may contain music; a recorded conversation like a
radio show, podcast, or interview; spoken text that has been
digitized from a human reader (digitized speech), or synthesized
speech (generated by a computer voice). While this content may
enhance the learning experience for many learners, the audio
format poses intrinsic barriers for individuals who are deaf or
hard of hearing. Therefore, the key design principle when
including audio in instructional materials is to provide a
transcript whenever an audio file is made available to students.
Transcripts are simply text files that feature the same
information that is found in the audio file. For example, if the
audio is a radio interview, the transcript would be formatted in
script format so that the deaf reader can see who says what.

Descriptions of sounds are also included in a transcript. For
example, if the radio interview begins with soft jazz music, this
is indicated in the script. Similarly, if there is background noise
such as a fire truck siren, this is also noted. Transcripts may be
saved in any convenient text format, such as .doc, .docx, .html,
or .pdf. The goal is to provide equal access to the information
for all learners.
The most significant challenge for most educators is generating
a transcript when all they have is an audio recording. The most
tedious way to produce a transcript is to replay the audio and
type up a transcript. However, a more effective approach is to
pay a professional to transcribe the audio. A Google search for
"transcription services" will help you identify local, regional,
and state transcription services and many organizations may
have a negotiated contract to provide this service as needed.
Increasingly, efforts are being devoted to automating the
transcription process (more about this later in the section).
Accessible Design of Images
Adding images to text facilitates comprehension for most
learners. However, for students who are blind, the information
contained in an image is obviously inaccessible. In order for a
blind person to have access to the visual information,
instructional designers must prepare a text description that
explains the information found in the graphic. Whereas captions
are commonly used to provide a brief description of an image, a
person who is blind will need an extended description. The
nature of the description depends on the purpose of the image
(e.g., a simple graphic to make the design visually interesting
versus a graph with data).
Extended descriptions may be included in a word processing
document or a webpage so that all may access the information,
or it may be stored in a separate file to be accessed as needed.
When inserting a graphic on a webpage, most web authoring
programs prompt the user to add information in what is known
as an alt text tag to an image file. The alt-tag directs screen
readers and browsers that have turned off graphics to retrieve

descriptions or text files that provide a text version of the
information that is presented in visual format. The alt-tag
signals the availability of a text description that can be read to
the individual so that he or she can gain access to the visual
information that is available to his or her sighted peers. (If you
would like to see an alt-tag in action, and you are reading this
textbook online, hover your mouse over any image or figure in
the book. The text that was written for the alt-tag will
automatically appear. As you view the image and read or listen
to the description, decide whether or not the description is
adequate for understanding the visual information if you could
not see the image.) The universal design of images requires that
designers include text descriptions of each image. This is not a
difficult process, but it can be time-consuming to thoughtfully
describe the information found in an image in ways that are
useful to someone who cannot see the image and needs
additional information concerning factors that sighted
individuals may take for granted (i.e., issues of graphic style or
context of a photo). To learn more about creating alt text, visit:
http://webaim.org/techniques/images/alt_text
Accessible Design of Video
The popularity of YouTube and Netflix has placed video in the
middle of social media and, therefore, it is increasingly finding
its way into the classroom for instructional purposes. However,
the multimedia nature of video makes it problematic for
individuals with sensory impairments (i.e., those who are deaf,
hard of hearing, blind, or visually impaired). As a result,
educators must ensure that all videos are appropriately
captioned.
Captioning in the context of video and multimedia means that
the information that is presented via audio is available through
captions or a transcript and that the information that is
presented via video is available through text descriptions (see
Table 5.7). Creating captions is a bit more involved than
creating a transcript because the text has to be linked to specific
audio and video frames. As a result, this is one area of

accessible design that is difficult to expect teachers to be able
to do on a daily basis. However, new tools are making the
process easier, and commercial services provide a method for
schools to contract for accessibility services if they are creating
videos.
Table 5.7: Captioning tools for creating accessible media
Strategy
Technology Options
An instructional designer is interested in creating universally
accessible media for new instructional materials.
Add captions and text descriptions to audio and video.
Web Captioning Overview
http://webaim.org/techniques/captions/
Making Video Accessible
http://www.longtailvideo.com/support/jw-player/22/making-
video-accessible
CaptionTube
http://captiontube.appspot.com/
5.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
In the final section of this chapter we will focus on how
teachers can plan for implementing UDL in their classrooms.
The goal is to provide you with some practical strategies to
enhance the accessibility of instruction moving from design for
the mean (Figure 5.1) to design for more types (Figure 5.2). We
will also address issues that are likely to impact universal
design in the near future.

The A3 Model
The transition from inaccessible design to universally accessible
design will involve awareness training, new technical
development, and time for these new standards to be widely
adopted. As a result, achieving universal accessibility will not
happen quickly.
The A3 Model (Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001) illustrates
the ebb and flow of concurrent interactions between advocacy,
accommodation, and accessibility across a three-phase
developmental cycle necessary to achieve universal
accessibility (see Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5: The A3 Model
The figure shows how advocacy, accommodation, and
accessibility shift across the developmental cycle.
Source: Adapted from Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001.
Advocacy efforts raise awareness of inequity and highlight the
need for system change to respond to the needs of individuals
with disabilities. It is during this phase that advocates seek to
spread the message about the benefit of UDL. Part of the
message is intended to change the thinking of individuals and
organizations about the need for equitable access to tools,
products, and information resources.
Accommodations are the typical response to advocacy:
Inaccessible environments and materials are modified and made
available. Typically, accommodations are provided upon
request. While this represents a significant improvement over
situations in the earlier phase, accommodations tend to maintain
inequality because (a) there may be a delay (i.e., time needed to
convert a handout from print to Braille), (b) it may require
special efforts to obtain (i.e., call ahead to schedule), or (c) it
may require going to a special location (i.e., the only computer
in the school with text enlargement software is located in the
library).
Accessibility describes an environment where access is
equitably provided to everyone at the same time. Often this is

accomplished through outstanding design (i.e., ergonomic
furniture, software with accessibility and performance supports
built in). Thus, this third phase illustrates the goal of universal
design in that the majority of instructional materials are
universally designed, therefore drastically limiting the number
of accommodations needed.
It is important to understand that all three factors are present in
each phase. However, the waves across each phase suggest the
differential impact of the three factors in terms of time, effort,
and focus. As a result, individuals and organizations can use the
model to assess how their time and effort is being allocated to
determine which phase they are currently operating within.
CAST's work on UDL paints a vision of the world in which
instructional environments, materials, and strategies are
universally designed (as found in the third phase). It has created
an outstanding series of products (i.e., WiggleWorks [CAST,
1994], Thinking Reader [CAST, 2004], UDL Editions by CAST
[2008], CAST UDL Book Builder [2009a], CAST Science
Writer [2009b]) that provide experiential evidence of what UDL
principles could look like in practice. These products illustrate
what might be possible if students had access to a large supply
of UDL materials to support their learning across subjects, each
and every day of the school year.
In the first 10 years of UDL implementation, we have shared the
message of UDL with substantial numbers of educators (Phase
1). However, the reality is that once we understand the
principles of UDL, we move from Phase 1 (advocacy) to Phase
2 (accommodation). This means that while we are waiting for
the widespread availability of the promise of UDL (Phase 3—
accessibility), we are left to our own devices to try and apply
the UDL principles to create more accessible accommodations
(e.g., "Since the webpage does not feature audio, let me show
you how to copy the text and paste it into a text-to-speech
tool."). Thus, the A3 Model illustrates why many early disciples
of UDL find themselves struggling to achieve the potential of
UDL within the current limitations of instructional design and

product development.
Pause to Reflect
Given your understanding of the A3 Model, which phase do you
believe most accurately describes your personal knowledge and
skills concerning UDL?
A fundamental question that has yet to be fully addressed in the
UDL literature is whether or not the demands of daily
instruction will allow teachers to function effectively as
instructional designers. That is, is UDL a task for developers
who make instructional products? Or are teachers the principal
stakeholders as they select and deliver instruction in accordance
with UDL principles?
Given the difficulties the author has observed in trying to scale
UDL implementation beyond single classrooms, he is of the
opinion that UDL is an intervention that involves the design and
creation of instructional materials (Phase 3—accessibility).
Hence, the work of teachers is more accurately represented by
the description of Phase 2—that is, advocating for universal
design for learning, selecting and using UDL materials when
they are available, and facilitating accommodations (as
illustrated in Section 5.3 for making text accessible). However,
this perspective is controversial.
In the sections that follow, we explore tools and strategies for
implementing universal design in the classroom with the goal of
helping teachers design for more types (Figure 5.2).
Planning for Multiple Means of Representation
The UDL principle of multiple means of representation seeks to
provide diverse students with alternatives to gaining
information solely from a textbook. You can implement this
principle in your classroom by using a planning template. A
sample plan, illustrated in Figure 5.6, provides an example of
what such a multiple means of representation menu might look
like for a middle school lesson on volcanoes. While this
planning template does require extra time on the teacher's part,
it provides multiple pathways for all students to explore the
content, as the teacher may select resources that provide a more

basic presentation of the information as well as those that
provide more advanced content. Because students will review
each of the resources, just as Goldilocks does to determine what
is "just right," they are likely to accumulate more time on task
than commonly found with traditional one-size-fits-all
curricula. When teachers seek to implement the UDL principle
of multiple means of representation, they are valuing academic
diversity by discarding the historical notion that any one
information source is the only one needed. In reality, providing
students with a menu of information sources is thought to
enhance access, engagement, and learning outcomes for both
targeted students (primary beneficiaries) who we know will
struggle with the content, but also for a large number of other
students (secondary beneficiaries) who we cannot identify in
advance.
Figure 5.6: Sample volcano lessons using the multiple means of
representation planning template
This figure shows an example of how lessons can be planned
using the multiple means of representation planning template.
Click here to download the Multiple Means of Representation
Template.
Planning for Multiple Means of Expression
A second principle of universal design for learning focuses on
providing students with choices on how they express what they
have learned. In many classrooms, teachers expect students to
make presentations to the class regarding a topic that they have
studied. Beyond formal presentations, teachers are increasingly
allowing students to use other formats, such as short videos
(http://www.xtranormal.com/), comic strips
(http://www.toondoo.com/), and other modes of storytelling and
presentation.
In this case, the teacher would like each student to make a
formal presentation, using one of the tools in Table 5.8. By
giving students a choice in the presentation tool, students can
opt to learn a new tool, or use one that they are familiar with or

one that supports specific features (e.g., collaboration [Google
Drive]; visualization [Prezi]; or cognitively simplified interface
[Kid Pix 3D]) that they want to utilize in this particular context.
Because the teacher may not be an expert in each of the
products, she directs students to use each other as resources for
learning about the tools as well as to take advantage of online
help and tutorials. This tactic frees the teacher to devote more
time and energy on helping the students learn about the content
and performance standards. Once such a menu has been created,
it may be reused frequently.
Table 5.8: Multiple means of expression menu
Strategy
Technology Options
Develop an electronic presentation for the class to report on
information that has been learned about a topic.
Use electronic presentation software/apps.
Google Presentation
http://drive.google.com/
Keynote (Macintosh, iPad)
http://www.apple.com/iwork/keynote/
Open Office
http://www.openoffice.org/
Roger Wagner's HyperStudio 5
http://www.mackiev.com/hyperstudio/index.html

Kid Pix 3D
http://www.mackiev.com/kidpix/index.html
PowerPoint
http://office.microsoft.com/
Glogster
http://www.glogster.com/
Prezi
http://prezi.com/
Zoho Show
http://show.zoho.com/
Planning for Multiple Means of Engagement
Access to information is not the same as access to learning
(Boone & Higgins, 2005; Rose, Hasselbring, Stahl, & Zabala,
2005). Access is necessary but not sufficient. As a result, it is
important to consider how technology and digital media engage
students in meaningful learning activities. When UDL provides
the opportunity for a student to access and engage in learning,
as minutes of engaged learning accumulate (i.e., time on task),
this fosters the opportunity for deep learning to occur. Deep
learning, sustained over time, has been found to lead to
significant gains in academic achievement. As we seek to

reverse the effects of the achievement gap, we must keep this
strategy in mind. That is, how do we engage students in
meaningful learning activities such that they are able to
experience the deep learning that is needed for the development
of expertise?
One strategy for implementing the UDL principle of multiple
means of engagement is to use an instructional planning
template known as Tic-Tac-Toe. As illustrated in Figure 5.7, a
teacher created a Tic-Tac-Toe activity for students in her ninth-
grade biology class to complete. In populating the nine cells,
she has kept in mind the UDL principles, as she has provided
multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement.
Students are expected to select three in a row (using the
traditional rules of tic-tac-toe) to complete the assignment.
Naturally, the creation of tic-tac-toe activities will require a bit
of time investment for teachers. However, as an instructional
management tool, it is an excellent beginning step for applying
the principles of universal design to the classroom. Teachers
will reap the dividends of their time investment when they track
the academic performance of students who have typically
struggled to complete traditional assignments. Often students
will ask to do more tic-tac-toe projects. This is a powerful
indicator of the instructional value of this intervention and one
that operationalizes our values of proactively valuing diversity
to support students before they fail.
Figure 5.7: Sample tic-tac-toe activity
The sample activity shown is based on cells, and is an excellent
means of managing universal design principles in the classroom.
Source: Permission to reprint granted by Meridith Berghauer.

Description Total Possible Score 6.00General ContentSubje.docx

Description Total Possible Score 6.00General ContentSubje.docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Description Total Possible Score 6.00General ContentSubje.docx

Similar to Description Total Possible Score 6.00General ContentSubje.docx (20)

More from theodorelove43763

More from theodorelove43763 (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Description Total Possible Score 6.00General ContentSubje.docx