5Principles of Universal Design for LearningLearnin.docx

5
Principles of Universal Design
for Learning
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe the intrinsic barriers associated with efforts to design
for the average student
and provide an example of how this type of design might look in
the classroom.
• Summarize the conceptual foundations of universal design for
learning.
• Demonstrate three methods for improving the accessibility of
text.
• Identify the accessibility barriers found in audio files and
video files, and suggest what
features must accompany these types of media to make them
universally accessible.
• Demonstrate how you could implement universal design for
learning in your classroom
using the principles of multiple means of representation or
multiple means of expression.
AP Photo/Janet Hostetter

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CHAPTER 5Pre-Test
Pre-Test
1. The fundamental problem of the design for the mean product
is its
a. font size.
b. determination of mean.
c. usability.
d. timeliness.
2. One concern with universal design for learning is that it lacks
a. a general philosophy.
b. legal support.
c. scientifically based evidence.
d. teacher buy-in.
Meet Dr. David Rose
Introduction to Universal Design for Learning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbGkL06EU90
Introduction
Schools have a long tradition of standardizing the format and
function of education that has led to an expectation that the one-
size-fits-all classroom will benefit every-one. However,
diversity is a characteristic of the human condition that needs to
be
valued and celebrated. When the needs of diverse learners are
not anticipated, there is a
relentless need for curriculum accommodations and

modifications to retroactively try to
meet their needs.
The goal of universal design for learning is to proactively value
diversity such that sup-
ports are embedded into instructional materials before a student
needs them. This not
only helps facilitate the academic performance of students with
disabilities, who may be
considered the primary beneficiary of accessible design
interventions, but it also supports
secondary groups of diverse learners who need scaffolds, but
for whom we may not be
able to identify such a need in advance.
The design of curriculum and instruction is fundamentally
different than the design of
physical structures and environments. As a result, teachers and
instructional designers
must be aware of the accessibility of the different containers
they select for the instruc-
tional materials they provide to diverse students. In this chapter
you will be introduced to
methods that enhance the accessibility and usability of text and
media.
Universal design for learning (UDL) is a discipline that is
slightly more than 10 years old.
Despite its short history, the potential of universal design for
learning has captured the
imagination of federal policymakers, administrators, teachers,
and parents. This chapter
will examine how universal design for learning is being
incorporated into federal legisla-
tion, policies, and laws, as well as suggest new directions that
are needed to ensure the

widespread implementation of this important 21st-century
initiative to build flexible and
engaging instructional materials to meet the needs of diverse
learners.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbGkL06EU90
CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
3. Which of the following is NOT a problem with using print
text?
a. The font size is fixed.
b. The pages must be turned.
c. The print color cannot be modified.
d. The content can be changed.
4. An alt-tag
a. is an alternative to tags in narrative documents.
b. is used to alert readers that there is an image in the text.
c. gives an extensive caption of tables and figures in text
documents.
d. provides extended descriptions of images in web text.
5. Deep learning of content is the focus of planning for multiple
means of
a. excellence.
b. expression.
c. engagement.
d. representation.
Answers
1. c. usability. The answer can be found in Section 5.1.
2. c. scientifically based evidence. The answer can be found in

Section 5.2.
3. d. The content can be changed. The answer can be found in
Section 5.3.
4. d. provides extended descriptions of images in web text. The
answer can be found in Section 5.4.
5. c. engagement. The answer can be found in Section 5.5.
5.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
When designers create a new product, they are seeking to solve
a problem through innovative design. Perhaps you have heard
the phrase, “Build a better mouse-trap, and the world will beat a
path to your door” (Kassinger, 2002, p. 128). This
statement speaks to the value of innovative design for solving
practical problems. How-
ever, design and invention are always contextualized within a
time period and a specific
culture, and are subject to the limitations of contemporary
technologies and materials.
As a result of recent advances in technology, it is now possible
to design tools, products,
and information resources in ways that make them accessible to
diverse individuals. In
this section, readers will be introduced to principles from the
field known as accessible
design. You will learn how designs that focus on the special
needs of individuals with dis-
abilities can improve the user experience for these individuals
while also having second-
ary benefits for everyone.
Design for the Mean
One common design strategy is known as “design for the mean.”
As shown in Figure 5.1,
using this approach, the designer is focused on creating a

product that will reach the larg-
est number of people to ensure that it is commercially
successful.
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Figure 5.1: Design for the mean
A product that is designed for the mean seeks to achieve
commercial success by reaching a large
percentage of people in the mainstream. The blue line
represents the standard bell curve. The shaded
area below the peak indicates the target mass market of the
average user.
In education, “design for the mean” takes on the form of one
textbook that is written, pur-
chased, and distributed to every student at a specific grade
level. Similarly, design for the
mean is the key instructional principle when a teacher decides
that all students will write
a three-page book report to demonstrate that they have read and
understood a specific
book. Another example of design for the mean is the traditional
lesson plan book where
teachers record their plans for covering content (see Figure 1.7
in Chapter 1).
When designers assume that everyone is like them (e.g., average
height and weight, able
to read at grade level), the product they create will inevitably
meet the needs of only a

limited range of users. As an example, consider the fiasco with
the Amazon Kindle where
designers failed to recognize that blind readers would want to
use a handheld reading
device and that they would need voiced navigational menus—a
design decision that was
reversed after 6 months of complaints and disability advocacy
(Amazon.com, 2009).
Without an appreciation for the fundamental ways that people
are different, it is
unlikely that designers will be able to design products that meet
the accessibility and
usability needs of all learners because they will not understand
the special needs of
some. Clearly, there is much more to learn about how to meet
the instructional needs of
diverse learners, and until we begin describing the salient
nature of these differences in
ways that inform design (see Table 5.1), it is unlikely that we
will design products that
meet the needs of all learners.
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Table 5.1: Diversity and instructional design
Student Performance Variable Range of Diversity
Memory Students develop increased capacity in short- and long-
term memory as they grow. Some disabilities interfere with
information storage and retrieval and therefore may require

explicit strategy instruction.
Motivation Students will display varying levels of persistence
in completing
a task that may be related to their previous success with similar
previous tasks. Therefore, choice of challenge and dependency
on adults are important aspects to monitor. Over time, learners
develop intrinsic motivation for completing challenging tasks.
Sustained Attention Span Ranges from 8 seconds for 2-year-olds
to 40 minutes for young
adults. Attention deficit disorder may affect attention span.
Over
time, learners develop expanded attention spans that allow them
to focus on complex cognitive tasks.
Speech and Language Speech and language begins developing in
very young children
and provides a foundation for accelerated development once
children reach school-age. Some disabilities will impair a
child’s
oral communication skills and therefore may require other
methods of communication, such as a communication board or
augmentative communication system.
Fine Motor Skills Fine motor tasks require a level of eye–hand
coordination and
fluency that is first learned as a preschooler and evolves over
time. Some disabilities will impair fine motor skills, and this
has
applications for student work that may involve handwriting,
keyboarding, and manipulating objects such as turning pages in
a
book or using a computer mouse, etc.
Reading Children’s early learning experiences frequently

prepare them for
formal reading instruction. Reading skills are measured by
grade
levels and Lexiles. The goal is to match the difficulty of a text
with the student’s independent or instructional reading level. It
is common to find a range of reading levels at every grade level
(some students will be reading at several levels below grade
level,
and some students will be reading at levels above grade level).
Problem Solving As in each of the other areas, children’s
mathematical and
problem-solving skills will vary considerably at each grade
level. Young children and students who have difficulty with the
conceptual processes of problem solving benefit from the use
of manipulatives. Older students learn how to support their
problem-solving skills by using tools such as graphing
calculators
and spreadsheets.
At this point, it is important to understand two related concepts:
accessibility and usabil-
ity. Accessibility refers to the inclusive goal of designing tools,
products, and information
resources to be usable by all people regardless of their skills or
abilities. Usability, in turn,
refers to how easy it is to learn and use a product. When
considering any tool, product,
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or information resource, it is necessary to evaluate both the

accessibility and usability
(Lazar, 2007). A key principle of accessible design involves
understanding that the special
needs of individuals with disabilities can produce solutions that
benefit other groups. For
example, knowing that some people have a vision impairment
can translate into a design
principle that all text should be adjustable, if necessary, by
users so that they can enlarge
the text to a size sufficient for comfortable viewing. Although
vision impairments are a
specific disability, the same text enlargement intervention can
benefit most adults who
experience decreased visual acuity as they age.
The fundamental problem of the design for the mean approach is
that the resulting tool,
product, or information may be inaccessible for many
individuals. That is, because the
designer focused on only meeting the needs of a specific
segment of the population
(Hackos & Redish, 1998; Lidwell, Holden, & Butler, 2010), the
product may not be accessi-
ble or usable by many others. Again, consider the textbook that
is written with the expec-
tation that all students read at grade level. Quite readily we can
identify at least three
groups of students whose needs will not be met. For example, a
student who is blind will
not be able to access the printed textbook. A student with a
reading disability will not
be able to independently read the information. Third, while a
gifted student will be able
to read the information, she may not be sufficiently challenged
to learn at a level com-
mensurate with her ability. As a result, design for the mean

involves assumptions about
the average student and fails to meet the needs of students
whose skills and abilities fall
outside that range.
The printed textbook had many positive attributes in the early
20th century. Clearly the
technical advances that allowed printing costs to be reduced
such that each student could
study from his or her own textbook was an important
advancement in education. How-
ever, the historical one-size-fits-all textbook is a poor match for
the needs of diverse learn-
ers in the 21st century because of the fixed layout, font size,
reading level, and language.
This situation creates the need for accommodations and
modifications to make the text-
book accessible to diverse individuals by converting it to a
digital format that will permit
the student who is blind to access the text through refreshable
Braille, the student with a
reading disability to listen to the text with a text-to-speech tool,
and the gifted student to
pursue more advanced topics through hyperlinks.
A characteristic of innovation is the development of new
technologies. Therefore, if we
consider the achievement gap to be a result of the limitations of
traditional instructional
design in education, it is necessary to explore instructional
designs that are more inclusive
(Burke, Hagan, & Grossen, 1998; Coyne, Kameenui, &
Simmons, 2004; Edyburn, 2010).
Design for More Types
The principles of universal design have emerged from our

understanding of the design
of physical environments for individuals with disabilities. As a
result, the term universal
design is most commonly associated with architecture (Preiser
& Ostroff, 2011; Steinfeld
& Maisel, 2012). These developments have provided important
insights regarding the
need to prepare architects and designers to understand special
needs to ensure that their
designs are accessible from the outset, rather than requiring
costly building modifica-
tions later.
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Perhaps the best example of the success of universal design
principles is curb cuts. Origi-
nally designed to improve mobility for people with disabilities
within our communities,
curb cuts not only accomplished that goal, but they also
improved access for people navi-
gating their community with baby strollers, roller blades,
bicycles, and so on.
Another well-known example of
accessible design in the built envi-
ronment is what is known as the zero-
entry swimming pool. This type of pool
design was created to provide access
for individuals in wheelchairs but
has proven to be excellent for anyone
seeking to enjoy the water without

becoming completely submerged.
Readers may also encounter the term
universal design in the context of the
home remodeling industry if you
are caring for an aging parent. Thus,
home remodelers have discovered
that specific types of changes to the
living space (i.e., kitchen, bathroom,
bedroom) make a home more acces-
sible, and safer, for aging adults.
Many families explore universal
design home remodeling options, such as changing out door
knobs, altering counter-
top heights, and modifying toilets and showers, as a cost-
effective alternative to nursing
homes. Indeed, many of the universal design interventions for
individuals with disabili-
ties are also relevant for facilitating the independence of older
adults.
Another application of universal design concepts was created in
the 1990s as the underly-
ing principles were applied to computers. Gregg Vanderheiden
at the TRACE Center at
the University of Wisconsin–Madison, spearheaded
conversations among the disability
community and technology developers concerning initiatives to
include disability acces-
sibility software as part of the operating system. At the time, a
person with a disability
would need to seek out the services and assistance of an
assistive technology specialist in
order to be able to independently use a computer. Vanderheiden
argued that many acces-
sibility needs could be addressed, not only for individuals with

disabilities but also for
older adults, by installing the specialized accessibility software
on each computer when it
was shipped, rather then being added later as an
accommodation.
After a period of time, the computer manufacturing industry
found Vanderheiden’s argu-
ment persuasive and agreed to install an accessibility folder
within the operation system.
As a result, since the mid-1990s, every computer that is shipped
in the United States has
an accessibility control panel that allow users to customize the
operation of the com-
puter to accommodate physical, sensory, and, to a limited
extent, cognitive disabilities.
Thus, accessibility control panels on computers represent a
powerful example of universal
design that moves the construct from simply focusing on the
built environment to one
that illustrates the importance of making tools and information
accessible.
Curb cuts addressed the special needs of people in
wheelchairs by providing better accessibility.
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
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The historical lessons learned through these cases have led to a
statement that serves as a

mantra for universal design: “Good design for people with
disabilities can benefit every-
one.” While universal design is often advocated for as “design
for all,” in practice this has
been difficult to achieve. A more practical way to think about
universal design is “design
for more types” (see Figure 5.2). This means that we seek to
understand the accessibil-
ity and usability barriers that individuals encounter and create
new tools, products, and
information resources that are inclusive to more individuals
than would be the case with
ordinary design for the mean approaches (see Figure 5.1). We
will explore the practical
implications of this concept further in Section 5.3.
Figure 5.2: Design for more types
Design for more types reflects the goal of universal design by
expanding the zone of accessibility and
usability beyond a small segment of the population (as
contrasted with Figure 5.1) in order to include as
many individuals as possible.
Recognizing and Responding to Differences
As discussed in Chapter 3, over a lifetime, each of us, or
someone we know, will encounter
limitations due to aging, disease, accident, and/or disability that
may impair basic life
functions such as hearing, seeing, self-care, mobility, working,
and learning. While some
of us may be born with a disability or disease that will require
us to overcome limitations
throughout our lives, others will need to learn how to respond to
challenges that arise
from an accident or simply as a result of growing older.

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In other words, we must learn to recognize that differences and
limitations are fundamen-
tally part of the human condition. In the classroom, it is
important to think about learner
differences as part of the instructional planning process. For
example, shouldn’t we expect
to find great variation in students’ knowledge and skills? When
we walk into any class-
room, we should anticipate differences among students relative
to the following:
• attention span
• persistence
• reading ability
• handwriting legibility
• number sense and problem-solving skills
• oral communication skills.
Diverse students encounter a variety of barriers in school, both
obvious and hidden, as
demonstrated here.
Obvious Barriers
• Stairs for a person in a wheelchair or a person on crutches
• Print for a person who is blind
• Audio for a person who is deaf
• Video for a person who is blind
Hidden Barriers

• Attitudes
• One-size-fits-all approaches
• Text that is fixed
• Poor design
• Time limits
Often learner differences are viewed as a negative, outside of a
range that we think we
can manage (e.g., “Oh, I can’t teach that student; he’s blind.”).
When we fail to recognize
the range of diversity found in the population, there will be a
need for an accommodation
(i.e., “We’ll see if we can get a copy of the textbook in
Braille.”).
Contrary to this narrow and often negative approach to
diversity, the goal of universal
design is to proactively value differences—that is, to anticipate
learners’ differences before
they enter the classroom so that we can support their academic
performance before they
fail. This is consistent with McLeskey and Waldron’s (2007)
description of the goal of
special education as “making differences ordinary.” As a result,
we need not only to rec-
ognize diverse learners in our classrooms but also to respond to
their needs before they fail.
Universal design for learning is a specialized application of
universal design and is an
approach that holds considerable promise for meeting the needs
of diverse learners.
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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 Foundations of Universal Design for
Learning
5.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
The origin of the term universal design for learning is generally
attributed to David Rose, Anne Meyer, and their colleagues at
the Center for Applied Special Technol-ogy (CAST) (Edyburn
& Gardner, 2009). However, a fact that is often overlooked
is that the principles of UDL were developed during the period
before and after the 1997
reauthorization of the Individuals With Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA). During that
time, both general and special educators were preoccupied with
issues associated with
implementing inclusion. While students with disabilities had
gained physical access to
the general education classroom through inclusion, concerns
were being raised about how
students would gain “access to the general curriculum.” An
interpretive document about
universal design for learning (Orkwis & McLane, 1998) was
disseminated extensively and
served to generate the first wave of national attention to the
construct.
McLaughlin (1999) reported that IDEA reauthorization
contained several specific man-
dates relative to making the general curriculum accessible for
students with disabilities:
• Statements of a child’s present level of educational
performance to specify how
his or her disability affects involvement and progress in the
general curriculum.

• IEP teams to design measurable annual goals, including short-
term objectives
or new benchmarks, to enable the child to be involved—and
progress—in the
general curriculum.
• A statement of the special education and related services and
supplementary
aids and services to be provided to the child.
• A description of any program modifications or supports for
school personnel
necessary for the child to advance appropriately toward the
annual goals, to
progress in the general curriculum, and to be educated and
participate with
other children both with and without disabilities.
• IEP team members to document an explanation of the extent,
if any, to which
the child will not participate with children without disabilities
in the general
class and activities.
Pause to Reflect
Locate the control panel folder on your computer. Then open
the files within the Accessibility
Control Panel folder. What adjustments can you now make to
your computer with these tools to
improve the accessibility and usability of your computer? Do
you know anyone else who could ben-
efit from knowing about, and using, these tools?
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Learning
Readers interested in a legal analysis of the issues associated
with access to the curriculum
are encouraged to review Karger and Hitchcock (2004). These
issues were at the fore-
front of CAST’s work, and in 1999 CAST received a federal
grant to establish the National
Center on Accessing the General Curriculum, which became
instrumental in garnering
national attention for the potential of UDL.
As CAST’s insights about UDL were taking shape, staff
members presented their work at
the annual Office of Special Education Project (OSEP)
Director’s conference in 2000. CAST
also used publication outlets to describe its ideas about how
universal design could be
applied within education (Meyer & Rose, 2000; Rose & Meyer,
2000).
The second wave of widespread attention to UDL came in 2002
when Rose and Meyer
published a book called Teaching Every Student in the Digital
Age, which has become the
definitive work about UDL (also available online,
http://www.cast.org/teachingevery
student/ideas/tes/). The authors elaborated on the conceptual
framework of UDL, point-
ing out that it is grounded in emerging insights about brain
development, learning, and
digital media. Rose and Myer also called attention to the
disconnect between an increas-
ingly diverse student population and a one-size-fits-all

curriculum, arguing that these
conditions would not produce the desired academic achievement
gains expected of 21st-
century global citizens. Challenging educators to think of the
curriculum as disabled,
rather than students, their translation of the principles of
universal design from architec-
ture to education are nothing short of a major paradigm shift
(Edyburn & Gardner, 2009).
CAST advanced the concept of universal design for learning as
a means of focusing
research, development, and educational practice on
understanding diversity and apply-
ing technology to facilitate learning. CAST’s philosophy of
UDL is embodied in a series of
principles that serve as the core components of UDL:
• Multiple means of representation to give learners various ways
of acquiring
information and knowledge;
• Multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives
for demonstrat-
ing what they know; and
• Multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests,
challenge them
appropriately, and motivate them to learn.
Multiple means of representation may be understood as
providing students with alterna-
tives to learning information beyond solely using a textbook.
Teachers today have many
choices when it comes to presenting instructional content to
students: Watch a YouTube

video, listen to a podcast, read text on a webpage, look up a
topic using Wikipedia, and
more. The key notion is to break out of the one-size-fits-all
model, which assumes that all
students learn in the same way, and to encourage teachers to use
a wider palette of infor-
mation containers to reach diverse students.
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http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/ideas/tes/
http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/ideas/tes/
Learning
Multiple means of expression draws
attention to the need to provide stu-
dents with multiple methods of dem-
onstrating what they know. Some
teachers recognize the value of this
principle as they allow students a
choice of writing a paper, preparing
a slideshow presentation, recording
a video, and so on. The key notion
is to provide students with choices
in how they demonstrate what they
have learned and the media they use
to express themselves. Twenty-first
century educators will likely need to
alter their instructional practices in
order to place students in the role of
Goldi-locks: that is, allowing them
to try multiple options to determine
which option is “just right” for ensur-

ing that their performance meets
increasingly high standards. Princi-
ples of fairness dictate that equity is achieved when every
student receives what he or
she needs (Welch, 2000).
Of the three principles above, perhaps the most important is
multiple means of engage-
ment, which is based on the learning principle that deep
learning is only accomplished
through sustained engagement. Access to the curriculum is a
prerequisite to engagement.
However, sustained engagement is achieved by activities that
are interesting, motivating,
and at the right challenge level, what Vygotsky (1962) calls the
Zone of Proximal Develop-
ment. Indeed, research has demonstrated the relationship
between deep learning and high
levels of performance and expertise (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;
Schlechty, 2002).
CAST has elaborated on these core principles through the
development of UDL Guide-
lines (CAST, 2011). As illustrated in Figure 5.3, each of the
three core principles has been
expanded to include three guidelines that speak to the
instructional design features that
are needed to implement each principle. Teachers and
instructional designers can use
these guidelines as they create instructional materials.
A teacher takes his class on a field trip to learn about
ecosystems. What are some other ways teachers
can present information to students without using a
textbook, while capturing different learning styles?

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Learning
Figure 5.3: CAST’s UDL principles
By following the core guidelines for providing multiple means
of representation, action and expression,
and engagement, teachers can help shape more informed, goal-
oriented, and determined learners.
Source: From CAST 2011, Universal Design for Learning
Guidelines version 2.0, Wakefield, MA. http://www.cast.org.
Copyright ©
Strategic goal-directed learners
III. Provide Multiple Means of
Engagement
7: Provide options for recruiting
interest
7.1 Optimize individual choice and
autonomy
7.2 Optimize relevance, value, and
authenticity
7.3 Minimize threats and distractions

8: Provide options for sustaining
effort and persistence
8.1 Heightens salience of goals and
objectives
8.2 Vary demands and resources to
optimize challenge
8.3 Foster collaboration and
community
8.4 Increase mastery-oriented
feedback
9: Provide options for self-regulation
9.1 Promote expectations and beliefs
that optimize motivation
9.2:Facilitate personal coping skills
strategies
9.3 Develop self-assessment and
reflection
Purposeful, motivated learners
1: Provide options for perception
1.1 Offer ways of customizing
the display of information
1.2 Offer alternatives for auditory
information

1.3 Offer alternatives for visual
information
2: Provide options for language,
mathematical expressions,
and symbols
2.1 Clarify vocabulary and symbols
2.2 Clarify syntax and structure
2.3 Support decoding of text,
mathematical notation, and
symbols
2.4 Promote understanding across
languages
2.5 Illustrate through multiple media
3: Provide options for
comprehension
3.1 Activate or supply background
knowledge
3.2 Highlight patterns, critical features,
big ideas, and relationships
3.3 Guide information processing,
visualization, and manipulation
3.4 Maximize transfer and generalization
II. Provide Multiple Means of

Action and Expression
4: Provide options for physical
action
4.1 Vary the methods for response
and navigation
4.2 Optimize access to tools and
assistive technologies
5: Provide options for expression
and communication
5.1 Use multiple media for
communication
5.2 Use multiple tools for construction
and composition
5.3 Build fluencies with graduated
levels of support for practice
and performance
6: Provide options for executive
functions
6.1 Guide appropriate goal-setting
6.2 Support planning and strategy
development
6.3 Facilitate managing information
and resources
6.4 Enhance capacity for monitoring

progress
Resourceful, knowledgeable learners
I. Provide Multiple Means of
Representation
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http://www.cast.org
Learning
Policy Foundations
The impact of universal design for learning can be traced
through U.S. federal special
education law. Thus, in the 2004 reauthorization of the
Individual With Disabilities Educa-
tion Act (IDEA), which governs special education, the term
universal design was officially
defined (20 U.S.C. § 1401):
The term universal design has the meaning given the term in
section 3 of
the Assistive Technology Act of 1998. (U.S.C. § 3002)
Following the backward chain of legal reference, the definition
of universal design as it was
included in the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 is as follows:
The term “universal design” means a concept or philosophy for
designing
and delivering products and services that are usable by people
with the

widest possible range of functional capabilities, which include
products
and services that are directly usable (without requiring assistive
technolo-
gies) and products and services that are made usable with
assistive tech-
nologies. (U.S.C. § 3002)
Next, consider how the terms are defined in the Higher
Education Opportunity Act of
2008 (Public Law 110-315, Section 103, a):
(23) UNIVERSAL DESIGN. – The term ‘universal design’ as
the mean-
ing given the term in section 3 of the Assistive Technology Act
of 1998 (29
U.S.C. 3002).
(24) UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING. – The term
‘universal design
for learning’ means a scientifically valid framework for guiding
educa-
tional practice that –
(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in
the ways
students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in
the ways
students are engaged; and
(B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate
accommodations,
supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement
expectations
for all students, including students with disabilities and students
who are

limited English proficient.
As illustrated, the definition of universal design for learning
evolved from a concept or phi-
losophy in 1998 to a scientifically validated framework in 2008.
Of concern is the fact that
to date, although there is a significant body of work on
universally designed assessment
(e.g., Ketterlin-Geller, 2005; Thompson, Johnstone, & Thurlow,
2002), there has been little
research on UDL. Thus, without an adequate base of primary
research, an analysis of
research evidence that establishes UDL as a scientifically
validated intervention is not yet
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 184 5/29/13 2:15 PM
Learning
possible (Edyburn, 2010). Evidently, the work CAST compiled
to support various compo-
nents of UDL design principles (CAST, 2011) was
mischaracterized by lobbyists and writ-
ten into federal law. Unfortunately, the claim that UDL has
been scientifically validated
through research cannot be substantiated at this time.
Over the past 10 years, universal design for learning has
captured the imagination of
policymakers, researchers, administrators, and teachers.
Universal design for learning
provides a vision for breaking the one-size-fits-all mold and
therefore expands the oppor-

tunities for learning for all students with learning differences.
Recognizing and respond-
ing to diversity is a core motivation for engaging in UDL
practices. Finally, the expecta-
tions associated with No Child Left Behind (NCLB) makes UDL
an important and timely
strategy for enhancing student academic achievement. The
mantra that evolved from our
understanding of the value of curb cuts, “Good design for
people with disabilities benefits
everyone,” provides a powerful rationale for exploring large-
scale application of UDL in
education.
One of the significant flaws in a federal law that states that
UDL is a scientifically validated
framework is that CAST’s UDL framework does not feature a
component associated with
the measurement of student learning outcomes. All three of the
“multiple means” state-
ments by CAST focus on the provision of multiple concurrent
interventions. As a result,
within existing conceptualizations of UDL, there is no clear
way to measure claims that
UDL is effective for enhancing the academic performance of
diverse students. This is a
significant shortcoming for anyone trying to operationalize,
implement, and evaluate a
UDL program.
Translating UDL Theory Into Practice
Without seeing a class list, in a class of 30 middle school
students, one can anticipate that
5–7 students have below grade-level reading skills, 3–5 students
will have learning dis-
abilities, 1–2 may have vision or hearing difficulties, and 1–2

students may have a primary
language other than English. The current model of curriculum
accommodations requires
that these students first be identified as having special needs,
and then special support
services will be provided.
The promise of universal design for learning suggests that
instructional materials can
be designed to provide adjustable instructional design controls.
One way to think about
these controls is to consider a volume control slider that is
adjustable to be off or some
level between low and high. Tomlinson (1999) speaks of this
concept as equalizers. As
illustrated in Figure 5.4, universal design control panels could
be included in all instruc-
tional software and be accessed by students and teachers when
an adjustment is needed.
Just think of it: Do you need reading materials at a lower
readability? Just go into the
control panel and reset the slider, and the same information
could be presented at a
lower reading level.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 185 5/29/13 2:15 PM
Learning
Figure 5.4: Model of equalizers
The figure shows a model of equalizers that could be used to
adjust the difficulty of curriculum and/or

the type of supports that are activated to support diverse
learners.
Many find it difficult to visualize what universally designed
curricula might look like.
Table 5.2 identifies digital resources that can help us
understand the potential of UDL.
As you explore each resource, consider how it was designed to
support the success of all
learners by embedding supports that can be used by any learner
as needed. Also consider
the question: Would these instructional materials be helpful to a
single student (if so, it
might be considered assistive technology), a small group of
students (if so, it might be
useful as a Response to Intervention [RTI] Tier 2 intervention),
or might there be value in
giving them to the entire class in order to reach those who we
know will struggle as well
as many other students whom we cannot identify in advance?
Finally, consider the differ-
ence between traditional textbooks (design for the mean; see
Figure 5.1) and these types of
digital learning materials that feature embedded supports that
can be used by any learner
(design for more types; see Figure 5.2).
Knowledge Representation
AbstractConcrete
Structure
MoreLess
Independence
MoreLess

Pace
QuickerSlower
K
12
Reading Level
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 186 5/29/13 2:15 PM
CHAPTER 5Section 5.3 Universal Access to Text
Pause to Reflect
If we begin with the design premise that not all learners who
enter a classroom will be reading at
grade level, why might a website that (a) has curriculum content
written at multiple reading levels,
(b) has text-to-speech available, and (c) has second language
translation available be more acces-
sible and engaging than a traditional textbook? If such
instructional materials were routinely avail-
able, what does this type of digital curriculum say about a
school’s commitment to diverse learners?
Table 5.2: Instructional designs that proactively value
differences
Instructional Challenge Strategy Technology Options
Design instructional materials
that support diverse learners
before they fail.

Create multilingual
instructional materials that
include a variety of levels to
engage students at different
skill levels.
Literacy Center Education
Network
http://www.literacycenter.net
/lessonview_en.php
Create instructional text at
multiple levels to account for
different reading levels and
interest levels.
Ben’s Guide to U.S.
Government for Kids
http://bensguide.gpo.gov/
Create tiered instructional text
and offer audio support for the
easier levels.
StarChild
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov
/docs/StarChild/StarChild.html
Create tiered instructional
materials for adults to
understand the importance of
just-in-time support.
The Brain: From Top to Bottom
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/

5.3 Universal Access to Text
The text found in textbooks is fixed. That is, the font is a
certain size. The leading (the space between lines) is fixed. The
margins are fixed. The font color is usually black (to provide a
striking contrast against the white paper). While the
characteristics
of print and books have changed little since the invention of the
printing press, we now
know that to some people the book is a difficult container in
which to access information.
For example, consider the child who was born without arms.
How does he turn the pages
of the book or carry the book from his desk to his locker? What
about the child who has
a vision impairment and needs the text enlarged to be able to
see the print? What about
a child whose first language is not English, of what use is the
textbook to her? And what
about the student who cannot read independently at grade level?
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 187 5/29/13 2:15 PM
http://www.literacycenter.net/lessonview_en.php
http://www.literacycenter.net/lessonview_en.php
http://bensguide.gpo.gov/
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/StarChild.html
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/StarChild.html
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/
Typically, the first step in making the
information accessible is to scan the text
into the computer (see Chapter 6) to cre-

ate a digital version of the text. Digital
text is inherently flexible. That is, the
size, font, and color of the text can be
readily altered. In addition, digital text
can be manipulated in ways that provide
physical, sensory, and cognitive access.
To meet the needs of diverse learners, it
is becoming increasingly clear that 21st-
century curricula should be developed,
stored, and used in a digital format, and
print-on-demand tools should be used
as needed. Notice how the traditional
paradigm has been flipped. Rather than
creating print books that have to be con-
verted into digital format, books should
be created and distributed in electronic
formats and printed when the need
arises.
This section outlines a series of design interventions that make
text universally accessible.
The goal is to present resources, strategies, and tools that you
can use in your classroom to
ensure that your students will have universal access to text-
based information.
Text Creation
Today, almost all information is created through the use of a
keyboard and a computer.
This means that most text is “born” digital. As you learned
while mastering your word
processor, it is easy to save, change, and print documents when
the text is saved in a word
processor. As a result, few people who have mastered the basic
mechanics of a word pro-
cessor want to go back to using a typewriter or writing entirely

by hand.
One of the simplest strategies that teachers can use to make text
accessible to their stu-
dents is to provide digital copies (i.e., created on a word
processor) of their handouts.
In fact, many school districts support this strategy by providing
teachers with an online
workspace on a local area network (i.e., intranet) or a content
management system (e.g.,
Moodle). These types of tools allow teachers to post documents
online. In both cases,
students learn to retrieve documents from the server that they
can open and view in their
own word processor or web browser.
Alter the View
Students who need to alter the view of a document can use the
zoom feature in their word
processor (Click on View menu, Click on Zoom, select
appropriate size) or web browser
(Command 1 or Command 2) to increase the font size. This is
another excellent example
of universal design. That is, while zoom was originally
developed for people with visual
disabilities, nearly everyone periodically discovers the need to
enlarge text in order to see
information more comfortably.
By converting printed text into digital format, you can
make text more accessible to students. What are other
advantages to students accessing text digitally?
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 188 5/29/13 2:15 PM

A key design principle for making text accessible on webpages
uses a web development
technique known as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). CSS is a
preferred web development
practice because it separates content from the display of
information. This is really a sig-
nificant development for accessibility because in the past all
decisions about the appear-
ance of text were made by the designer or publisher. By
separating content from the
characteristics of how information is displayed, the control has
shifted from the publisher
to the reader, who determines what is the “just right” format.
What you will notice is that as you click on each link on the
CSS Zen Garden site, the
content of the pages stays exactly the same, but the graphic
design, layout, text style, and
so on, change. The magic of CSS is accomplished by saving the
text in one file and sav-
ing the CSS variables that affect the appearance of the page in a
second file. The point of
this website is simply to illustrate that accessible design can be
beautiful. When you see
webpages that have a series of boxes with the letter A or T, this
is an indication that the
webpage has used CSS to build in text enlargement. Simply
click on the letter to enlarge
the text to a comfortable size.
The value of text enlargement has led to a number of new tools,

some of which are
designed to work within your web browser (i.e., browser plugin
or bookmarklet). Increas-
ingly common is the need for these same kinds of tools to work
on smartphones given the
very small screen size and the need to remove the clutter found
on many webpages (see
Table 5.3). Hence we are seeing another example of universal
design that is transforming
what was originally an assistive technology intervention into a
universal design feature
that benefits everyone.
Table 5.3: Bookmarklets and apps that alter readability features
of text
Need to modify the
screen presentation of text to
improve its readability.
Download a bookmarklet to be
used when reading in a web
browser.
Readability
http://www.readability.com
/bookmarklets
Evernote Clearly
http://evernote.com/clearly/
Download an app to improve
the readability of webpages on
a smartphone screen.

Readability
http://www.readability.com
/apps
Visit the following website to experience CSS:
CSS Zen Garden
http://www.csszengarden.com
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 189 5/29/13 2:15 PM
http://www.readability.com/bookmarklets
http://www.readability.com/bookmarklets
http://evernote.com/clearly/
http://www.readability.com/apps
http://www.readability.com/apps
http://www.csszengarden.com
Another important strategy for making text accessible involves
styles. Perhaps you used
style sheets when you learned to word process; unfortunately,
most of us did not (to learn
more, visit http://webaim.org/techniques/word/). The purpose of
using a style sheet
is that headings and text elements are consistently tagged
regarding their function (i.e.,
Heading 1, body text). While visual users can see the difference
in subheadings, blind
users cannot. As a result, screen readers rely on style sheets to
read the tagged elements
of a document and provide the user with the opportunity to

move around a document
(i.e., using heading tags to jump from one section to another).
Styles also offer authors the
opportunity to view the headings that they have created in a
document in an outline view
to ensure that they are being consistent in their writing style.
Saving the Text File
After you have created your text, you have many choices
concerning the file format in
which you save your document. Table 5.4 summarizes some of
the common text file for-
mats. Today, most word processing programs and web browsers
can easily open and view
documents created in any of these common file formats. In most
environments, Microsoft
Word- files saved as .doc or .docx are universally accessible
because Word- has become
the word processing standard. Be considerate of the needs of
your students when select-
ing a file format in which to save the information. For example,
if you create a document
in WordPerfect- or Pages-, these specialized formats cannot be
opened on most comput-
ers that do not have these programs installed. In this situation,
the student may need to
use an online conversion service (see Table 5.5) to convert the
file to a format he can open
and view.
Table 5.4: Common file formats for text
File
format
Attributes

.asc ASCII, a generic text file with no formatting properties. A
universal standard for the
lowest level of text-based information.
.doc, .docx Proprietary formats associated with Microsoft Word.
Requires Microsoft Word or a
compatible word processor to open.
.html A file format containing information formatted for the
Web. HTM and HTML files will
open in a web browser.
.pdf A proprietary format created by Adobe to facilitate the
transfer of documents between
computers to ensure compatibility when one user may not own
the software that was
used to create the original document. Generally recognized as a
universal storage format.
.rtf Allows some basic formatting (i.e., bold, italics) to be
included in the text. The rich text
format file type opens in all word processors.
.txt A file containing text with no formatting. This text file type
opens in all word processors.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 190 5/29/13 2:15 PM
http://webaim.org/techniques/word/
Table 5.5: File conversion tools

Unable to open and view a
digital file because it is saved in
a format that is not compatible
with the software on one’s
computer.
Access an online conversion
service to upload the file and
convert it into another format.
Zamzar
http://www.zamzar.com
You Convert It
http://www.youconvertit.com
Media Converter
http://www.mediaconverter.org
Manipulating Digital Text
Once students have access to a digital text file, they are able to
manipulate the informa-
tion in a variety of ways to make it more accessible.
Essentially, the only technology skills
needed to do so involve copying and pasting.
One important strategy for many struggling readers involves
altering the cognitive acces-
sibility of the text. This can be accomplished by copying and
pasting digital text into a
summarization tool. Search your favorite app store to find
summarization products that
will work on your smartphone.

One example of a free web-based summarization tool is:
Text Compactor
http://www.textcompactor.com
With this tool, students use a slider to determine how much of a
summary they want to
read, and the summarized text appears in a box on the page.
This tool is an interesting
application of UDL. Teachers might use it in a class because of
a few struggling readers.
However, to reach those targeted students, the teacher
introduces the tool to the entire
class. The potential of UDL indicates that the tool will help not
only the small group of
targeted students but also a larger number of students in the
class—many of whom the
teacher could not know in advance would need, want, or benefit
from such a tool.
This case illustrates that the outcomes of UDL should be
considered in terms of primary
and secondary beneficiaries. If only a small number of targeted
users end up using the
tool, it functions more like assistive technology. However, if
the secondary beneficiaries
are a larger group, it is likely we have discovered a UDL
application in the same way that
we notice the beneficiaries of the zero-entry swimming pool.
Once students have a summary of the text, they can choose to
copy and paste it into a text-
to-speech program. This allows them to listen to information
that they may not be able to
(or choose not to) read (see Table 5.6).

edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 191 5/29/13 2:15 PM
http://www.zamzar.com
http://www.youconvertit.com
http://www.mediaconverter.org
http://www.textcompactor.com
CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Universal Access to Media
Table 5.6: Text-to-speech tools
Student would like to listen to
text that she cannot or does
not want to read.
Copy text and paste into a text-
to-speech tool.
Vozme
http://www.vozme.com
SpokenText
http://www.spokentext.net
Read the Words
http://www.readthewords.com
Finally, digital text affords the opportunity to convert text from
English into another lan-
guage. Some students whose first language is not English will
struggle to extract meaning
from text found in grade-level readings. Such students may

benefit from translation tools
that offer the text and audio formats in English and more than
55 languages.
Pause to Reflect
How would you explain the difference between digital text and
traditional print to a parent of one
of your students? Are these differences significant or relevant
for 21st-century learners?
5.4 Universal Access to Media
The accessibility of instructional media is another important
consideration in UDL. While media often supplements text and
adds meaning for struggling readers and students who are visual
learners, audio and video represent intrinsic barriers for
students who have hearing or visual impairments. Thus, efforts
to improve accessibility
for one population may increase barriers for others. This means
we must constantly be
attentive to assumptions about our learners and the barriers
associated with specific types
of information containers we select to use in instruction.
However, because of the routine
use of audio and video for learning, there are clear guidelines
for how to make multime-
dia content accessible.
Google Translate
http://translate.google.com
The purpose of this section has been to show how something as
simple as making digital
text available to students in turn allows students to manipulate
information to enhance

the physical, sensory, and cognitive accessibility of the
information in ways that benefit all
students. Given the importance of learning from text in
American schools, the design of
accessible text is a primary starting point for efforts to
implement UDL.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 192 5/29/13 2:15 PM
http://www.vozme.com
http://www.spokentext.net
http://www.readthewords.com
http://translate.google.com
Accessible Design of Audio
Audio files may contain music; a recorded conversation like a
radio show, podcast, or
interview; spoken text that has been digitized from a human
reader (digitized speech),
or synthesized speech (generated by a computer voice). While
this content may enhance
the learning experience for many learners, the audio format
poses intrinsic barriers for
individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. Therefore, the key
design principle when
including audio in instructional materials is to provide a
transcript whenever an audio file
is made available to students.
Transcripts are simply text files that feature the same
information that is found in the
audio file. For example, if the audio is a radio interview, the
transcript would be format-

ted in script format so that the deaf reader can see who says
what. Descriptions of sounds
are also included in a transcript. For example, if the radio
interview begins with soft jazz
music, this is indicated in the script. Similarly, if there is
background noise such as a fire
truck siren, this is also noted. Transcripts may be saved in any
convenient text format,
such as .doc, .docx, .html, or .pdf. The goal is to provide equal
access to the information
for all learners.
The most significant challenge for most educators is generating
a transcript when all they
have is an audio recording. The most tedious way to produce a
transcript is to replay
the audio and type up a transcript. However, a more effective
approach is to pay a pro-
fessional to transcribe the audio. A Google search for
“transcription services” will help
you identify local, regional, and state transcription services and
many organizations may
have a negotiated contract to provide this service as needed.
Increasingly, efforts are being
devoted to automating the transcription process (more about this
later in the section).
Accessible Design of Images
Adding images to text facilitates comprehension for most
learners. However, for students
who are blind, the information contained in an image is
obviously inaccessible. In order
for a blind person to have access to the visual information,
instructional designers must
prepare a text description that explains the information found in
the graphic. Whereas

captions are commonly used to provide a brief description of an
image, a person who is
blind will need an extended description. The nature of the
description depends on the
purpose of the image (e.g., a simple graphic to make the design
visually interesting versus
a graph with data).
Extended descriptions may be included in a word processing
document or a webpage so
that all may access the information, or it may be stored in a
separate file to be accessed as
needed. When inserting a graphic on a webpage, most web
authoring programs prompt
the user to add information in what is known as an alt text tag
to an image file. The alt-tag
directs screen readers and browsers that have turned off
graphics to retrieve descriptions
or text files that provide a text version of the information that is
presented in visual format.
The alt-tag signals the availability of a text description that can
be read to the individual
so that he or she can gain access to the visual information that
is available to his or her
sighted peers. (If you would like to see an alt-tag in action, and
you are reading this text-
book online, hover your mouse over any image or figure in the
book. The text that was
written for the alt-tag will automatically appear. As you view
the image and read or listen
to the description, decide whether or not the description is
adequate for understanding
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 193 5/29/13 2:15 PM

the visual information if you could not see the image.) The
universal design of images
requires that designers include text descriptions of each image.
This is not a difficult pro-
cess, but it can be time-consuming to thoughtfully describe the
information found in an
image in ways that are useful to someone who cannot see the
image and needs addi-
tional information concerning factors that sighted individuals
may take for granted (i.e.,
issues of graphic style or context of a photo). To learn more
about creating alt text, visit:
http://webaim.org/techniques/images/alt_text
Accessible Design of Video
The popularity of YouTube and Netflix has placed video in the
middle of social media
and, therefore, it is increasingly finding its way into the
classroom for instructional pur-
poses. However, the multimedia nature of video makes it
problematic for individuals
with sensory impairments (i.e., those who are deaf, hard of
hearing, blind, or visually
impaired). As a result, educators must ensure that all videos are
appropriately captioned.
Captioning in the context of video and multimedia means that
the information that is
presented via audio is available through captions or a transcript
and that the information
that is presented via video is available through text descriptions
(see Table 5.7). Creating
captions is a bit more involved than creating a transcript

because the text has to be linked
to specific audio and video frames. As a result, this is one area
of accessible design that it
is difficult to expect teachers to be able to do on a daily basis.
However, new tools are mak-
ing the process easier, and commercial services provide a
method for schools to contract
for accessibility services if they are creating videos.
Table 5.7: Captioning tools for creating accessible media
An instructional designer
is interested in creating
universally accessible media for
new instructional materials.
Add captions and text descrip-
tions to audio and video.
Web Captioning Overview
http://webaim.org/techniques
/captions/
Making Video Accessible
http://www.longtailvideo.com
/support/jw-player/22/making
-video-accessible
CaptionTube
http://captiontube.appspot
.com/
Pause to Reflect
Why is it important to consider the accessibility of multimedia

when planning for universal design
of instruction?
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 194 5/29/13 2:15 PM
http://webaim.org/techniques/images/alt_text
http://webaim.org/techniques/captions/
http://webaim.org/techniques/captions/
http://www.longtailvideo.com/support/jw-player/22/making-
video-accessible
http://www.longtailvideo.com/support/jw-player/22/making-
video-accessible
http://captiontube.appspot.com/
http://captiontube.appspot.com/
CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 Developing a Personal Plan to
Implement UDL
5.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
In the final section of this chapter we will focus on how
teachers can plan for implement-ing UDL in their classrooms.
The goal is to provide you with some practical strategies to
enhance the accessibility of instruction moving from design for
the mean (Figure 5.1)
to design for more types (Figure 5.2). We will also address
issues that are likely to impact
universal design in the near future.
The A3 Model
The transition from inaccessible design to universally accessible
design will involve
awareness training, new technical development, and time for
these new standards to be
widely adopted. As a result, achieving universal accessibility

will not happen quickly.
The A3 Model (Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001) illustrates
the ebb and flow of con-
current interactions between advocacy, accommodation, and
accessibility across a three-
phase developmental cycle necessary to achieve universal
accessibility (see Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5: The A3 Model
The figure shows how advocacy, accommodation, and
accessibility shift across the developmental cycle.
Source: Adapted from Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001.
Advocacy
Phase
Accomodation
Phase
Accessibility
Phase
Time
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 195 5/29/13 2:15 PM
Implement UDL
Advocacy efforts raise awareness of inequity and highlight the
need for system change to

respond to the needs of individuals with disabilities. It is during
this phase that advocates
seek to spread the message about the benefit of UDL. Part of the
message is intended to
change the thinking of individuals and organizations about the
need for equitable access
to tools, products, and information resources.
Accommodations are the typical response to advocacy:
Inaccessible environments and
materials are modified and made available. Typically,
accommodations are provided
upon request. While this represents a significant improvement
over situations in the ear-
lier phase, accommodations tend to maintain inequality because
(a) there may be a delay
(i.e., time needed to convert a handout from print to Braille),
(b) it may require special
efforts to obtain (i.e., call ahead to schedule), or (c) it may
require going to a special loca-
tion (i.e., the only computer in the school with text enlargement
software is located in the
library).
Accessibility describes an environment where access is
equitably provided to everyone at
the same time. Often this is accomplished through outstanding
design (i.e., ergonomic
furniture, software with accessibility and performance supports
built in). Thus, this third
phase illustrates the goal of universal design in that the majority
of instructional materials
are universally designed, therefore drastically limiting the
number of accommodations
needed.

It is important to understand that all three factors are present in
each phase. However,
the waves across each phase suggest the differential impact of
the three factors in terms
of time, effort, and focus. As a result, individuals and
organizations can use the model to
assess how their time and effort is being allocated to determine
which phase they are cur-
rently operating within.
CAST’s work on UDL paints a vision of the world in which
instructional environments,
materials, and strategies are universally designed (as found in
the third phase). It has cre-
ated an outstanding series of products (i.e., WiggleWorks
[CAST, 1994], Thinking Reader
[CAST, 2004], UDL Editions by CAST [2008], CAST UDL
Book Builder [2009a], CAST Sci-
ence Writer [2009b]) that provide experiential evidence of what
UDL principles could look
like in practice. These products illustrate what might be
possible if students had access to
a large supply of UDL materials to support their learning across
subjects, each and every
day of the school year.
In the first 10 years of UDL implementation, we have shared the
message of UDL with
substantial numbers of educators (Phase 1). However, the
reality is that once we under-
stand the principles of UDL, we move from Phase 1 (advocacy)
to Phase 2 (accommoda-
tion). This means that while we are waiting for the widespread
availability of the promise
of UDL (Phase 3—accessibility), we are left to our own devices
to try and apply the UDL

principles to create more accessible accommodations (e.g.,
“Since the webpage does not
feature audio, let me show you how to copy the text and paste it
into a text-to-speech
tool.”). Thus, the A3 Model illustrates why many early disciples
of UDL find themselves
struggling to achieve the potential of UDL within the current
limitations of instructional
design and product development.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 196 5/29/13 2:15 PM
Implement UDL
A fundamental question that has yet to be fully addressed in the
UDL literature is whether
or not the demands of daily instruction will allow teachers to
function effectively as
instructional designers. That is, is UDL a task for developers
who make instructional
products? Or are teachers the principal stakeholders as they
select and deliver instruction
in accordance with UDL principles?
Given the difficulties the author has observed in trying to scale
UDL implementation
beyond single classrooms, he is of the opinion that UDL is an
intervention that involves
the design and creation of instructional materials (Phase 3—
accessibility). Hence, the
work of teachers is more accurately represented by the
description of Phase 2—that is,
advocating for universal design for learning, selecting and using

UDL materials when
they are available, and facilitating accommodations (as
illustrated in Section 5.3 for mak-
ing text accessible). However, this perspective is controversial.
In the sections that follow, we explore tools and strategies for
implementing universal
design in the classroom with the goal of helping teachers design
for more types (Figure 5.2).
Planning for Multiple Means of Representation
The UDL principle of multiple means of representation seeks to
provide diverse students
with alternatives to gaining information solely from a textbook.
You can implement this
principle in your classroom by using a planning template. A
sample plan, illustrated in
Figure 5.6, provides an example of what such a multiple means
of representation menu
might look like for a middle school lesson on volcanoes. While
this planning template does
require extra time on the teacher’s part, it provides multiple
pathways for all students to
explore the content, as the teacher may select resources that
provide a more basic presen-
tation of the information as well as those that provide more
advanced content. Because
students will review each of the resources, just as Goldilocks
does to determine what is
“just right,” they are likely to accumulate more time on task
than commonly found with
traditional one-size-fits-all curricula. When teachers seek to
implement the UDL principle
of multiple means of representation, they are valuing academic
diversity by discarding
the historical notion that any one information source is the only

one needed. In reality,
providing students with a menu of information sources is
thought to enhance access,
engagement, and learning outcomes for both targeted students
(primary beneficiaries)
who we know will struggle with the content, but also for a large
number of other students
(secondary beneficiaries) who we cannot identify in advance.
Pause to Reflect
Given your understanding of the A3 Model, which phase do you
believe most accurately describes
your personal knowledge and skills concerning UDL?
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Implement UDL
Figure 5.6: Sample volcano lessons using the multiple means of
representation
planning template
This figure shows an example of how lessons can be planned
using the multiple means of representation
planning template.
Planning for Multiple Means of Expression
A second principle of universal design for learning focuses on
providing students with
choices on how they express what they have learned. In many
classrooms, teachers expect
students to make presentations to the class regarding a topic
that they have studied.

Beyond formal presentations, teachers are increasingly allowing
students to use other
formats, such as short videos (http://www.xtranormal.com/),
comic strips (http://www
.toondoo.com/), and other modes of storytelling and
presentation.
Topic of the Instructional Unit: Volcanoes (Middle School
Science)
Additional Comments:
I created this unit for a diverse middle school science class that
I co-teach. We
will ask stundents to explore all the resouces during their
learning activities as a
means of ensuring that all students have mulitple ways to access
the content of
the unit.
Alternate to the
textbook
Text Wikipedia: Volcano
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano
Simple English Text Volcano
http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano
Audio Audio VozMe
http://vozme.com/index.php?lang=en
Interactive
Activities
Web Learner Interactives: Volcanoes

Conversation
Tools
Braille
Sign Language
Symbols
Not needed at this time.
Movie Audio visual Volcano Movie Clips
http://www.volcanovideo.com/p8vidclp.htm
Volcanoes
http://www.brainpop.com/science/
earthsystem/volcanoes/preview.weml
Type Media Source
http://www.learner.org/
interactives/volcano/index.html
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http://www.xtranormal.com/
http://www.toondoo.com/
http://www.toondoo.com/
http://www.learner.org/interactives/volcano/index.html
http://www.learner.org/interactives/volcano/index.html
Implement UDL

In this case, the teacher would like each student to make a
formal presentation, using one
of the tools in Table 5.8. By giving students a choice in the
presentation tool, students can
opt to learn a new tool, or use one that they are familiar with or
one that supports specific
features (e.g., collaboration [Google Drive]; visualization
[Prezi]; or cognitively simpli-
fied interface [Kid Pix 3D]) that they want to utilize in this
particular context. Because
the teacher may not be an expert in each of the products, she
directs students to use each
other as resources for learning about the tools as well as to take
advantage of online help
and tutorials. This tactic frees the teacher to devote more time
and energy on helping the
students learn about the content and performance standards.
Once such a menu has been
created, it may be reused frequently.
Table 5.8: Multiple means of expression menu
Develop an electronic
presentation for the class to
report on information that has
been learned about a topic.
Use electronic presentation
software/apps.
Google Presentation
http://drive.google.com/

Keynote (Macintosh, iPad)
http://www.apple.com/iwork
/keynote/
Open Office
http://www.openoffice.org/
Roger Wagner’s HyperStudio 5
http://www.mackiev.com
/hyperstudio/index.html
Kid Pix 3D
http://www.mackiev.com
/kidpix/index.html
PowerPoint
http://office.microsoft.com/
Glogster
http://www.glogster.com/
Prezi
http://prezi.com/
Zoho Show
http://show.zoho.com/
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 199 5/29/13 2:15 PM
http://drive.google.com/
http://www.apple.com/iwork/keynote/
http://www.apple.com/iwork/keynote/
http://www.openoffice.org/
http://www.mackiev.com/hyperstudio/index.html
http://www.mackiev.com/hyperstudio/index.html
http://www.mackiev.com/kidpix/index.html

http://www.mackiev.com/kidpix/index.html
http://office.microsoft.com/
http://www.glogster.com/
http://prezi.com/
http://show.zoho.com/
Implement UDL
Planning for Multiple Means of Engagement
Access to information is not the same as access to learning
(Boone & Higgins, 2005; Rose,
Hasselbring, Stahl, & Zabala, 2005). Access is necessary but
not sufficient. As a result, it
is important to consider how technology and digital media
engage students in meaning-
ful learning activities. When UDL provides the opportunity for
a student to access and
engage in learning, as minutes of engaged learning accumulate
(i.e., time on task), this
fosters the opportunity for deep learning to occur. Deep
learning, sustained over time, has
been found to lead to significant gains in academic
achievement. As we seek to reverse the
effects of the achievement gap, we must keep this strategy in
mind. That is, how do we
engage students in meaningful learning activities such that they
are able to experience the
deep learning that is needed for the development of expertise?
One strategy for implementing the UDL principle of multiple
means of engagement is
to use an instructional planning template known as Tic-Tac-Toe.
As illustrated in Figure
5.7, a teacher created a Tic-Tac-Toe activity for students in her

ninth-grade biology class
to complete. In populating the nine cells, she has kept in mind
the UDL principles, as she
has provided multiple means of representation, expression, and
engagement. Students
are expected to select three in a row (using the traditional rules
of tic-tac-toe) to complete
the assignment.
Naturally, the creation of tic-tac-toe activities will require a bit
of time investment for
teachers. However, as an instructional management tool, it is an
excellent beginning step
for applying the principles of universal design to the classroom.
Teachers will reap the
dividends of their time investment when they track the academic
performance of students
who have typically struggled to complete traditional
assignments. Often students will ask
to do more tic-tac-toe projects. This is a powerful indicator of
the instructional value of
this intervention and one that operationalizes our values of
proactively valuing diversity
to support students before they fail.
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Implement UDL
Pause to Reflect
As you think about applying the principles of UDL in your
classroom, which approach (multiple
means of representation, expression, or engagement) seems

most important or manageable for
you to begin with?
Figure 5.7: Sample tic-tac-toe activity
The sample activity shown is based on cells, and is an excellent
means of managing universal design
principles in the classroom.
Source: Permission to reprint granted by Meridith Berghauer.
Meridith Berghauer
Biology
“The Cell”
Ms. B’s Tic-Tac-Toe Project
Each student is responsible for completing three activities from
the following choices.
Your three activities must follow the rules of tic-tac-toe (i.e.,
three in a row).
Find an article in the
news within the last 2
months that involves
cells. Type a summary
and attach it to the article.
(Hint: search Cell Biology)
Pick a concept map about
the cell with at least 3 tiers
of detail. Use the website:
http://www.inspiration.com/Freetrial

Create a “Who am I?” game
using the parts of the cell.
Pick five parts of the cells.
Write 5 clues for each part,
starting with hard clues and
the last being the easiest clue.
Write a 2 page paper about a
person who discovered an
organelle or another notable
cell biologist. Include their
background and any other
discoveries they made in
their careers.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Cell biology
Create a song, rap or poem to
illustrate the job of one organelle
in the cell.
Pick an organelle and write a story,
“A Day in the LIfe of a ______.”
Make sure it is at least 2 pages
long and includes at least 4 other
organelles.
Create a play bill about the
cell. Decide who is the star
and who are the supporting

actors. Make sure you
explain why you picked what
you did in your play bill.
Write a 2 page paper about
how a certain structure of
the cell was discovered
and what it’s job entails
in the cell.
Create a 3-D representation
of the major aspects of a cell,
including but not limited to:
Nucleus, Mitochondria,
Golgi apparatus, Cell wall,
Cytoplasm, and Endoplasmic
reticulum.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 201 5/29/13 2:16 PM
CHAPTER 5Post-Test
Summary
Universal design has its roots in the field of architecture, where
it was discovered that it was preferable to consider disability
access in the initial design of the build-ing environment rather
than trying to achieve access through retrofitting. Univer-

sal design for learning represents a 21st-century intervention
that seeks to utilize emerging
insights gained from research in diverse fields such as brain
imaging, learning sciences,
instructional design, and technology. The three principles of
UDL involve providing mul-
tiple means of representation, expression, and engagement.
Understanding the potential
of UDL is seductively easy. Its exponential growth indicates
that clearly it is the right idea
at the right time. However, it has proven far easier to help the
various stakeholders under-
stand the potential of UDL than it has been to implement UDL
on a large scale.
Post-Test
1. The fundamental problem of the design for the mean product
is its
a. font size.
b. determination of mean.
c. usability.
d. timeliness.
2. One concern with universal design for learning is that it lacks
a. a general philosophy.
b. legal support.
c. scientifically based evidence.
d. teacher buy-in.
3. Which of the following is NOT a problem with using print
text?
a. The font size is fixed.
b. The pages must be turned.
c. The print color cannot be modified.
d. The content can be changed.

4. An alt-tag
a. is an alternative to tags in narrative documents.
b. is used to alert readers that there is an image in the text.
c. gives an extensive caption of tables and figures in text
documents.
d. provides extended descriptions of images in web text.
5. Deep learning of content is the focus of planning for multiple
means of
a. excellence.
b. expression.
c. engagement.
d. representation.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 202 5/29/13 2:16 PM
CHAPTER 5Post-Test
6. According to McLeskey and Waldron (2007), the goal for
educators working in
inclusive classrooms is to make differences
a. stand out.
b. ordinary.
c. special.
d. above all.
7. CAST stands for
a. Center for Accessible Student Technology.
b. Center for Applied Special Technology.
c. Center for Allowable Skills Tenacious.
d. Considering All School Teams.

8. Generally, the MOST accessible file format for text is
a. .rtf
b. .pdf
c. .doc or .docx
d. .jpg or .jpeg
9. Transcripts are NOT
a. text representations of auditory presentations.
b. preferable for students with blindness.
c. preferable for students with hearing loss.
d. accessible in a variety of text formats.
10. Which of the following is NOT an aspect of the A3 Model
(Schwanke, Smith, &
Edyburn, 2001)?
a. advocacy
b. alterations
c. accommodations
d. accessibility
Answers
1. c. usability. The answer can be found in Section 5.1.
2. c. scientifically based evidence. The answer can be found in
Section 5.2.
3. d. The content can be changed. The answer can be found in
Section 5.3.
4. d. provides extended descriptions of images in web text. The
answer can be found in Section 5.4.
5. c. engagement. The answer can be found in Section 5.5.
6. b. ordinary. The answer can be found in Section 5.1.
7. b. Center for Applied Special Technology. The answer can
be found in Section 5.2.
8. c. .doc or .docx. The answer can be found in Section 5.3.
9. b. preferable for students with blindness. The answer can be
found in Section 5.4.

10. b. alterations. The answer can be found in Section 5.5.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 203 5/29/13 2:16 PM
CHAPTER 5Critical Thinking Questions and Exercises
Design History: An Interactive Timeline
http://designhistorytimeline.com/
Key Ideas
• Efforts to design for the mean reflect a value of designing for
a segment of the
population that will achieve the best return on one-size-fits-all
tools, products,
and information resources. This approach creates a relentless
demand for accom-
modations because all needs were not considered in the original
design.
• Although universal design promotes the notion that everyone
will benefit from a
given design, in practice this has not been achieved. As a result,
a more promis-
ing approach to consider is design for more types.
• The foundations of UDL were created during a period when
there was a need
to move inclusion beyond physical access to the general
education classroom to
a level that offered access, engagement, and improved outcomes
of learning by
students with disabilities within the general curriculum.

• The accessible design of digital text allows users to
manipulate text in ways that
enhance the physical characteristics of print, as well as
providing scaffolds such
as text at multiple difficulty levels, audio, and second language
that provide cog-
nitive access to the information.
• Application of the principles of UDL in the classroom requires
that teachers pro-
vide students with choices in order to foster access and
engagement.
Critical Thinking Questions and Exercises
1. Think of the big ideas and important themes that you have
been learning about
in this chapter. Write a headline concerning UDL that
summarizes and captures a
key aspect that you feel is significant and important.
2. Drawing on your experience, prior knowledge, or reading in
this chapter, do the
following:
a. Make a claim about a UDL issue or idea being explored.
b. Identify support for your claim. What things do you see,
feel, or know that
lend evidence to your claim?
c. Raise a question related to your claim. What may make you
doubt the claim?
What seems left hanging? What isn’t fully explained? What
further ideas or

issues does your claim raise?
3. Explore the history of design with the interactive timeline
below. What patterns
do you notice that cross time periods?
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 204 5/29/13 2:16 PM
http://designhistorytimeline.com/
CHAPTER 5Critical Thinking Questions and Exercises
7. With a classmate, prepare a debate over the role of
instructional designers and
teachers in designing and implementing UDL. What are the
primary roles and
responsibilities of each stakeholder group? Who has primary
responsibility for
accessible design? Is there a need to clarify the relationship
between UDL and
differentiated instruction?
4. Explore the relationship between design interventions that
were created explic-
itly for individuals with disabilities but subsequently had
greater implications for
mainstream populations. Select 1–3 cases that illustrate the UD
mantra, “Good
design for individuals with disabilities can benefit everyone.”
How could your
own classroom benefit from the interventions you selected?
A History of Technological Advances Inspired by Disability
http://www.infinitec.org/learn/learningaboutat/techhistory.htm

The Evolution of Assistive Technology Into Everyday Products
http://accessibility.net.nz/blog/the-evolution-of-assistive-
technology
-into-everyday-products/
Teaching Every Student Blog
http://teachingeverystudent.blogspot.com/
Free Technology Toolkit for UDL in All Classrooms
http://udltechtoolkit.wikispaces.com/
CAST UDL Studio
http://udlstudio.cast.org/
OSEP Toolkit on Universal Design
http://www.osepideasthatwork.org/udl/index.asp
5. Conduct a Google search to locate information on how to
open the accessibility
control panels on your computer. Consider how these features
could be used by
a student in your classroom or an older adult that you know.
What is the value
of having such control panels on every computer rather than
installing them on
individual computers as needed?
6. Review the following websites concerning UDL resources.
Identify 3–5 resources
that you would share with a colleague to introduce him or her to

the concept of
UDL. Why did you choose those specific sites?
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 205 5/29/13 2:16 PM
http://www.infinitec.org/learn/learningaboutat/techhistory.htm
technology-into-everyday-products/
technology-into-everyday-products/
http://teachingeverystudent.blogspot.com/
http://udltechtoolkit.wikispaces.com/
http://udlstudio.cast.org/
http://www.osepideasthatwork.org/udl/index.asp
CHAPTER 5Key Terms
National Education Technology Plan 2010
http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010
8. Download a copy of the National Education Technology Plan
2010:
Use the Find feature within your word processor or PDF viewer
to locate the phrase “uni-
versal design for learning.”
a. In which contexts is the use of UDL advocated for in
technology planning?
b. What are the implications of this language for the future
reauthorization of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)?
c. Based on this information, what would you tell a school

district administrator
regarding the importance of UDL and the need to create a local
plan for imple-
menting it?
Key Terms
accessibility control panel Accessibility
features built into the computer operat-
ing system that allow users to modify the
input (i.e., mouse, keyboard) and output
(i.e., screen, audio) features to ensure that
they can access information.
accessibility Refers to the inclusive goal
of making instructional material and
resources usable by all people regardless of
their skills or abilities.
digitized speech Involves recording a
human reader and capturing the sound
files in an electronic format. These types of
audio files tend to be very large.
multiple means of engagement Providing
students with alternatives to engage them
in deep learning about a topic.
multiple means of expression Provid-
ing students with choices about how they
demonstrate what they know.
multiple means of representation Provid-
ing students with options on how they can
access information in order to learn about

a topic.
synthesized speech Speech generated by
a computer. Critics argue that this type of
speech sounds robotic and is a poor model
for readers. This type of speech is inexpen-
sive to produce, and the files can be com-
pressed to make them very small.
universal design A philosophy of design
that seeks to create environments and
products that can be used by diverse
populations without the need for assistive
technology.
universal design for learning (UDL) A
philosophy of instructional design that
seeks to create instructional learning envi-
ronments and materials that proactively
value diversity by embedding supports for
students to foster access and engagement.
usability Refers to how easy it is to learn
and use a product.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 206 5/29/13 2:16 PM
http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010
CHAPTER 5Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Web Watch
UDL-Implementation Research Network is a new independent
professional organization

devoted to the implementation of UDL.
http://udl-irn.org/
UDL Connect is an online community, sponsored by CAST, that
is devoted to the
exchange of information and resources concerning UDL.
http://community.udlcenter.org/
The National Center on UDL is an authoritative resource
concerning UDL research,
policy, and practice.
http://www.udlcenter.org/
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Lidwell, W., Holden, K., & Butler, J. (2010). Universal
principles of design: 125 ways to
enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make
better design decisions, and
teach through design (2nd ed.). Gloucester, MA: Rockport
Publishers.
A comprehensive introduction to design interventions for
maximizing accessibil-
ity and usability of tools, products, and information resources.
Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the
digital age. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.
A classic book outlining the principles of UDL.
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 207 5/29/13 2:16 PM
http://udl-irn.org/
http://community.udlcenter.org/

http://www.udlcenter.org/
edy80779_05_c05_171-208.indd 208 5/29/13 2:16 PM
This assignment provides the opportunity for you to apply the
principles of universal design for learning (UDL) in the design
of instruction and assessment. Recall that UDL provides access
to the curriculum for students with a wide variety of abilities
and background. Therefore, UDL aligns with inclusionary
practices found in today’s schools. Furthermore, assistive
technology supports the UDL framework to provide a means of
learning for students with disabilities. To prepare for this
assignment, review the CAST (2010) video,UDL at a Glance
(Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.and review
the Explore model UDL lesson plans (Links to an external
site.)Links to an external site. (2011) web page, both of which
are listed in the Week Three Required Resources. Be sure to
also review the Week Three Instructor Guidance page for
additional intellectual elaboration on UDL and assistance with
this assignment.
Begin preparing for this assignment by selecting a specific
model lesson from the Explore Model UDL Lesson Plans (2011)
page of the CAST.org website. Analyze the lesson for the points
described in the Content Instructions included with this
assignment, below. Click on the “UDL Connections” buttons
located at various points in the lesson to analyze how UDL
principles have been integrated. Next, create your assignment to
meet the content and written communication instructions below.
Use the Grading Rubric to review your assignment before
submission to ensure you have met the distinguished
performance for each of the components described below. For
additional assistance with this assignment, review the Week
Three Instructor Guidance page and, if needed, contact the
instructor for further clarifications using the “Ask Your

Instructor” discussion forum.
Content Instructions
· Lesson Description (1 point): Include the title of the model
lesson, the subject, and grade levels, and a one-paragraph
introduction of the lesson.
· Principle 1 (1 point): In one to three paragraphs, describe
ways that multiple means of representation are included in the
model lesson.
· Principle 2 (1 point): In one-to-three paragraphs, describe
ways that multiple means of action and expression are included
in the model lesson.
· Principle 3 (1 point): In one to three paragraphs, describe
ways that multiple means of engagement are included in the
model lesson.
· Reflection (2 points): Close your essay with a personal
reflection that addresses the following four areas:
· A description of at least two concepts or strategies from the
lesson that serve as a means to motivate learners
· A description of how, overall, the lesson models differentiated
instruction
· A discussion of how your understanding of and appreciation
for instructional planning has changed as a result of your
analysis,
· At least one specific concept or strategy from the lesson that
you would consider applying to your own practice and the
potential impact it may have on the population you serve.
Written Communication Instructions
· Length Requirement (0.5 point): Four to seven pages including
the title and references pages. *** I only need 3 FULL
PAGES****
· Syntax and Mechanics (0.5 point): Display meticulous
comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such
as spelling and grammar.
· Source Requirement (0.5 point): Utilize at least two sources in
addition the model lesson plan and the Edyburn (2013)

textbook. All sources on the references page need to be used
and cited correctly within the body of the assignment.
· APA Formatting (0.5 points): Use APA formatting
consistently throughout the assignment. Refer to the Ashford
University Writing Center for assistance with APA style and
formatting or your copy of the APA Style Manual.
Required Resources
Text
Edyburn, D. L. (2013). Inclusive technologies: Tools for
helping diverse learners achieve academic success [Electronic
Version]. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/
· Chapter 5: Principles of Universal Design for Learning
Multimedia
CAST. (2010, January 6). UDL at a glance (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site.[Video file]. Retrieved
from http://youtu.be/bDvKnY0g6e4
· This approximately five-minute video introduces the concept
of UDL. This video is a required resource for the Week Three
Discussion.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to
an external site.
Website
CAST UDL Lessor Builder. (n.d). Explore model UDL lesson
plans. (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
Retrieved from http://lessonbuilder.cast.org/explore.php
· This section of the UDL Lesson Builder website shows
customized UDL lessons that are aligned to standards and
tailored to include principles and practical applications of
Universal Design for Learning. This website is a required
resource for the Week Three Assignment.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to
an external site.

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