Achala Abeykoon, PhD Student , Australia

1. Mobile Phones,
Empowerment and Female
Headed Households:
Trincomalee, Sri Lanka
Achala Abeykoon
PhD Candidate
Faculty of Arts & Education
Deakin University, Australia

2. The Outline
• Introduction
• Research Problem
• Research Objectives
• Research Questions
• Theoretical Frameworks
• Literature Review
• Research Methodology
• Findings & discussion
• Conclusions
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3. Introduction
• By the end of 2015 – Mobile-cellular subscriptions is more than 7 billion worldwide
with a penetration rate of 96.8. (ITU 2015)
• Ease of use, convergent nature, wider availability & affordability have converted the
mobile phone into an ICT4D (ICT for Development) to empower the poor and
oppressed. (Gurumurthy 2004; Samarajiva
2008)
• Post-conflict countries can leapfrog into the mobile age rather than reconstruct fixed
networks. (Jamali 2003; Samarajiva et al. 2008)
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4. Country Profile
• Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the northern Indian Ocean with 65,610 sq. kms
of land area.
• Sri Lanka is a ethnically and culturally diverse country with a 20,902,928 million of
population in 2014.
• Official Languages – Sinhala, Tamil and English
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Source: Government of Sri Lanka, 2013
Ethnic composition of Sri Lanka Religious composition

5. • Sri Lanka achieved the status of a middle-income country in 2010.
• Main sectors of GDP - services (59.5%), industry (29.3%) & agriculture
(11.2%).
• Unemployment rate is 4.9 % (by 2010) and the population living below the
poverty line is 15.2 %. (Central Bank of Sri Lanka 2012)
• Sri Lanka is still recovering from the civil conflict fought mainly between the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the Sri Lankan Government –
between early 1980s and 2009.
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Country Profile cont…

6. The Trincomalee District
• The research sites of this study is from the Trincomalee, one of the
three districts in Eastern province.
• Total population - 378, 182- a multi-ethnic & multi-religious society
(Dept. of Census & Statistics 2012)
• A strategically important district with its natural harbor - 5th largest
natural harbour in the world
• Main economic sectors – agriculture, fisheries & tourism
• Internally displaced population - 131,760
• 74% due to the conflict & 26% due to the Tsunami (2004)
• Increased number of female headed households - a critical
consequence of the war and Tsunami
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7. • 42,565 war widows in the Eastern province, representing 18.6% of FHHs in
the country (The Ministry of Women and Child Affairs; Eastern Provincial Council
2011)
• Widows in Trincomalee - 14, 605, the highest number of widows (5948) are
Tamils.
• Thus, the Government encourages them to be engaged in income earning
activities – with a SL Rs. 200, 000 per family given as a loan and a block of
land.
• Yet, many widows are unable to claim them as their marriages had not been
officially registered or no legal document regarding their widow status is
available when the death certificate for the husband cannot be provided.
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Female Headed cont.…

8. Mobile Communications in Sri Lanka
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• First country in South Asia to commence mobile cellular
communication and 3G & 4G networks.
• By September, 2014 – 21,727,589 mobile subscribers
while mobile subscription per 100 people was 105
(Telecommunication Regulatory Commission Sri Lanka, 2015)
• By 2012, 90.62% - pre-paid mobile subscribers and
9.38% - post-paid subscribers (GSMA 2013)
• 2013 – 90% covered by 2G & 70% by 3G networks
3G Coverage in Sri Lanka
Source: Mobitel 2013

9. • However, despite the island-wide mobile coverage and high competition within
the mobile market, mobile penetration is still lower in rural areas where the
majority of the population lives.
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Urban Vs Rural Mobile Penetration
Source: GSMA Intelligence 2013, p.6

10. Mobile Communication in the Eastern Province
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• Due to the civil conflict, telecommunications within Eastern and Northern
provinces did not enjoy optimum levels until recently
• There is still a high demand for mobile phones in the war-affected Northern and
Eastern parts of the country where nearly 14% of the country’s total population
lives (GSMA Intelligence 2013, p. 5; Dept. of Census & Statistics 2013)
• In the Eastern province, only 63.5% of households owned a telephone/cellular
phone, the lowest in the country; while the highest 86.0% is in the Western
province which includes the capital Colombo.
• At present, leading mobile operators have created special packages to attract
more customers from these provinces with a special emphasis made on
international call rates. (SLT 2013, p. 60; Etisalat - biggest winner at the Effie Awards 2012)

11. Research Problem
• The study will explore:
• how the mobile phone functions in empowering female heads of households
in the Trincomalee district, Sri Lanka which is recovering from a 30-year civil
war and the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami.
• how the use of mobile phones by the female heads of households in
Trincomalee District, Sri Lanka is shaped by the gendered power relations
and inequalities in their respective cultures and communities.
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12. Research Objectives
• To explore:
• How female heads of households achieve empowerment through the day-to-
day use of mobile phones in Trincomalee district, Sri Lanka.
• How the gendered power relations and inequalities within society may be
reinforced and challenged through their usage.
• How they have appropriated the mobile phone, shaped by socio – economic,
cultural and demographic factors.
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13. Research Questions
1. For what purposes do female heads of households use the mobile phone?
2. What constraints if any, do they experience in their day- to-day use of mobile
phones?
3. How do socio-economic factors and demographic characteristics of female
heads of households influence their adoption and appropriation of mobile
phones?
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14. Theoretical framework
• The study uses the epistemology of constructionism which believes in reality as
created when the object (the phone) and the subject (the user) - which are both
active, come together to make meanings of the object. (Crotty 1998)
• It applies theoretical approach of critical theory - points out something that is
wrong or unfair in society and examines the power relations embedded in the
situation and whose interests are served in the process. (Calhoun 1995)
• It is based on action research- an applied research and methodology that aims to
empower the powerless and oppressed in society (Kemmis & McTaggart
2011)
• It uses
• the interpretivist paradigm - discusses how people make meanings of their actions
when carried out for a particular purpose (Williams & May 1996)
• The functionalist paradigm - looks at causes for particular human behaviours14/06/15 Achala Abeykoon 14

15. Literature Review
• Women use mobile phones to maintain their family and social relationships
• gain social and spatial empowerment
• a higher level of safety and security attained is the most important benefit (Bayes et al. 1999;
Handapangoda & Kumara 2013; Wei and Lo 2006; Tacchi, Kitner & Crawford 2012; Wanasundera 2012)
• Economic empowerment –
• Female entrepreneurs of SMEs - seek relevant information, skip middlemen, obtain pricing
information and placing orders without travelling (Bayes et al. 1999; Sundari 2010; Potnis 2011; Tacchi, Kitner &
Crawford 2012; Wanasundara 2012)
• Enabling women – Those physically challenged/ mothers with young children - to work outside
the home
• Women can discuss financial and management matters with migrated husbands (Potnis 2011;
Aminuzzaman et al. 2002; Richardson, Ramirez & Haq 2000)
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16. • Expose women previously difficult- to- acquire information caused by constraints
imposed on travel outside the home (Goggin & Clark 2009; Lee 2009; Potnis 2011; Handapangoda & Kumara 2013)
• Mobile phone used within informal and non-formal educational contexts. (Balasubramanian’s et
al. 2010)
• Reduced levels of domestic abuse and conflicts due to frequent communication
between married women and their families and women’s ability to keep their husbands
and family members updated about their whereabouts (which often leads to conflicts
due to family anxiety about the women’s safety) (Lee 2009; Tacchi, Kitner & Crawford 2012)
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Literature Review cont…

17. • Reinforcement of gender power relations:
• Village Pay Phone operators, predominantly rural Bangladeshi women who lent their mobile
phones to other villagers for a fee, later handed them over to their husbands or older children,
mostly male (Hultberg 2008).
• Women without their own mobile phones not allowed to use those of their family members
(Sundari 2010).
• Restrictions on their mobile phone use by male members of the family (Tacchi, Kitner & Crawford 2012).
• Main category of social contacts - husbands, children and female friends (Potnis 2011).
• ‘Nuisance calls’ received from (known or strange) men (Potnis 2011, pp. 43 & 44; Wanasundere 2012)
• Unemployed women must depend on their husbands for mobile expenditures (Potnis 2011;
Wanasundere 2012)
• Gender digital divide - 124 million fewer women than men own a mobile phone in South Asia
(GSMA Development Fund, The Cherie Blair Foundation and Vital Wave Consulting 2010)
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Literature Review cont…

18. • None of the studies look solely at female heads of households despite its growing
number in the global south.
• Many have focused on more homogeneous female groups.
• Many have taken the quantitative approach in data gathering and analysis.
• It is important to examine the relevance and accessibility of services, type of
content provided by mobile operators and current policy regulations.
• Studies in Sri Lanka:
• Mainly conducted in the southern parts of the country
• Focused on mobile use by the people in the Bottom of the Pyramid & on telecommunication
regulations
• Focused on ICTs in general.
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Literature Review cont…

19. Research Methodology
• The study is based on action research methodology, aiming to achieve a change
through social, economic and political development of a group of marginalised
women living in remote and rural areas with less resources.
• Action research uses the experiences of research participants to generate data
because it believes that participants are capable of giving reasons for their
actions and goals. (Kemmis & McTaggart, p. 573; Gray 2009, p.
313)
• The project obtained ethics clearance submitted using the National Ethics
Application Form (NEAF) via the Deakin University Human Research Ethics
Committee (DUHREC), Reference Number 2014 – 125, as it involves field
observations in remote areas overseas.
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20. • Qualitative data collection methods:
• Depth interviews
• Focus groups
• Population of the study were the female heads of households who are
owners or have used a mobile phone during the previous three months in
the Trincomalee District in Sri Lanka.
• The study was conducted in 2 DS divisions (Town & Gravets and Kinniya)
of Trincomalee district from September to November, 2014.
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Research Methodology cont…

21. • Total of 30 semi-structured depth interviews with female heads of
households were conducted - use of voluntary, purposive and snowball
sampling
• 10 each from the Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims
• 6 focus groups –
• 6- 8 participants each (total of 36- 48 individuals) - a purposive sample of
female heads of households representing all three ethnicities of the local
population.
• Membership of focus groups will be kept homogeneous as to their ethnicity
and socio-economic status for a smoother flow of discussions.
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22. Data Analysis
• The grounded theory method (Glaser & Strauss 1967; Strauss & Corbin 1990) was
used to analyse transcribed interviews, focus group discussions and field
notes.
• The transcribed data of interviews and focus group discussions and field
notes were then categorised in accordance with the research questions
and the theoretical framework of the study. The coding ended with a
theoretical saturation.
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23. Findings & Discussions
• Many of the participants have engaged in income earning activities and
have become more interactive with the outside world after being the head
of their households.
• Mobile phone has enabled them to balance their income earning activities
and family responsibilities.
• As a result, it provided them a higher level of security, safety, reassurance
and self-confidence in carrying out their daily activities.
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24. • They practised innovative strategies for the effective and efficient use of
their mobile expenses.
• They have their own reasons to use a particular mobile phone, service
provider and mobile phone functions and services.
• Participants whose husbands or relatives have migrated were more likely
to use smart phones, yet their interaction with them is limited to
interpersonal communication purposes.
• None of them used Value Added Services except ring in tones and only
two participants used mobile money services.
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25. • Their interaction with the mobile phone was significantly shaped by the
gendered power relations, inequalities and their multiple identities.
• Almost everyone of then have received and harassed by ‘nuisance calls’
more than once.
• Mainly Sinhalese and Tamil participants have been heavy users of the mobile
phone before the marriage, yet after the marriage they have limited their
interactions.
• Many of the Muslim participants have started using the mobile phone after the
migration of their husbands as they are keen on maintaining the relationships
and not to be abandoned.
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Findings & Discussions cont…

26. • All the participants mentioned that they are afraid of rumours about illicit
liaisons and that they value maintaining their self-respect and reputation in
their societies.
• They seek advice and help for their mobile phone adoption and related issues
from a male family member, a male relation or male neighbours.
• Their adoption of the mobile phone has been shaped by their marriage, male
migration, separation or widowhood and their children.
• Although these practices limit their use of the technology, there were many
instances in which they challenged these gendered harassments.
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Findings & Discussions cont…

27. Conclusion
• While man-made and natural destruction have disempowered and
victimised the women in Sri Lankan society, these disasters have also
liberated women making them stronger and transforming their agency and
traditional gender roles .
• Therefore, their present position in society is reflected in their mobile
phone use as they assist such women to be more self-reliant and
liberated.
• On the other hand, expected responsibilities and the role of a faithful,
obedient wife, responsible mother and a respected single woman in a
patriarchal society is reflected on their interaction with the mobile phone.
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28. Thank You
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