Inclusive development

1. i
i
College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension
Program: Agricultural Communication and Innovation
Review on Challenges and Opportunities of Inclusive Development in Ethiopia.
By
Tariku Bachano Id No: - RM 3022/12
Review Paper Submitted to Department of Rural Development and Agricultural
Extension
Specialization on Agricultural Communication and Innovation
December, 2019
Jimma, Ethiopia

2. ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents page
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................................................i
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................................vi
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Objectives...................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 General objective .................................................................................................................................... 3
2. DISCUSSION ON LITERATURE REVIEWS .................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Challenges of Inclusive Development in Ethiopia ........................................................................................ 4
2.1.1 Economic and social implications of inequality..................................................................................... 4
2. 1. 2 Poverty.................................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2.1 Income dimensions .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2.2 Non-income dimensions ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Women exclusiveness............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.3 Mobility and migration........................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Disability or marginalized exclusiveness ............................................................................................... 6
2.1.5 Attitudes of the people............................................................................................................................ 6
2.1.6 Constraints on strategic actors ................................................................................................................ 7
2.1.6.1 National versus local interests ............................................................................................................. 7
2.1.6.2 Weak institutions and poor governance............................................................................................... 7
2.1.6.3 Lagging mobilization of resources ...................................................................................................... 7
2.1.6.4 Knowledge and skills gaps .................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.6.5 Party politics versus local needs .......................................................................................................... 8
2.1.6.6 Trust..................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Opportunities of Inclusive Development on Rural Farmers ......................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Economic growth.................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Productive employment .......................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Social protection..................................................................................................................................... 9

3. iii
2.2.4 Provision of basic services.................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.5 Quality of governance........................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.6 NGOs and inclusive development ........................................................................................................ 11
2.2.7 Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP)............................................................................................... 12
2.2.8 Creating Rural – Urban Linkages ......................................................................................................... 12
3. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS .......................................................................................... 13
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................................... 15

4. iv

5. v
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
APD African Policy Dialogue
DPO Disabled People’s Organization
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
IMF International Monetary Fund
INCLUDE Knowledge Platform on Inclusive Development Policies
NGOs Non-governmental organization
PSI Policy Studies Institute
PSNP Productive Safety Net Program
RIDSSA Researchon Inclusive Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
USD United States Dollar
WHO World Health Organization

6. vi
ABSTRACT
Promote inclusive development the government has to facilitate economic growth with and through structural
transformation, increasing productive employment, providing social protection for all, providing basic services,
promoting territorial development and spatial equality, and improving the quality of governance. Some of the
underlying causes of living at the margins of basic needs are household specific, while others are external.
Household specific problems include the lack of, or inadequacy of physical inputs (capital, labor, land,), human
capital (skills, innovation, and the ability to cope), and health. Economic marginalization also poses a major
constraint for the rural communities in Africa. The objective of this review mainly focuses in assess factors
affecting marginalized rural farmer’s in inclusive development from all aspects of development issue and what
is the opportunities in order to include them in to development issues in Ethiopia.
Keyword: Ethiopia, Inclusive development, Marginalized

7. vii

8. 1
1. INTRODUCTION
While most African countries have registered high growth in the last decade, a large number of people remain
excluded from the benefits of this progress (Simone R. et al., l March 2019.)
According to (Simone R. et al., 2019) Inclusive development requires policies for economic transformation,
productive employment and social protection to ensure that vulnerable and poor groups, especially young
people and women, benefit from growth. However, such inclusive policies can only be realized if they are
supported by coalitions of strategic actors across state and society that can overcome resistance to change
among the ruling political and commercial elite.
Inclusive development implies more than just poverty eradication. It also encompasses reducing economic,
social and political inequality. While inclusive growth refers to economic growth that is accompanied by low
income inequality; inclusive development also takes into account dimensions of wellbeing beyond income, like
education and health.
The essence of inclusive development is that it implies fighting inequality, not just poverty. Inclusive
development embraces both the income-related and social and political inequalities that determine people’s
opportunities and wellbeing. Above all, inclusive development may also imply challenging existing power
structures (Saskia H. November 2018).
Policies, institutions, and investments that take advantage of new opportunities and technologies, increase
access to basic services, create more and better rural jobs, foster gender equality, promote good governance, and
restore the environment can make rural areas vibrant and healthy places to live and work. Ethiopia in particular
and provide evidence on ongoing changes so as to further inform the discussion on rural transformation and on
ways to make it more inclusive (PSI and UNDP, May 2, 2019.)
According to ( African Development Bank, 2018 ) promote inclusive development the government have to
facilitate economic growth with and through structural transformation, increasing productive employment,
providing social protection for all, providing basic services, promoting territorial development and spatial
equality, and improving the quality of governance. It is stressed that these pillars should not be promoted in
isolation, as inclusive development can only be realized if all pillars stand together to form a solid foundation.

9. 2
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Inclusive development stem from weak or even restrictive governance structures, such as lack of accountability,
weak enforcement of labour policies and regulations, and lack of alignment of interests of the various
government departments. Electoral and party politics may also affect an actor’s ability to bring about change.
Other challenges are at the micro level and include financial, management or cultural constraints (Marc de T
November 2018.)
Some of the underlying causes of living at the margins of basic needs are household specific, while others are
external. Household specific problems include the lack of, or inadequacy of physical inputs (capital, labor,
land,), human capital (skills, innovation, and the ability to cope), and health. External causes include
environmental and geographical settings, and the interrelationships among different social groups, which are
characterized by natural, inherited, or acquired attributes such as religion, ethnicity, gender, or occupation
(Assefa Admassie et al., July 2014.)
According national human development report of Ethiopia 2014 gender inequality is one of the main
manifestations of inequality and is played out along political, social and cultural dimensions. Addressing gender
inequality is thus closely linked to poverty and other development challenges.
Governments are not always primarily concerned with promoting inclusive development. Trade interests and
local economic needs do not always convene, with the former often prevailing over the latter, (Szirmai et al.,
2013.)
Lack of financial resources also limits the ability of young entrepreneurs to start a business or farmers to invest
in technologies that improve agricultural productivity. Economic marginalization also poses a major constraint
for the rural communities in Africa (Goodwin, 2018). An important reason for their economic exclusion is lack
of access to fertile land, which is a major problem in densely-populated countries of Africa where land is in
short supply.
Inequality is on the rise and the detrimental effect this has on economic growth and social and political stability
are increasingly being recognized. To avoid such effects inclusive development has become a must (Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2015). 3

10. 3
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objective
 To review challenges and opportunities of inclusive development in Ethiopia.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
 To assess factors affecting marginalized rural farmer’s in inclusive development.
 To assess opportunities of inclusive development.

11. 4
2. DISCUSSION ON LITERATURE REVIEWS
2.1 Challenges of Inclusive Development inEthiopia
2.1.1 Economic and social implications of inequality
It is increasingly recognized that the marginalization of individuals and groups and their exclusion from growth
and human development creates social and economic challenges to overall economic growth and development
opportunities, and should, therefore, be addressed (Shipp, 2018).
2. 1. 2 Poverty
2.1.2.1 Income dimensions
Under the framework of the Millennium Development Goals, significant progress has been made in poverty and
inequality reduction globally.
The African economic outlook 2018, by the African Development Bank, states that although the proportion of
poor in Africa decreased from 56% in 1990 to 43% in 2012, the absolute number of poor people has increased
(African Development Bank, 2018). Projections by the World Bank indicate that 9 out of 10 of the extreme poor
will live in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2030.
2.1.2.2 Non-income dimensions
Non-income dimensions. Non-income dimensions of wellbeing include food security, access to basic and social
services, people’s participation, environmental sustainability and advances in technology (African Union et al.,
2017).
The Africa Sustainable Development Report of 2017; underlines that despite the significant expansion of
citizens’ capabilities, many women still face severe deprivations in their health due to factors such as early
marriage, sexual and physical violence, and maternal mortality and marginalized individuals and groups often
face numerous challenges at the same time.
2.1.3 Women exclusiveness
The exclusion of women from the cooperatives has also had important impacts on the allocation of labour on
the. While all local people are excluded from the better paid, so called skilled work, with no training schemes to
replace workers brought into the community, the all-male management of the cooperatives further limits
activities allocated to women to the lowest status and worst paid jobs (Amsalu Darge et al.,, 2014.)

12. 5
Rural women are the main group of society affected more by deforestation and forest degradation. Because
deforestation reduces access to forest products that are required on daily basis, it adds to the drudgery of women
who are forced to cover long distances and spend more time in fetching fuel wood and other forest products.
Women disproportionately bear the burden of poverty in Ethiopia, which is mainly a result of the gender based
division of labour and lack of access and control over resources prescribed not only by tradition and culture, but
also reiterated in the law. Women are responsible for all the household chores in addition to the support they
provide in agriculture and livestock production, they are shouldering the full responsibility of cooking, fuel
wood collection (for both household consumption and income generation), collecting water and child care
(Mersha Gebrehiwot, 2007.)
2.1.3 Mobility and migration
Over the last 50 years, Ethiopia had substantial migration flows, induced by different incidents and following
certain migration patterns. Main migration patterns include:
 A seasonal (temporary) migration, mostly by single men, often coinciding with the agricultural slack
season (Asfaw et al., 2009),
 Permanent migration to cities, often due to shortage of land and employment opportunities in rural areas
with destinations including large cities but more importantly medium-sized and small towns
(Hailemariam & Adugna 2010),
 Long-term migration by women due to marriage or other family-linked causes, often from rural areas,
 Multi-local livelihoods when people pursue diversified livelihood strategies at different places.
According to (Ephrem, 2010) revealed that availability of jobs, educational opportunities, the success of friends
and relatives, friend and peer assistance as the ' pull factors' facilitate out migration. (Ephrem, 2010) identified
that, poor educational availability in rural areas has stimulated out migration by providing awareness about
other opportunities to rural youths, especially those of the middle and upper classes migrate to advance their
education while others migrate for the reason they dissatisfied with the prospect of rural life.
Rural-urban migration is an issue also within Amhara Region where small and medium towns are growing at a
faster rate than the large cities like Addis Ababa. The main rural-urban migration patterns include a seasonal
migration, often during agricultural slack periods, and permanent migration due to land shortages and lacking
employment opportunities in rural areas (mostly males) or marriage (mostly females). In Amhara Region,

13. 6
several studies (HUNNES, 2012) have identified the inability to grow enough food or other produce as major
reason for migration from rural areas to cities. However, job creation is not keeping pace with population
growth and the number of rural-urban migrants, respectively.
The job opportunities in urban centers are very limited. With a stagnating manufacturing sector and despite an
increasing services sector the urban job potentials are far too small to absorb the increasing numbers of young
rural job seekers. Moreover, many of these jobs are in the informal market and have low productivity and
limited income-generating effects.
2.1.4 Disability or marginalized exclusiveness
In Ethiopia, many citizens live under harsh environmental conditions and in geographically peripheral areas that
are less developed than the rest of the country. Women, children, orphans, the elderly, and the disabled are
expected to be relatively vulnerable segments of the society in terms of having limited access to resources and
social services. A number of policy measures and programs were specifically designed to address the problems
facing these marginalized sections of society (Assefa Admassie & Degnet Abebaw, 2013.)
The people most likely to be excluded are marginalized groups which are overlooked in the planning and
programming of services. Marginalized groups are people who, in the opinion of others, are considered to be
insignificant or not important and as a result are confined to the outer limits, or margins, of society (Girma
Aboma et al., 2018.)
2.1.5 Attitudes of the people
According to (Lema, 2015) One of the reasons for exclusion is associated with social traditions and the cultural
beliefs of the wider community. Some of these attitudes are gradually improving but this is an underlying cause
of exclusion of several groups and can be challenging to try to change.
Some people believe that a person with a disability is a reward for a family that broke the law of God or man, or
that they are possessed by an evil spirit (Lema, 2015). They keep their children away, thinking that the evil
spirit could affect them. If someone has a disability, they may be hidden away by their own family in a secret
place and kept out of sight for fear of social stigma and prejudice. As a result, persons with disabilities are
marginalized, isolated and prevented from joining in with family and community level engagements and social
gatherings.
Attitudes to the role of women in society may make it more difficult for them to speak up and express their
opinions about the design or implementation of WASH services, so they are not included in decisions that
deeply affect them (Girma Aboma, et al.,2018 .)

14. 7
People living with HIV/AIDS often suffer from prejudice and stigma for two basic reasons, one is the incorrect
assumption that they are engaged in activities not appreciated by the wider community (e.g. people assume they
are sex workers); secondly, people are afraid of the disease and ignorant of how it is transmitted from one
person to another. Similar prejudice and exclusion also affects people suffering from other diseases, such as
leprosy and some skin conditions (Bethel Shiferaw, et al., 2018.)
2.1.6 Constraints on strategic actors
Strategic action for inclusive development also requires an assessment of the constraints actors face in the
formulation and implementation of inclusive development policies (RIDSSA, 2018.)
2.1.6.1 National versus local interests
Governments are not always primarily concerned with promoting inclusive development. Trade interests and
local economic needs do not always convene, with the former often prevailing over the latter (RIDSSA, 2018.)
Kenya as an example; this APD states that agriculture is not sufficiently prioritized, thereby preventing
structural job creation. Although agriculture employs a substantial proportion of the Kenyan population, the
share of the national budget allocated to agriculture remained below the pronouncement of at least 10% of the
national budget by 2008, as agreed by African leaders under the Maputo Declaration (WHO, 2008).
2.1.6.2 Weak institutions and poorgovernance
Different actors play in achieving inclusive development (and their interest in doing so), is affected by the
political-institutional context. Not all institutional contexts enable inclusive processes and outcomes. Yet, as sex
work is criminalized in Ethiopia, state officials and justice system agents in Kenya and Ethiopia do not
themselves have the power to change the situation of sex workers (Van S. et al., 2016). Rather, this power
resides in politicians, who are able to change the law. This situation leads to inconsistencies in policy intentions
and day-to-day practices.
2.1.6.3 Lagging mobilization of resources
Inclusive development is dependent on many factors that are beyond the control of national governments such
as international capital flight, global trade, and regional and local implementation of policies. During
INCLUDE’s roundtable discussion on strategic actors for productive employment creation held in Arusha in
December 2017, the issue of illicit financial flows was raised, as these outward flows hinder substantial
investment in employment creation in African countries.

15. 8
The outward flow of capital from Africa has been estimated at USD 50 billion annually; and this number might
well be below the real figure due to the difficulty of obtaining reliable statistics (Massamba Sène, 2018). This
has a negative impact upon Africa’s inclusive development, as money that leaves a country can obviously not
be invested in that country. Moreover, the fact that governments in Sub-Saharan Africa are already faced with
limited financial resources incentivizes them to focus on short-term financial gains rather than long-term
structural transformation. It is for that reason that the African Union has dedicated the year 2018 to combatting
corruption and illicit international financial flows which, according to the African Union, result in “distortions
in allocation of budgetary resources, and systematically increasing inequalities” (Massamba Sène, 2018).
2.1.6.4 Knowledge and skills gaps
Lack of knowledge and skills is a major constraint on the power of actors to steer transformation processes.
This applies to actors that potentially have the power to effect change, like state authorities or NGO
representatives, which may, for example, lack knowledge of the needs of informal workers or other
marginalized group (INCLUDE, 2018.)
2.1.6.5 Party politics versus local needs
A competitive multi-party system is largely portrayed as beneficial for inclusive development. Accordingly,
political elites are responsive to the needs of marginalized people and implement pro-poor policies when they
need the votes of these people to exercise power (INCLUDE, 2018.)
2.1.6.6 Trust
Trust is an important constraining factor on the implementation of inclusive development policies is a lack (or
breakdown) of trust between various actors. For example, there is often mistrust between marginalized groups
and state authorities (Nencel, 2018.)
2.2 Opportunities of Inclusive Development on Rural Farmers
2.2.1 Economic growth
Economic growth combined with structural transformation is key to achieve more inclusive development. The
diversification of economies and increased production is essential to improving the capacity for sustained
growth and the opportunity for African countries to offer social and economic opportunities to its (young)
people. To enhance growth and make it inclusive, economic inclusion in the (formal) economy is important
(INCLUDE, 2013). To date, growth in Sub-Saharan Africa has not provided sufficient productive employment.

16. 9
The African economic outlook 2018 states that between 2000 and 2008, employment grew at an annual rate of
2.8%, around half the rate of economic growth. Between 2009 and 2014, while economic growth slowed down,
employment growth grew to 3.1% (African Development Bank, 2018), remaining 1.4 percentage points below
average growth figures. Without employment, opportunities for income generation are limited and economic
development benefits are not shared equally. This increases the incidence of Inclusive development poverty and
income inequality. Low job growth is mainly attributed to the extractive nature of economies, low productivity
in agriculture and service sectors and slow growth in industry.
2.2.2 Productive employment
A job is considered ‘productive’ if it provides 1) fair remuneration, 2) stability of remuneration, and 3) decent
working conditions (INCLUDE 2018b). However, considering the large number of underemployed youth in
Africa, it remains a challenge for policy makers to decide whether the first priority should be to create as many
jobs as possible, or to focus on quality and sustainable jobs.
As argued in the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (2015) report, Achieving sustainable
development in Africa through inclusive green growth, growth is only economic growth minus the damage done
by development outputs; thus, unsustainable development patterns hamper growth.
2.2.3 Social protection
Lack of access to social protection is mentioned as a key factor in the disappointing progress made in the
reduction of poverty and inequality in Africa (INCLUDE, 2018a; De Kemp & Lobbrecht, 2018; UNECA,
2017).
Social protection has gained popularity as a policy tool for inclusive development, and different types and
combinations of social protection measures are seen as valuable from both a rights-based perspective and as a
‘business case’ to promote economic growth; hence, it is seen as a ‘win-win’ tool for inclusive development
(INCLUDE, 2018a; see also World Bank, 2017; United Nations Development Programme, 2017; 2016a).
In its review of the contribution of social protection to inclusive growth, INCLUDE stresses that social
protection not only prevents people from falling into poverty (safety net), but importantly it also contributes to
economic growth, both directly (i.e. through impacts on savings, productive assets and labour) and indirectly
(i.e. through improved employability through education, health and psychological wellbeing, and multiplier
effects in local economies) (INCLUDE, 2018a). Yet, if, and to what extent, social protection contributes to
inclusive growth and inequality depends on various contextual factors. Factors internal to social protection
programs include correct targeting and the size, duration, predictability and regularity of interventions, as well

17. 10
as good coordination. Factors external to the Programme include the quality of infrastructure and basic services,
access to markets and the quality of institutions, among other things.
2.2.4 Provision of basic services
The provision of basic services (education, health, finance, and infrastructure) is important for people to build
human capital, engage in productive activities or mitigate risks (INCLUDE, 2013).
Education is a key area in which the provision of services can yield cross-sectorial effects on inclusion and
growth. However, to achieve this it is important to move beyond a focus on primary, and even secondary,
education and include on-the job training.
Discussions among different policy stakeholders at the INCLUDE conference on 21 November 2018 revealed
that to improve entrepreneurship outcomes, education must be tailored to the status of the knowledge, needs and
goals of the entrepreneurs targeted (INCLUDE, 2018d). For example, if educational programs are to contribute
to job creation for rural women as well as rural men, a lifecycle approach to learning is needed, as rural women
often lack formal schooling. To transform the education system to meet the current and future demands and
needs of the labour market, it is essential to include private sector actors and underemployed people in the
process.
Health is important to specifically target poor women, as providing free health services in it do not guarantee
access by all women. Equity remains an issue in the service provision domain. In the report Poverty and shared
prosperity: taking on inequality, the World Bank states that in 21 of 27 low- or middle-income countries, pre-
school enrolment rates among the poorest quintile are less than a third that of the richest quintile (World Bank,
2018). In addition, poor children have less access to adequate nutrition, health care services, basic water and
sanitation infrastructure, and childcare.
2.2.5 Quality of governance

18. 11
Quality of governance, specifically inclusive governance systems for women, people living in poverty,
minorities and other marginalized groups, as an important determinant of inclusive development. A crucial
component of this is the rule of law and the level of protection of people’s physical security and property, labor
and business rights. When countries lack such functional institutions, it often results in political institutions with
a lack of transparency, accountability and respect for the rule of law. This situation especially affects women,
the ultra-poor and minorities, and perpetuates national and local political institutions that are not transparent or
accountable to their citizens. For inclusive development to be achieved, such governance landscapes need to be
structurally transformed (Dr. Zeremariam, November 2018).
According to National Planning Commission report May, 2016; Strengthening women and youth associations
and organizations, increasing their participation and equity in the development and good governance processes,
as well as ensuring coordination among these women and youth associations and other actors in the
development and political processes of the country. Based on this, the mainstreaming of women and youth
agendas in all sectors was to be closely monitored with consequent accountability. Accordingly, during the last
five years, women and youth organizations at all levels have witnessed growth in terms of expanded
membership, strengthened organizational capacity and leadership.
The significance of participation of women groups in promoting maternal and child health, enhancing the
quality and equity of primary health care delivery, as well as strengthening accountability in the health sector is
now a widely documented experience throughout the country. There are also extensive good practices
concerning the active participation of women and youth organizations in urban areas in job creation, business
promotion and other urban programs.
2.2.6 NGOs and inclusive development
Agriculture and rural development is the oldest, yet still the most important area of NGO participation
(Dessalegn Rahmato et al., 2008.) The main focus of NGOs is on supporting and promoting inclusive processes
in development planning, implementation and monitoring.
According to Dessalegn Rahmato et al 2008 study verified that the size of resource invested by NGOs for
agriculture and rural development is highly significant by all accounts. According to the EC NSA mapping
report (discussed in earlier sections), during the period 2004 – 2008 NGOs have invested about 10 Billion Birr
(or about 1 billion USD) for their various development projects and programs in regions. Of this amount, about
3.8 billion (40%) was allotted to programs identified as: integrated rural development, food security; water
supply and sanitation; environment and natural resources management; the promotion of specific husbandries
and other nonagricultural rural-based livelihoods.

19. 12
2.2.7 Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP)
Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) is a large national social safety net program that responds not
only to chronic food insecurity among Ethiopia's poor, but also to short-term shocks, mainly droughts.
Provision of social protection practices in Ethiopia has constitutional support where article 41 (5-7) of the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE)'s constitution becomes the basis for social security policy
formulations and program interventions.
It is the largest social protection scheme on the continent outside of South Africa. It commenced in 2005 in
highland of Ethiopia and in 2009 in low lands (pastoral areas) of the country which makes Ethiopia the first
country in Sub-Saharan Africa to extend a social protection instrument- the PSNP (Zeremariam F. et al., 2017.)
The program target group consists of people facing predictable food insecurity as a result of poverty rather than
temporary shocks (UNDP, 2007).
PSNP has four major goals and these are:
Support the rural transformation process;
Prevent long-term consequences of short-term food inaccessibility;
Encourage households to engage in production and investment; and
Promote market development by increasing household purchasing power.
The program also has two components which include: labor-intensive public works and direct support for labor-
poor households. Able-bodied members of PSNP households must participate in productive activities that will
build more resilient livelihoods, such as rehabilitating land and water resources and developing community
infrastructure, including rural road rehabilitation, building schools and clinics. In 2014, the program was able to
reach 8.3 million beneficiaries in 319 districts in both categories of the public works (80%) and direct supports
to the elders, disabled and sick members of the community (Zeremariam F. et al., 2017.)
2.2.8 Creating Rural – Urban Linkages
Rural – urban linkages expressed in terms of urban land expansion in response to urban growth and the
exchange of services and goods between rural and urban population (Ephrem A.2017).
Urban centers do provide economic space for rural households both to purchase their inputs and household
items as well as to sell their final products at local markets, thereby linking rural producers to the national

20. 13
economy. Development of small and medium size urban centers infrastructure has the potential to lower
transportation costs and improve access to markets for both urban and rural consumers and producers. Urban
centers can also serve as a stepping-stone or an end for rural residents seeking opportunities outside of the
agricultural sector by absorbing some of the agricultural labour (Tesfaunegn, 2017)
According to (Ephrem A, et al., 2017) Infrastructure works as a bridge between the rural and urban centers, and
between the agricultural sectors and other sectors of the economy. An improvement in rural road quantity and
quality lowers travel time and reduces vehicle running and maintenance costs, which in turn lowers the actual
costs of marketing produce and reduces the costs of delivering inputs, increasing the inter-linkages between
urban and rural areas. Rural – urban linkage increases trade and capital flows, which prompt rapid changes in
the agriculture and food system as urban consumers increasingly influence the nature and level of interactions
among the various stakeholders in the agro-food chain. Rural – urban linkage in sample cities is mainly
associated with food and labour supply to urban centers, and inputs for construction as well as technological
outputs to rural areas. 15
3. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Economic growth combined with structural transformation is key to achieve more inclusive
development.
The provision of basic services (education, health, finance, and infrastructure) is important for people to
build human capital, engage in productive activities or mitigate risks.
Access, use and quality of financial services are crucial factors in building an inclusive society. They
permit individuals and firms to exploit opportunities and contribute to, as well as benefit from, the
growth and development process.
Political inclusion is crucial for marginalized actors to become economically empowered and to improve
their livelihoods.
To bring favorable inclusive development in all parts of Ethiopia the government should design;
economic growth with structural transformation of the economy.
Productive employment; i.e. more jobs with good working conditions, remuneration and stability.

21. 14
Social protection for resilience, poverty reduction and sustainable economic growth.
The provision of basic services (education, health, finance, infrastructure, housing, water,) for
marginalized rural-urban peoples of the countries.
Territorial development and spatial equity (e.g. between rural and urban areas).
Quality & inclusive governance, especially for poor minorities & other marginalized groups.
If a development is say to inclusive the countries policy structure should under consider marginalized
groups of people ;
 Elderly people as they get older, women and men may become gradually less ability;
 Small children, Pregnant women, People living with long-term illnesses including HIV/AIDS, People
living in geographically remote, People living in informal settlements, People living in Peri-urban areas
and new settlement areas, and People engaged in marginalized occupations such as traditional pottery,
working with animal skins, and some textile work (locally called ‘shemane’) may be considered sub-
standard and discriminated against.

22. 15
REFERENCES
African Development Bank. (2018). African economic outlook 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.afdb.org/file
admin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/African_Economi c_Outlook_2018_-_EN.pdf
Amsalu Darge, Meressa Tsehaye, Tolosa Mamuye, and Tom Lavers (2014) Conflicting Priorities in the
Promotion of Gender Equality in Ethiopia Working Paper2014–2
Asfaw, W., Tolassa, D., & Zeleke, G. (2010). Causes and impacts of seasonal migration on rural livelihoods:
Case studies from Amhara Region in Ethiopia in Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of
Geography, 64(1), 58-70.
Assefa Admassie, Degnet Abebaw; 2013 Rural Poverty and Marginalization in Ethiopia: A Review of
Development Interventions
Dessalegn Rahmato, Akalewold Bantirgu, and Yoseph Endeshaw, 2008: A Report Prepared for the Ad Hoc
CSO/NGO Task Force Addis Ababa
Ephrem Amdework Tesfaunegn (2017): Urban and Peri-Urban Development Dynamics in Ethiopia
Ephrem Zerga (20 10). Intra-Continental Migration: Hadiya Migration to the Republic of South Africa. School
of Graduate Studies, Department of Social Anthropology, MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University.
Ethiopia country strategy 2016-2020 Ursula M, Annabelle S, Nemera W All statistics and data as of December
2016.
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2015). Growth and transformation plan II (GTP II) (2015/16–
2019/20). Volume II: Policy Matrix National Planning Commission July, 2016 Addis Ababa. Retrieved
from: http://dagethiopia.org/new/docstation/com_content.article/100/gtp_ii_policy_matrix_english_final
__august_2016.pdf 17
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: Growth and Transformation Plan II (GTP II) (2015/162019/20)
Volume I: Main Text National Planning Commission May, 2016 Addis Ababa icies.pdf
Girma Aboma, Bethel Shiferaw: Open WASH (2018) Count me in! Inclusive WASH in Ethiopia, the Open
University UK/Water Aid. http://www. Open.edu/open learn create/Open WASH
Goodwin, M. (2018). Final findings: barriers to Batwa inclusion in Rwanda. Retrieved from:
http://includeplatform.net/downloads/final-findings-barriers-batwa-inclusion-rwanda/

23. 16
Hailemariam, A., & Adugna, A. (2011). Migration and urbanization in Ethiopia: Addressing the spatial
imbalance in The Demographic Transition and Development in Africa (pp. 145-165). Springer,
Dordrecht
HUNNES, D. E. (2012). An analysis of Ethiopian rural-to-urban migration patterns from primary interviews in
J Global Health Perspect, 1, 1-10.
INCLUDE. (2013). Strategic actors for the implementation of inclusive development policies. Draft concept
note for discussion during the platform meeting Accra, 3 and 4 April 2013.
INCLUDE. (2013); Strategic actors for the implementation of inclusive development policies. Draft concept
note for discussion during the platform meeting Accra, 3 and 4 April 2013. Retrieved from:
http://includeplatform.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Concept-note Strategic-Actors-Knowledge-
Platform-on-Development-Policies.pdf
INCLUDE. (2018b). Synthesis report productive employment. Retrieved from: http://includeplat
form.net/downloads/synthesis-productive-employment/
Inclusive Transformation of Rural Ethiopia: Patterns and Options Co-Organized by IFPRI, Compact 2025,
Policy Studies Institute (PSI), and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) May 2, 2019 18
Massamba Sène, L. J. (2018). Mobilization of domestic resources: fighting against corruption and illicit
financial flows. African Union Commission. Department of Economic Affairs. Retrieved from:
Mersha Gebrehiwot: (2007) Gender Mainstreaming In Forestry in Africa Ethiopia Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations Rome.
National human development report of Ethiopia 2014: Accelerating inclusive growth for sustainable human
development in Ethiopia.
Nencel, L. (2018). Final findings: economic empowerment and sex work. Retrieved from:
http://includeplatform.net/downloads/final-findings-economic-empowerment-sex-work/ Retrieved from:
http://includeplatform.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Concept-note-Strategic- Actors-Knowledge-
Platform-on-Development-Policies.pdf
Saskia H, Marleen Dekker, GH Obadia Miroro, Frank van Kesteren (INCLUDE) Jean Bossuyt ∙ Marc de
Tollenaere (ECDPM) November 2018

24. 17
Shipp, T. (2018). Development policy in an era of robots. UNU-WIDER blog based on the discussions held at
the UNU ‘Think Development Think WIDER’ conference. Retrieved from: https://www.wider.unu.edu/
publication/development-policy-era-robots
Social protection for inclusive development in the Afar region of Ethiopia, Led by Dr. Zeremariam Fre,
University College London (UCL), United Kingdom
Szirmai, A., Gebreeyesus, M., Guadagno, F., & Verspagen, B. (2013). Promoting productive and sustainable
employment: elaborating a knowledge and research agenda. Retrieved from: http://knowledgeplatforms.
nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Concept-note-on-Productive Employment-in-Sub-Saharan-Africa-
Knowledge-Platform-on-Development-Policies.pdf
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2017). Innovation, diversification and inclusive
development in Africa. UNCTAD research paper No. 2, 2017. Retrieved
from: http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ser-rp-2017d2_en.pdf
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. (2015). Achieving sustainable development in Africa
through inclusive green growth. The Sustainable Development Report on Africa, UNECA, fifth edition.
Retrieved from:://www.uneca.org/publications/achievingsustainable-development-africa-through-
inclusive-green-growth
United Nations, (2015). Sustainable Development Goals: 17 goals to transform our world. Retrieved from:
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable
developmenthttps://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/goals/
Van Stapele, N., & Nencel, L. (2016). Policy brief: decriminalization of sex work in Kenya. Retrieved from:
http://includeplatform.net/downloads/policy-brief-decriminalisation-
sexhttp://includeplatform.net/downloads/policy-brief-decriminalisation-sex-work-kenya/work-kenya/
Zeremariam Fre, Gabriel Temesgen, Zaid , Negash, Selamawit T. Araya, Bereket Tsegay, Araya M. Teka and
Bisrat Weldesilassie (2017): Social Protection for Inclusive Development in Afar Region of Ethiopia:
Participatory Rural Appraisal Report

25. 18
rom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Limmu Kosa is one of the woredas in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia. It is named in part after
the former kingdom of Limmu-Ennarea, whose territories included the area this woreda now
covers. Part of the Jimma Zone, Limmu Kosa is bordered on the south by Kersa, on the
southwest by Mana, on the west by Gomma, on the northwest by the Didessa River which
separates it from the Illubabor Zone, on the north by Limmu Sakka, on the northeast by
the Gibe River which separates it from the Mirab Shewa Zone and the Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples Region, on the east by Sokoru, and on the southeast by Tiro Afeta.
The administrative center of this woreda is Genet; other towns
include Ambuye and Babu. Chora Botor woreda was separated from Limmu Kosa.
Overview[edit]
The altitude of this woreda ranges from 1200 to 3020 meters above sea level. Rivers include
the Awetu and the Dembi; notable landmarks include Lake Cheleleki and the Bolo Caves.
Protected areas include the Tiro Boter Becho and Babia Folla forests, which cover 938.22
square kilometers. A survey of the land in this woreda shows that 34.9% is arable or cultivable
(24.6% was under annual crops), 20% pasture, 39.7% forest, and the remaining 15.4% is
considered degraded or built-up areas. Fruits and sugar cane are important cash
crops.[1] Coffeeis another important cash crop of this woreda. Over 50 square kilometers are
planted with this crop.[2]
Industry in the woreda includes 57 Farmers Associations with 32,194 members and 19 Farmers
Service Cooperatives with 17,962 members. Limmu Kosa has 71 kilometers of dry-weather and
111 all-weather road, for an average of road density of 75.3 kilometers per 1000 square
kilometers. About 75% of the urban and 5.9% of the rural population have access to drinking
water.[1]
Demographics[edit]
The 2007 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 161,338, of whom
81,462 were men and 79,876 were women; 14,842 or 9.2% of its population were urban
dwellers. The majority of the inhabitants were Moslem, with 72.6% of the population reporting
they observed this belief, while 24.41% of the population said they practised Ethiopian
OrthodoxChristianity, and 2.72% were Protestant.[3]
Based on figures published by the Central Statistical Agency in 2005, this woreda has an
estimated total population of 254,911, of whom 128,770 are men and 126,141 are women;
19,932 or 7.82% of its population are urban dwellers, which is less than the Zone average of
12.3%. With an estimated area of 2,880.00 square kilometers, Limmu Kosa has an estimated
population density of 88.5 people per square kilometer, which is less than the Zone average of
150.6.[4]

26. 19
The 1994 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 182,160, of whom
90,477 were men and 91,683 women; 11,141 or 6.12% of its population were urban dwellers at
the time. The five largest ethnic groups reported in Limmu Kosa were the Oromo (80.94%),
the Amhara (11.33%), the Kullo (1.61%), the Kafficho (1.02%), and the Tigray (1.01%); all
other ethnic groups made up 4.09% of the population. Oromiffa was spoken as a first language
by 81.07%, 14.81% spoke Amharic, 0.92% spoke Kullo, and 0.85% spoke Tigrigna; the
remaining 2.35% spoke all other primary languages reported. The majority of the inhabitants
were Muslim, with 70.03% of the population having reported they practiced that belief, while
28.31% of the population said they professed Ethiopian OrthodoxChristianity, and 9.72%
were Protestant.[5]