Mad Cow Disease Epidemic's Lingering Impacts

The Mad Cow Disease Epidemic
Twenty years after the wind down of the infamous Mad Cow Disease epidemic and thirty years
following its first appearance in British cattle, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy continues to
impact thousands. In 1996, it was discovered that bovine spongiform encephalopathy could be
transmitted to humans in the form of Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD), most commonly
through the ingestion of beef contaminated with BSE. Of the roughly 229 reported cases of vCJD,
it's believed that at least 3 cases contracted the fatal neurodegenerative disease through blood
transfusions. In an effort to protect the U.S. blood supply, the FDA has banned blood donation from
any person that had spent more than six months in the UK between 1980 and 1997. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
While dysfunction of prion proteins remains the most widely accepted etiology of BSE, the USDA
suggests there may be two other possible theories that could better explain the manifestation of
BSE: the virino theory and the virus theory. However, both theories pale in comparison to the robust
evidence in support of the prions theory. A major argument that works against both the virino theory
and virus theory is that throughout several studies, the use of various treatments known to damage
or inhibit nucleic acids have had no effect on the transmissibility of BSE. Interestingly, prion
proteins lack nucleic acids – making them an excellent candidate as the infectious agent responsible
for the development of bovine spongiform encephalopathy.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy is characterized by an unusually long incubation period
ranging from 2–8 years. During the incubation period, an infected animal may not show any clinical
signs suggesting it is in anyway unhealthy. This is a major reason several countries placed
precautionary bans on blood donors. Experts believe it is entirely possible that a person could have
contracted the infectious disease during the BSE outbreak and could be carrying the disease through
an incubation period possibly extending beyond the suggested 2–8 year span without showing any
clinical signs. Since no diagnostic test currently exists to test a person for vCJD while they are
living, there is
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Essay about Placental Ruminants and Herbivorous...
Placental Ruminants and Herbivorous Marsupials of Australia
The marsupial animal species that have evolved on the isolated continent of Australia are unique
compared to the rest of the animal kingdom in many ways due to the harsh and distinctive
environment found on the continent. The major area of marsupial biology that distinguishes them
from all other eutherian mammals is their mode of reproduction. However, it can be said that there
are many other areas in which unique differences can be seen between marsupials and eutherian
mammals; one such area of adaptation is in the anatomy and physiology of digestion, which
distinguishes them from many other similar animals worldwide.
The foregut fermenters, such as kangaroos and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Introduction
While marsupial species can be found in both North and South America, neither can compare to the
marsupial diversity of the isolated continent of Australia. With 180 Australian marsupial species, as
opposed to 78 South American and 1 North American species, the ecological niches filled by
marsupials in Australia are many and varied due to the lack of native eutherian mammals on the
continent. Australian marsupials evolved special adaptations to survive in the harsh and distinctive
environment found on the continent. The major area of marsupial biology that distinguishes them
from all other eutherian mammals is their mode of reproduction. However, it can be said that there
are many other areas in which unique differences can be seen between marsupials and eutherian
mammals; one such area of adaptation is in the anatomy and physiology of digestion, which
distinguishes them from many other similar animals worldwide. This paper will give a brief
overview of the evolution and history of marsupials in Australia, and then compare the digestive
systems adaptations of placental ruminants and herbivorous marsupials, with an emphasis on the
foregut fermenters, kangaroos and wallabies.
Evolution of Herbivorous Marsupials and Ruminants
The first mammals to evolve from reptiles were small, carnivorous and were similar to extant
monotremes. It is generally accepted that the first marsupials split from these early monotremes

Types Of Plant Material The Ruminant Ingests
Ruminants are a group of mammalian herbivores – including cows, goats, and deer – that ferment
their nutrients in a specialized stomach prior to digestion. This organ is called a rumen, and is host
to millions of bacteria, protists, and fungi. A calf is born with a sterile rumen and microbial
populations are introduced in the days following birth through exposure to the environment,
consuming forage, and interactions with its mother. A typical rumen population is established
around 2 weeks after the calf begins to intake dry matter and forage. Each of these organisms found
in the rumen play a role in breaking down the various types of plant material the ruminant ingests.
The rumen maintains a neutral pH so the microbes it contains can thrive and effectively break down
anything the animal eats. These microbial populations exhibit a type of community succession based
on seasonality and availability of different food sources; various microbes thrive when certain types
of foods are being consumed and that same type of food can cause other microbe populations to die
off. Deer for example, rely on woody food in the winter, greenery in the spring, and acorns in the
fall. The rumen adjusts the bacterial populations to those suited to best digest whatever type of
material is being consumed. Many of microbes in the rumen are digested and passed on to the next
part of the digestive tract with the cow's food. The microbes maintain their populations in the rumen
by having a

Parasitic Roundworms ( Cattle Bankrupt Worm )
Cooperia is a genus or also referred to as parasitic roundworms (Cattle Bankrupt Worm) that infects
cattle, sheep, goats, and many other wild and domestic ruminants such as deer, antelopes, etc. The
most relevant species for livestock are Cooperia cortical (Sheep and Goats), oncophora (Cattle),
pectinata (Cattle), punctate (Cattle), and surnabada (Cattle and Sheep) ("Cooperia Punctata –
Classifications"). Adult Cooperia worms are commonly described to have a reddish–coiled
appearance that measures up to approximately ten millimeters long, where females typically
measure larger than that of the males. As in other roundworms, their body is typically covered in
cuticle, which is described as flexible but rather tough. The body of Cooperia ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
By having suitable weather infective larvae can survive on pasture between five to twelve months.
Although many feel that these parasites are unable to survive through the rough winter at times they
are capable of overwintering. Livestock become infected after ingesting infective larvae with
pasture. The larvae reach the small intestine of the body. Where soon after they are completely
developed into adult worms and the females start laying eggs. L4 larvae can stop development and
remain arrested (inhibited, dormant) for up to approximately five months before completing
development ("Endoparasites – Cooperia| Merial New Zealand"). This makes it possible for those
larvae that infect hosts at the end of the summer to remain arrested inside the host during the winter
and to resume development in the next spring with more favorable environmental conditions. The
prepatent period known as the time between infection and first eggs shed with dormancy is two to
three weeks. This means that several generations can also exhibit and can follow within the same
season. L4 larvae and adults burrow into the gut's wall, particularly in the duodenum and harm the
tissues and blood vessels but do not suck blood ("COOPERIA Spp, Parasitic Roundworms of
CATTLE, SHEEP and GOATS. Biology, Prevention and Control. Cooperiosis, Cooperiasis"). As

Methane Vaccination
Vaccination as a Strategy for Ruminal Methane Mitigation
Abstract
As global warming becomes an imminent issue, more importance is being placed on the role of
methane in this process. Methane (CH4) is produced in the rumen of livestock such as cattle by a
variety of methane producing archaea (methanogens), with Methanobrevibacter being a prevailing
genus and thus frequent target in vaccine development. While agricultural methane reduction
strategies have largely focused on altering livestock diet, the successful vaccination of animals
against Lactobacillus spp. and Streptococcus bovis has provided inspiration in the development of
an anti–methanogen vaccine for use in ruminants (Shu et. al., 1999). This paper will explore the
potential for methanogen vaccination through the evaluation of two promising vaccine studies
against Methanobrevibacter ruminantium.
Introduction
Benefits of reducing methane While carbon dioxide continues to be the leading contributor to global
warming, methane is estimated to be at least 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2), and
its emissions have been increasing at roughly 6 parts per billion per year since 2006 (Nisbet et. al.,
2014). Livestock produces 80 million tons of CH4 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
al., 2010). Groups of sheep were vaccinated with whole cells of M. ruminantium M1, cell wall
fraction, cytoplasmic fraction, or cell wall derived proteins. The vaccine composed of whole cells
contained 108 cells, while each protein vaccine contained 0.1 mg protein. Each sheep was then
subsequently injected in the neck with an antigenic preparation and an adjuvant. Both serum and
saliva were collected prior to vaccination, as well as 2 weeks after re–vaccination in newborn and
9–11 month old lambs. ELISA was then used to measure antibodies present in the sera and

Coostrum Feed The Calves
Colostrum feeding has been recognized as the most important feed the calves takes as it has a major
impact on the growth and health of the calf. New born calves have very low concentrations of
immunoglobulin G (IgG) in serum since the placenta does not allow large molecules to pass through
to the calf (Hassig, T. Stadler et al.). Calves thus rely upon immunoglobulin provided through
colostrum shortly after birth for protection against infections and diseases. Timing, method of
feeding and amount of colostrum fed determines the ability to prevent mortality in young ruminants
(S.J. Wells 1996). The golden rule for nutritionist is to offer calves at least 3–4 L of colostrum
within the first 12 hours after birth (Blum, Hadorn et al. 1997, Franklin ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
As a result most farms experience incidences of disease which may lead to morbidity and/or
mortality. Since the environment is full of pathogenic micro–organisms that will subject the calf to
diseases, calves have to be protected from the adverse effects of pathogens. Furthermore, there are
other stressors such as heat, weaning, dehorning which may exacerbate the effects of diseases in
calves. As mentioned earlier calves receive colostrum which offers protection against pathogens in
the first few weeks of calves' life. However, after three weeks, the calf immune system is still
developing but not yet fully developed to defend itself against disease causing organisms. As a
result calves are usually supplemented with antibiotics in milk or feed to reduce the effects of

Pre-Historic Giraffe Research Paper
Pre–historic giraffe may be the largest ruminant mammal to walk the earth. Found within the
Himalayan and African landscapes, lived one of the world's unique mammals. Recent investigation
of an ancient giraffe species, Sivatherium giganteum proves that the extinct mammal may have been
the world's largest ruminant (animal able to gain nutrients from plant material) mammal to ever
exist. The Sivatherium giganteum is such a unique pre–historic mammal as its features are
significantly different to modern giraffe species that we all recognise today. As the Sivatherium
giganteum was found by researchers to have a short neck and legs resulting in an unusual bone
structure. Previous research of this unique mammal has consistently misinterpreted ... Show more
Through these results scientists were able to provide evidence of the body shape and structure of the
extinct giraffe. The experiment reassured researches that their predicted values of Sivatherium body
mass were significantly valid results and suggested the use of fossil reconstruction played a vital
role in the understanding of the mammal's body weight. Scientists were also able to understand that
by using a complete body structured giraffe rather than analysing a single bone, a more accurate
estimate of the mammal's body weight was obtained. Through the study, scientists were able to
understand the structure of the ancient mammal and suggest possible characteristics of the ancient
giraffe species. They found that the species had large bone structures, in particular large shoulders
and thicker and shorter leg structures than other extinct and modern giraffes. Researchers suggest
that the Sivatherium thicker upper body bone structure allowed for the support of the mammals,
large horns located on its head, found on male giraffes. Scientists were able to suggest that through
the calculations obtained, Sivatherium was a much larger giraffe in contrast with modern day
giraffes, and

Rumen Microbiome Essay
Diversity based on rumen microbiome
Yak is lower methane producer than cattle, in spite of the fact that both the animals are fed similar
diets and there are only small variations between the microbiomes of both the animals. Lower
methane and hydrogen yields in yak vs cattle are 0.26 vs 0.33 mmol methane/g dry matter intake
and 0.28 vs 0.86 mmol/d hydrogen generation have been reported. Hydrogen recovery from cattle
was significantly higher than that from yak (Mi et al., 2017). There were a few higher abundant
bacteria in the yak species, which would produce less hydrogen, in comparison to that in cattle.
However, in the abundance of methanogens, there was no difference between the two animal
species. It is therefore, hypothesized that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, these compounds have been used as medicine in traditional system of medicare in India,
Pakistan, China, Srilanka, Japan and other Asian and African countries These are also used for
preservation of foods and as spices in kitchen in many parts of the world since time immemorial.
More than 200,000 defined structures of plant secondary compounds have been identified. These
PSM can generally be classified into three major groups: saponins, tannins and essential oils (EO)
(Kamra et al., 2008).
Plant secondary metabolites might inhibit methane emission by the following modes:
They might directly inhibit methanogens as these compounds have anti–microbial activities against
different microbial groups, but unfortunately the methanogens donot have any correlation with the
methane emitted by the animals.
The plant secondary metabolites might have anti–protozoal activity, which might indirectly result in
reduced numbers of methanogens. As the ciliate protozoa and methanogens have an ecto–symbiotic
relationship, the latter might lose their symbiotic partners and hydrogen supply due to killing of
ciliates by the plant secondary metabolites and therefore, might result in reduced production of
methane (Santra et al., 1994).
As the plant secondary metabolites have anti–microbial activity, which might reduce the numbers of
bacteria and fungi

Summary: Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy
British Health Minister Stephen Dorell stated to the House of Commons that a group of scientists
had studied a deadly brain disease in cattle known as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
with a fatal variant human disorder called Creutzfeldt–Jacob Disease (CJD). Dorrell announced that
the scientists had determined the consumption of beef was the likely explanation for Creutzfeldt–
Jacob Disease. Scientist also concluded a new claim that both diseases were forms of another
disease known as Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (TSE) which is described to cause a
formation of holes on your brain creating a spongey appearance which can be fatal. BSE was
classified later as Mad Cow Disease, which was first discovered in cattle in Great Britain.
According to the Extension Disaster Education Network (EDEN), BSE is an infectious neurological
disorder of cattle caused by feeding the certain infected cattle and sheep tissues to cattle in the form
of ruminant derived protein supplements. Ruminant animals are classified as animals with split
hooves, multiple stomachs and one that chews on cud. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Concluding the study, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) warned people and sent
out a ban on feeding the ruminant proteins to the animals due to contamination. According to the
Extension Disaster Education Network (EDEN), the United States Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) set regulations that prohibited the feeding of some mammalian proteins to

The Effect of Heat on the Pig Industry
During HS, the utilization of carbohydrates (i.e. glucose) as an energy source is altered (Streffer,
1988), and this has been demonstrated by our lab in pigs (Pearce et al., 2013) and cattle (Wheelock
et al., 2010). Acute HS was originally thought to be responsible for reduced worker productivity in
summer months (Baumgard and Rhoads, 2013), and was first reported to cause hypoglycemia in
cats (Lee and Scott, 1916). In addition, athletes exercising during times of HS have increased
hepatic glucose output and glucose oxidation at the expense of lipids (Fink et al., 1975; Febbraio,
2001). Moreover, exogenous glucose is unable to blunt the formation of hepatic glucose (Angus et
al., 2001) likely due to increased glycogenolysis (Febbraio, 2001), and gluconeogenesis (Collins et
al., 1980). A proposed mechanism for the enhanced hepatic glucose output is increased pyruvate
carboxylase expression (a rate limiting enzyme that controls lactate and alanine entry into the
gluconeogenic pathway) during times of HS (O'Brien et al., 2008; White et al., 2009) likely
resulting from increased plasma lactate (presumably due to an increase in muscle lactate
production). This indicates that peripheral tissues increase aerobic glycolysis, and thus resembles
the Warburg effect (used in cancer cells) where aerobic glycolysis in skeletal muscle is accelerated
and lipolysis is reduced (Baumgard and Rhoads, 2013). Despite the well–documented reduction in
nutrient intake and increase in body

Glucose And Glycolysis Lab Report
The presence of glucose in the body of us and other animals is essential as it undergoes glycolysis to
produce essential energy–rich ATP which is vital to keep the muscles, neurons, red blood cells and
other energy–demanding cells operating. When an intake in food occurs, plasma glucose
concentrations increase which stimulates the release of insulin from the beta cells in the pancreas,
this causes an increase in glucose uptake by the cells and initiates glycogenesis, the process of
turning glucose into glycogen in the liver and the muscle cells ().
A high energy diet rich in complex carbohydrates would be broken down within the gastrointestinal
tract to smaller monomers of glucose which can then be diffused into the bloodstream using
facilitated glucose transporter protein which in turns raises the plasma glucose levels (). As the liver
is responsible for clearing the blood of unwanted molecules and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Muscle glycogen is used as an essential immediate supply of energy to the muscle cells, also under
anaerobic conditions when energy is required within the muscle cells and is also used for basic
bodily movement and a source of energy for the flight or fight response (). This is shown in figure
two as both high and low energy diets had similar stores of glycogen within the muscles to ensure
that the muscle can function when required.
A similar study in 2000 comparing muscle glycogen concentration in relating to finishing diet found
that at when feeding a high energy diet before slaughter, the cattle had a higher glycogen
concentration in their muscles than those that were fed a low–energy diet (). Our study showed
similar results, with a slight increase in glycogen concentration, although our data did not show a
large difference, with modification to the methods and sample size a similar result may be

Essay On Small Ruminant Nutrition
Bailey Schilling Dr. Haun
Animal Anatomy and Physiology
12 October 2016
Small Ruminant Nutrition The main goal for many agricultural producers across the country is to
annually improve the quality of their stock. For certain companies such as Cargill and JBS who are
two of the largest protein distributors across the globe, an improvement for their stock could be
reaching their end point faster. For other operations involved in the purebred or show aspect of the
industry improving the quality could mean producing better structured animals who are larger
framed. Despite the species or facet of the industry an operation is built to cater too, one of the
easiest ways to improve the efficiency of livestock is through feed and nutrient management. Feed
efficiency for livestock only becomes more important as farmers are responsible for feeding a
growing population. However, in order to do that is important that a manager or owner understands
the digestive system of that species and factors that can aid in this system ability to absorb the
maximum amount of nutrients. This paper will be focused around different aspects of the ruminant
digestive tract, and more specifically two of the smaller ruminant species being sheep and goats. I
will explain in detail the 6 essential nutrients and why they are crucial to have in a feed ration, what
occurs in each compartment of the stomach, including breakdown of feed, nutrient absorption, and
also parasites that can become an issue in

Ruminant Nutrition
Supplementation of folic acid in ruminant Consequently, the role of FA in ruminant nutrition has
largely been ignored. As folate plays crucial role in DNA synthesis and methionine cycle, its
requirement increases during gestation and lactation. Recent evidences however, suggest that
microbial synthesis may not be adequate to meet the high demand of FA during gestation and
lactation (Ragaller et al., 2008). It is now quantitatively known that microbial synthesis of FA
ranged from 16.5 to 21 mg/d in a high yielding cow weighing 650 kg and producing 35 kg of milk
per day, whereas, the estimated requirement was 35 mg/cow (Scwab et al., 2006; Santschi et al.,
2005). There are some studies which indicates that supplementation of FA increased the ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This might be due to increased rumen activity due to increased supply of degradable carbohydrates.
However, other studies (Santschi et al., 2005) did not observe any difference in rumen folate
concentration in cows fed either 37 or 70% forages. Lower concentration of rumen folate in cows on
high forage diet was attributed to the fact that most fibrolytic bacteria take up folate. A recent study
shows evidences that fibrolytic bacteria need FA acid for growth and multiplication (Wang et al.,
2016). Similarly, Heyes et al. (1966) and Girard et al. (1994) reported decreased rumen
concentration of folate in cattle fed high forage diets. It is already demonstrated that Ruminococcus
flavifaciens require folic acid, tetra–hydro folate or para–amino benzoic acid for growth and
multiplication (Ayers, 1958; Slyter and Weaver, 1977; Scott and Dehority, 1965; Bryant and
Robinson, 1961). Two strains of Rminococcus albus also required FA (Bryant and Robinson, 1961).
Supplementation of rumen protected folic acid (RPFA) at 0. 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8 g/d to steers provided
0, 18.2, 36.4 and 54.6 mg/d of folic acid to rumen microorganisms, respectively. The influence of
supplementation of RPFA on rumen fermentation was mostly quadratic (Wang et al., 2016).
Secretion of cellulytic enzymes depend on the growth and multiplication of cellulytic

Animal Science Ruminant Nutritionist
My main passion is simply the word Agriculture. I am raised in the world of Ag, and I plan to
pursue a career in the near future. I show livestock all year round this would include; Beef cattle,
Boer goats, Pygmy goats, and Pigs. I enjoy every moment of this experience. The banners and
trophies I get awarded for all my hard work getting the animal prepared for presentation. All this
enjoyment I participate in 4–H and open shows I can take part in the years. Besides enjoying it in
that way I want to further my education in Animal Science Ruminant Nutritionist. In case you
question on what would I do in that field. For myself I would be completing or mixing new feeds to
ensure our livestock are growing healthy and strong for human consumption.

Disease Is A Severe Haemorrhagic Disease Affecting Ruminants
Bluetongue disease is a severe haemorrhagic disease affecting ruminants, mainly sheep, which is
caused by the Bluetongue virus (BTV). The Bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV–8) strain has the
ability to transmit transplacentally in pregnant ruminants, a characteristic rarely reported in other
serotypes. Prior to the emergence of BTV–8 in Europe in 2006, other serotypes of BTV have been
present in Europe for more than ten years but there has been no evidence of transplacental
transmission in these strains. The purpose of the journal article is to verify whether transplacental
transmission is exclusive to BTV–8. The incidence and pathological effect of transplacental
transmission of BTV–8 was compared to BTV–1. At approximately 70–75 days gestation, nine
pregnant ewes were infected with BTV–8, another nine pregnant ewes were inouculated with BTV–
1, and two other ewes acted as the untreated control. Field strains were used for preparation of both
BTV strains. The strains were isolated on embryonated chicken eggs (ECE) before being passed
twice on mammalian cells. The presence of BTV in the bloodstream was monitored by taking blood
samples. 29 days after the inoculation, all the ewes were euthanized. Then, the ewes and foetuses
were examined for signs of pathological changes and the presence of BTV. The results showed that
BTV–8 was present in 12 foetuses (43%) from 5 ewes (56%). On the other hand, BTV–1 was found
in 14 foetuses (82%) from 6 ewes (67%). Most of the pathological

Physiology Of A Sheep Animals
Physiology of a Sheep
Sheep, formally referred to as Ovis aries, are a domesticated animal normally used for wool, milk,
and meat. They normally live on farms in open plains and are kept as livestock. Sheep are naturally
independent from birth but like to be surrounded by their flock, a group of sheep. Also, they are
herbivores that spend most of their time grazing and ruminating. The anatomy and physiology of a
sheep allow the animal to function and to follow their instincts, along with providing product for the
textile, meat, and dairy industry.
The anatomy of sheep differs mainly from that of a human. However, there are some areas of a
sheep's bone structure that resemble different parts of a human's bone structure. For example, the
hock on a sheep is equivalent to an ankle on a human. The hock being higher up on the leg
compared to the ankle shows that sheep evolved to have their leg joints and bones to extend upward.
Also, the pastern is anatomically homologous to the joints at the end of a human's finger. The
pastern benefits a sheep by being able to disperse the force from the leg when a sheep steps down or
when the sheep's elbow and knee are locked. Lastly, the anatomy of the stifle joint is similar to that
of a human knee with both being made up of the femur, tibia, and patella. The stifle joint is a hinge
joint, allowing the stifle joint to move in two directions, which helps with moving around along with
muscle movement. Even though the anatomy of a human and a

Clostridium Perfringens
Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic, spore–forming bacterium that can be found in soil, feces,
and water. There are four major toxins (alpha, beta, epsilon and iota) and five strains of C.
perfringens (A–E) that cause a variety of symptoms such as food poisoning, gas gangrene, and
severe neurological disease in sheep and other ruminants. The latter will be the primary focus of this
research paper. Epsilon toxin (ETX) produced by Clostridium perfringens causes central nervous
system disease (CNS) in ruminant animals "that is characterized by blood brain barrier (BBB)
disruption and white matter injury" (Linden, et al., 2015). ETX does not cause typical enterotoxin
effects such as diarrhea, instead it binds to intestinal epithelium and

Conservation Of Endemic Ruminant Livestock And Improve...
In a 6–point scale, the TE rated the project's outcome effectiveness as "Satisfactory". The TE only
briefly summarized the project results at the EOP (End of Project) without comparing them with
expected outcomes. In the same scale, this TER will rate the project's outcome as "Moderately
Satisfactory" based on the evidence presented by the Final PIR (PIR 2014), which shows that some
progress has been made for reaching all of the project targets, but majority of targets were not
achieved 100%. A comparison of the project's achievements against the targets of its indicators is
presented below: (PIR 2014, p.4–53)
The project's Immediate Objectives are:
(i) To conserve the biodiversity of endemic ruminant livestock and improve their productivity
(AfDB)
(ii) To establish effective models for community–based management of endemic ruminant livestock
and its habitats at project sites, and strengthen production, market, and policy environment in
support of theses breeds (GEF)
There are 7 indicators under the project immediate objectives. By the EOP all of the indicators
partly reached or were on the track for fully reaching their targets.
Indicator 1 was the levels of household food security as measured by a household dietary diversity
score (HDDS). The target was at least 20% increase by project end from baseline levels. The target
was 50% achieved. According to statistics available by the EOP: the level for Gambia declined
around 30%; the level for Mali increased 24.3%; the

Understanding Critical Factors Of Sheep And Goat Nutrition...
October 12, 2016 Understanding Critical Factors in Sheep and Goat Nutrition along with Enhancing
Nutrient Absorption
Written by– Bailey Schilling Introduction– The main goal for many agricultural producers across
the country is to annually improve the quality of their stock. For certain companies such as Cargill
and JBS who are two of the largest protein distributors across the globe, an improvement for their
stock could be reaching their end point faster. For other operations involved in the purebred or show
aspect of the industry improving the quality could mean producing better structured animals who are
larger framed. Despite the species or facet of the industry an operation is built to cater too, one of
the easiest ways to improve the efficiency of livestock is through feed and nutrient management.
Feed efficiency for livestock only becomes more important as farmers are responsible for feeding a
growing population. However, in order to do that is important that a manager or owner understands
the digestive system of that species and factors that can aid in this system ability to absorb the
maximum amount of nutrients. This paper will be focused around different aspects of the ruminant
digestive tract, and more specifically two of the smaller ruminant species being sheep and goats. I
will explain in detail the 6 essential nutrients and why they are crucial to have in a feed ration, what
occurs in each compartment of the stomach, including breakdown of feed,

Essay On Feed Additives
Abstract
The animals (like ruminants, pseudo–ruminants and non ruminant herbivores) fed primarily on plant
based feeds have a limitation in hydrolyzing lignocellulose and result in synthesis of higher methane
in the gastro–intestinal tract of animals. During fermentation of these feeds to volatile fatty acids,
which serve as an energy source for the animals, hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced as by–
products which get converted to methane. The diversification of the rumen/stomach contents by use
of feed additives (microbial, chemical and plants containing secondary metabolites) might change
the fermentation process and reduce methane emission considerably. The microbial feed additives
like anaerobic fungi and some of the bacteria, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this process about 5–15% of gross energy intake by the animals is wasted in the form of methane
(Johnson and Johnson, 1995). Therefore, research efforts are needed to suppress methane emission
for eco–friendly and economic livestock production. If this reducing power concentrated in the
reduced cofactors is not utilized for reduction of an oxidized compound, further fermentation of
carbohydrates will be stopped and no release of energy from feed will be possible. In the rumen of
an adult cow/buffalo; more than 200 litres of methane is produced every day. Several laboratories in
India have estimated methane emitted by livestock and their figures also vary greatly, depending
upon the method used for calculation (Kamra et al., 2012; Patra, 2014). Swamy and Bhattacharya
(2006) compared methane emission by Indian livestock. As per the latest calculation on the data of
Deptt. of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, the
country is responsible for production of methane to the tune of 14.55 Tg/year (13.27 Tg from enteric
fermentation and 1.28 Tg from livestock waste management), out of which cattle (6.73 Tg/year) and
buffalo (6.56 Tg/year) collectively are responsible for 91.3% of total methane emitted by the
livestock in India while the rest 8.7% is emitted by goats, sheep, yak, mithun and other herbivorous
animals.
Diversity based on

Animal Farming In Bangladesh Essay
In Bangladesh, livestock is one of the most potential sub–sectors of agriculture which plays an
indispensable role in promoting human health and national economy of the country. Livestock not
only assists to upgrade the financial condition but also makes a substantial contribution to human
nutrition. However, livestock is an integral part of a farming system which has a better contribution
to enhancing the economy of Bangladesh. Large ruminants (Cattle and Buffalo) and small ruminants
(sheep and goat) constitute the major portion of livestock. The present population of livestock is
23.7 million cattle, 1.47 million Buffalo, 25.76 million goats and 3.3 million sheep (DLS, 2015–16).
The total contribution of livestock sub–sector to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Bangladesh is
approximately 7.23% and livestock in agricultural production 17.32% (Anonymous, 2007). It also
generates 13% of foreign currency and provides 20% fulltime employment and 50% partial
employment of rural population (Alam, 1993). In this country, 80% rural people are involved with
livestock farming (Siddiki et al., 2009). Most animals are reared in houses under the traditional
husbandry practices where small ruminant especially goat and sheep are mainly reared for several
reasons including meat, wool and skin production (Hossain et al., 2004). The production and
productivity of animals are greatly hampered by different diseases including gastrointestinal
parasitic infections.Gastrointestinal parasitism is a

Articles on Cows and Methane Gas
Article Summary of articles on Cows and Methane Gas Summary: Imagine a cow polluting our
atmosphere all the time? It is a very real possibility. According to the article, "Methane emissions
from cattle", cows produce anywhere from 250 to 500 liters of Methane per day. Although they
aren't currently polluting as much as cars, that doesn't mean they won't eventually. Many might
think that cows emit more methane gas from flatulence (or farting) but they actually emit more from
belching. (1) This problem is an important issue around the world. In 2003 New Zealand even tried
to put a tax on cow flatulence. In New Zealand cows and other livestock produce 34% of their
greenhouse gasses. It is said that by 2030, the percentage of gas created by cows could be up by
60%. A cow is a type of animal called a ruminant. Ruminants eat their food and throw it up as cud.
After they have thrown it up as cud they eat it again. Cows have four stomachs that they use for
digestion and they digest similarly to humans. The stomach of a cow is filled with bacteria that
helps them digest foods. Those bacteria also create massive amounts of methane. (1) Scientists are
searching hard to find a way to stop or reduce the gases cows give out. The Carbon Farming
Initiative even offers farmers money and other incentives if they feed their cattle a certain way. They
want cows to be eating more tannins or oil. Tannins help lower the amount of methane significantly.
Cows have an easier time with fiber

Prevalence, Pathology And Associated Risk Factors For...
Prevalence, pathology and associated risk factors for Dictyocaulus filaria infection among
slaughtered sheep.
Introduction
Sheep are an important part of the global agricultural economy. Domestic sheep provide a wide
array of raw materials. Wool is one of the first textiles although in the late 20th century wool prices
began to fall as the result of the popularity and cheap prices for synthetic fabrics . Sheep meat and
milk are the earliest staple proteins consumed by human civilization after the transition from
hunting and gathering to agriculture. Byproducts from the slaughter of sheep are also of value;
sheep tallow can be used in candle and soap making while, sheep bone and cartilage has been used
to furnish carved items such as dice and buttons .
Parasitic nematodes cause diseases of major economic importance in sheep .The lungworm ,
Dictyocaulus filaria , represents one of these nematodes inhabits bronchi and bronchioles and cause
parasitic bronchitis (commonly known as 'husk) particularly in young sheep ( Holzhauer et al.,
2011). Dictyocaulus filaria has direct life cycle, embryonated eggs are coughed up or swallowed and
hatch in the small intestine then first–stage larvae are passed in faeces. Under favorable
environmental conditions, first–stage larvae moult to second–stage larvae and then infective en–
sheathed third–stage larvae that actively move from faeces to herbage and are ingested by the
grazing sheep. Following ingestion, third–stage larvae ex–sheath in

The Female Competition Hypothesis
In many species with horns, the females generally do not have any while the males do because many
people and scientists have seen a greater need for them in males. However, some female ruminants
and bovids have horns that could possibly have multiple uses, such as mimicking male secondary
sexual characteristics. One species that exhibits this unique quality is the Bongo, Tragelaphus
eurycerus. Some researchers postulate that their horns are used as defensive mechanisms while other
scientists have different views on why the Bongo has horns. To begin, the Bongo is found mainly in
West Africa, Southern Sudan, Kenya, and the Congo and is also the largest forest African antelope1.
They are a chestnut red color with white stripes and the only forest antelope to form herds, ranging
from five to six bongos or as large as fifty in one herd. Bongos are, in ... Show more content on
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The difference with this proposal is that the females need horns because they are competing for
resources with any and all group members, not just males and not just adults and not just with their
own herd. It actually states that the main competition is going to be other adult females for food and
maybe even a dominance position within the group or mate4. According to Roberts4, this specific
hypothesis is based on the females' fitness and the number of offspring born and raised to eventually
become successfully reproductive. Other general hypotheses that fit in with a few of the ones listed
above would be that female bovids and ruminants that are generally of a heavier species will more
likely have horns and that horns on the females do not adapt, but continue to appear due to
pleiotropy5. All of the propositions and hypotheses listed above are decent and some happen to be
truer than others, as some scientists have

Anatomy of a Giraffe
Anatomy of a Giraffe
BIO/101
06/19/2012
Audrey Stevenson Ref. Mammal Anatomy 2010 Marshall Cavendish Corporation The Giraffe is
perhaps one of the most iconic species of Africa and to the mysteries and intrigue that lie within the
confines of evolution. The purpose of this paper is to explain how this wonderful, iconic organism
has evolved physiologically to be suited to its' environment. In this paper we will be discussing the
elements that best describe its' evolutionary progress. The areas we will be covering include the
Skeletal System, the Digestive and Excretory System, and small parts of the Circulatory System.
But first we will start with the evolution of the Giraffe, what family it belongs to, what some of its
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The leaves of the Acacia are protected with long spikes, the giraffes tongue has adapted to curl
around these spikes and pick the vegetation from them and should their tongues come into contact
with these spikes, they do little harm due to the reinforced surface of the tongue. The vegetation is
then swallowed down to the first stomach and is pushed back up afterwards by immensely powerful
muscles in the esophagus where the cud, as it is called, is chewed further. Afterward it is swallowed
again and channeled into another stomach where bacteria breaks down the cud and transforms it into
protein. A giraffes tongue is a significant example of adaptation and evolution in the most basic
means of survival: feeding. The last significant features of evolutionary adaptation are certain
aspects of the circulatory system of the giraffe. For its size, the giraffe skull is remarkably light. Its
strongest point in the skull is the top of it which is reinforced to support the ossicones, the hornlike
structures that sit atop the skull. The skull is light because it houses a very large nasal cavity. This is
the first area in a very important respiration. The cavity has to be large enough to ensure significant
airflow to be pushed down a median of 10 feet to very large lungs. While there are no

Research Paper On Non Ruminants
Pigs are non–ruminants because they are single stomached and eat feed that is low in fiber. Cows,
however are ruminates because they have a four chambered stomach.
The rumen is the biggest part of the bovines stomach, holding up to 50 gallons of partially digested
food at a time. It contains enzymes that start the digestion process, breaking down the hard food and
cellulose. The food may spend 15 to 48 hours in and out of the rumen being chewed, swallowed,
regurgitated and swallowed again and again before it moves on to the second part of the stomach,
the reticulum.
The next part is the reticulum which traps anything that the cow should not have eaten, such as
pieces of fencing, rocks and pieces of wire. The reticulum also softens the grass that has been eaten
and forms small wads of cud.The omasum's main purpose is to squeeze out the water and further
break down the cud, so the cow can regurgitate it and swallow it again.The abomasum completes
the digestion process. It passes essential nutrients to the bloodstream and sends the rest through the
intestines. This is very important because cows absolutely need these fibers and nutrients. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The small intestine then takes in the partially digested food and mixes it and absorbs the nutrients.
Next, is the large intestine which has the job of absorbing water and adding mucus to the food. The
anus is the end of the digestive tract and is where all the waste exists. The liver then produces bile
which acts on the fat, the gallbladder stores the bile until it is needed. The pancreas produces insulin
and digestive

Ruminant Animal Research Paper
Ruminants have an unusual configuration of teeth. Their small and large intestine are designed to
handle large volumes of material. Cattle evolved to exist on large amount of fiber. They do not do
well on all grain or high fat diets. The mouths of cattle are very different from most non–ruminant
animals. Cattle have 32 teeth, 6 incisors and 2 canines in the front on the bottom. The canines are
not pointed but look like incisors. There are no incisors on the top; instead cattle have a dental pad.
Cattle have a premolars and 6 molars on both top and bottom jaws for a total of 24 molars. In
addition, there is a large gap between the incisors and molars. This configuration allows cattle to
harvest and chew a large amount of fibrous feed. Because

The Digestive System Of A Hippopotamus
The digestive system of a hippopotamus is similar to other hooved animals. Their mouth and lips
can be about 2 feet wide at its lip. Their lips are about 70 cm long and that helps the hippos clip the
grass and other food sources they get from the floor and grind their food up into a pulp and it helps
them swallow their food much easier. Since plant matter for most ruminants is harder to eat and
digest, ruminants have to regurgitate these leaves and grasses again. Hippos don't ruminate but
enjoy the advantages of it. Hippos are sometimes called pseudo ruminants. Hippos don't regurgitate
so the pulp is ineffective compared to other animals that graze. The food travels down through the
esophagus like it does for almost every other mammals or

Animal And Plant Health Inspection Service
Each and every year a devastating disease affects livestock producers around the globe –
specifically producers raising ruminant animals. Currently, there is no available cure or medical
treatment that can stop this disease. A producer's best defense mechanism is to prevent the disease
from reaching his/her herd, and to eliminate any infected animals at the first symptoms of the
disease. The disease I am referring to is Johne's Disease. Johne's Disease, according to the United
State Department of Agriculture – Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, is "a contagious,
chronic and usually fatal infection that affects primarily the small intestine of ruminants. Johne's
Disease is caused by Mycobacterium subspecies paratuberculosis, a ... Show more content on
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A local farmer brought his cow to veterinarian Herr Frederick Harmes to be examined. Harmes
examined the bovine, tested for tuberculosis and sent the farmer back home with his cow still sick.
The next spring the cow died from the disease. Dr. Harmes sent the digestive tract of the bovine to
the Veterinary Unit in Dresden to be examined and studied to find out exactly what happened to the
cow. Dr. H.A. Johne and Dr. L. Frothingham examined the tissues. They found thickened intestinal
mucosa, enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes, an intestinal wall that contained an extremely large
number of leukocytes and epithelioid cells. The doctors used an acid staining to see where bacteria
were infected inside the organs. The bacteria they found closely resembled the same that causes
tuberculosis. The doctors took a sample and injected the bacteria into a guinea pig, but the pig failed
to contract the disease. The doctors concluded that the bacteria found in the cow is the same that
causes tuberculosis in birds. The two doctors proposed the name of pseudotuberculous enteritis.
(Johnes.org) When discussing Johne's Disease, it is important to know that this disease affects
ruminant animals. A ruminant animal is a mammal that has 4 chambers within one large stomach. A
ruminant's food is broken down my microbes and bacterium that live within its digestive organs.
Ruminant animals include but

Describe The Role Of Microbes In The Rumen
In the rumen, there are microbes including bacteria, protozoa and fungi. Foranges that was ingested
by the ruminant will feed those microbes. Then, by the fermentation, the end product that are
utilized by the ruminant as well as by the microbes themselve will produce the end products for
their own reproduction and cells growth. There are billions of microbes in the rumen. The most
important microbes in rumen are bacteria and protozoa. They can digest about 70% to 80% of the
digestible dry matter in the rumen. Animals diet can influence the numbers and proportion of each
types of the microbes. The major end product of microbial fermentation are volatile fatty acid which
is for energy source of the ruminant, ammonia for manufacture bicrobial ... Show more content on
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Omasum is a compartment which entrance for material that made up of 90% to 95% of water. The
primary function of omasum is to remove water from the of the feed for further grind and
breakdown. Laminae (large–plate fold) extend from the wall of omasum. Papilae covered the
laminae which direct flow of food particles toward the next chamber, the abomasum.
Abomasum is called "true stomach" which connect the omasum to the small intestine. Other than
microbial fermentation, acid digestion also occur in abomasum. Gastric juices containing
hyrochloric acid (HCL) and enzyme (pepsin) produce by the lining in the abomasum that folded into
ridges. The pH of these gastric juices varies from 1 to 1.3. this makes the abomasum very acidic.
The acidity if the abomasum killed the rumen microbes. The pepsin will carry the initial digestion of
microbial and dietary protein in abomasum.
From the abomasum, the digested food will move to the small intestine. The digesta is change from
acidic to alkaline with the secretion of bile which the pH is very high. This will allow the digestion
of different feed nutients. There, enzyme will continue the digestion of feeds and microbes. Most of
the absorption occurs in the small

Comparing The Digestive Systems Of A Carnivore
Comparing the digestive systems of a Carnivore, a hind gut fermenter and a ruminant In this report,
I will be explaining the efficiency of the different digestive systems, the pros and cons of each
digestive system, how all the food is broken down and how each digestive system is suitable for the
type of animal. All of the digestive systems start with the mouth where the food enters first. The
teeth in a carnivore's mouth are designed to eat meat so they have evolved to have sharp and strong
teeth, this makes it easy to rip and tear meat from bones of prey. This makes the carnivore more
efficient at killing live prey than hindgut fermenters and ruminants. Hindgut fermenters teeth are
designed to eat grains and grasses, for example a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These parts evolved over time to suit the animal's needs. For example, some ruminant's lips are
designed to be relatively immobile and use its tongue to grasp a clump of grass and then bite it off.
Similarly, a hindgut fermenter uses its tongue to help grasp onto the plant and then uses its teeth and
mouth to rip it out of the ground to eat. However, a carnivore's food spends little time in the mouth
so its lips and tongue isn't used as much as the ruminants or hind gut fermenters. Before the food
goes down the oesophagus, saliva in the animal's mouth is used to help the food break down quicker
and it's used to moisten the food so it goes down the oesophagus better. As the animals were
evolving, a ruminant's saliva started to produce large amounts of alkaline saliva, which contains a
little amylase to help break down starch, this is helpful for the ruminants as it can help break down
their food a lot quicker in the mouth, whereas true carnivores do not have any digestive enzymes
(amylase) in their saliva as they have a diet consisting of protein which amylase won't break down.
So this means the ruminant is more efficient at digesting starch than a carnivore as amylase is found
in the saliva on non–ruminant herbivores and, to a lesser extent, carnivores as well. All animals of
all digestive systems have an oesophagus. The oesophagus is a tube,

Why Cows Are Ruminants
Cows are ruminants, a group of animals with a special adaptation that allows them to process the
cellulose in grasses. This adaptation comes in the form of a "second stomach," called a rumen where
foliage goes to ruminant, or be broken down by the bacteria housed there. When rumination occurs
it produces copious amounts of gas which is expelled through burping. Cows that are put on a corn
based diet and are ingesting large amounts of starch and almost no roughage, have basically no
activity in the rumen. This leads to a slimy build up causing gas to accumulate. The rumen expands
and begins putting pressure on the lungs and can cause the animal to suffocate if the build up is not
manually removed (Pollan 2006). While bloat is the most prevalent

Chemistry Of Coffee
Coffee husk and coffee pulp are coffee processing by–products. Coffee husk is obtained when
harvested coffee is processed by the dry method, and coffee pulp is produced by the wet method.
Coffee is usually processed by the dry method; therefore an expressive amount of husk is obtained
every year. Some of the husk is used as organic fertilizer but, other applications are very limited,
mainly because it is a bulky product. The presence of tannins and caffeine diminish acceptability
and palatability of husk by animals.
Caffeine (1,3,7–trimethylxanthine), a purine alkaloids naturally occurring in more than 60 plant
species, finds greater commercial importance for its wide application in popular beverages like
coffee, tea and various soft drinks. Caffeine is also one of the major agro–industrial wastes
generated from the coffee and tea processing plants. Therefore, decaffeination of waste is very
necessary from the point of view of environmental conservation.
Coffee pulp waste is generated in large quantities during wet method of coffee cherry processing.
Most of the coffee pulp remains underutilized in many countries and a need exists for its treatment
by appropriate biological waste treatment processes to overcome severe environmental pollution. In
humans and other animals, caffeine is first degraded to either paraxanthine (1,7–dimethylxanthine),
theobromine or theophylline. The demethylation process is carried out by cytochrome P450. After a
short period of caffeine ingestion,

What Role Does A Cow Play In The Digestive Process?
Have you ever seen a cow chewing when the have not eaten? This confuses many people but you
are about to learn why this is. What role does each stomach of the cow play in the digestive process?
They all have to work together.
The reason I asked myself this question was because I always wondered how my cows and calves
digest things. I'm very curouges when it comes to cattle mainly because I'm so passionate about
them and love to be around them. My summers are full of shows and taking care of them and I love
it.Have you ever wondered what a cow is chewing when they have not eaten anything? Well you
will soon find out why they do this and why many other animals do this too.
The 4 stomachs of a cow each play a different role in the digestive process. The four stomachs are:
Rumen, Reticulum, Omasum, and the Abomasum. When an animal has four stomachs this animal is
called a ruminant. Some of these animals are horses, sheep, deer, giraffes,and many more. My
personal favorite ruminant animal is the cow preferably beef not dairy. Are you ready to learn about
all of these wonderful stomachs and this wonderful animal?
Rumen: This stomach is the largest of the four stomachs. It can hold up to 50 gallons of partially
digested food. This stomach contains enzymes that start the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
So to make sure that this is all done smoothly and without pain to the animal they must all work
together. The food goes through the stomachs in this order, rumen,reticulum,omasum,abomasum.
These types of animals are called ruminants,a lot of animals are ruminants,in fact almost every
animal is a ruminant animal. As you can probably tell by now my personal favorite ruminant animal
is a cow. In my opinion cows are one of the best animals around especially when they are calfs. So
now you know all about cows and ruminant animals, also about the role each of the four stomachs
play in the digestive

The Anatomy Of Sheep And Animal Animals
The anatomy of sheep differs mainly from that of a human. However, there are some areas of a
sheep's bone structure that resemble different parts of a human's bone structure. For example, the
hock on a sheep is equivalent to an ankle on a human. The hock being higher up on the leg
compared to the ankle shows that sheep evolved to have their leg joints and bones to extend upward.
Also, the pastern is anatomically homologous to the joints at the end of a human's finger. The
pastern benefits a sheep by being able to disperse the force from the leg when a sheep steps down or
when the sheep's elbow and knee are locked. Lastly, the anatomy of the stifle joint is similar to that
of a human knee with both being made up of the femur, tibia, and patella. The stifle joint is a hinge
joint, allowing the stifle joint to move in two directions, which helps with moving around along with
muscle movement. Even though the anatomy of a human and a sheep differ in obvious ways, there
are some homologous structures that evolved in each of the different species. The wild ancestors of
the common day domestic sheep developed certain characteristic to maintain their survival. For
example, sheep have specialized sebaceous glands which are glands that secrete an oily substance
into the fur and onto the skin. These glands have three locations on a sheep's body: the infra–orbital
pouches on the face, the interdigital pouches are located on and around the hooves, and the inguinal
pouches are located on

Non-Ruminant Animal Digestive System Differences
Non–Ruminant and Ruminant Animals Digestive System Differences
Non–Ruminant
Non–ruminant animals are just like humans, they digest their food just the once if they are able to
digest it and it is good food and the one stomach works on it.
The non–ruminant digestive system works so that our stomach churns the food so it is into tiny little
pieces, and makes sure that the food we eat is fully digested and the stomach muscles contract in
order to churn food. The small intestine then absorbs and digests 90% of the food we eat and then
absorbs minerals and nutrients, the large intestine then absorbs water from the remaining indigested
food and transports waste material from our bodies, the rectum then temporarily stores our faeces
until it is full and then faeces excrete from our anuses.
Ruminant
Ruminant animal digestive systems are much ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The second part of the ruminant digestive system, works together with the rumen, both act as a
massive water tank and makes the food softer. This is where the food goes after the cow has chewed
her cud and regurgitated her food and re–swallowed it. The omasum has layers of tissue that absorbs
the cow's water and filters it. The fourth and final stomach chamber, the stomach chamber that is the
most similar to a non–ruminant stomach. This works on indigested food and breaks it down before it
moves to the small intestine. The small intestine absorbs nutrients from already broken down food.
The large intestine absorbs water intake in the diet and converts the food into faeces that then move
into the rectum, Temporary storage space for faeces until the anus is ready to secrete the faeces. Exit
hole ready for the faeces to come out

Global Warming And Global Warming
"Animal agriculture is responsible for 14.5% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, more than the
combined exhaust from all transportation" (Gerber, 2013), yet it remains an industry that lacks
attention when it comes to solving the problem of GHG secretion. Animal agricultural practices
contribute predominately methane, along with nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into
the atmosphere. This impact on the make–up of the climate and how it functions will inevitably
effect many livelihoods along with the survival of earth itself. Therefore, exploring how these gases
are emitted, along with uncovering mechanisms to evolve the industry, lessening its emissions is
essential.
A healthy balance of GHG's is needed to stabilise the earth's climate and regulate temperature. Due
to human actions, there is becoming a dangerous amount of these gasses within the atmosphere. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change state, "GHG's from human activities are the most
significant driver of observed climate change since the mid–20th century". These gasses can be
categorised using a system called 'global warming potential'(GWP), which essentially classifies
GHG's by how much heat they trap in the atmosphere over a certain period. One of the most
harmful is methane (Drew, 2009). Methane inhabits the atmosphere for 12.4 years and has a GWP
of 28–36 over 100 years (United States Environmental Protection Agency USEPA, 2017). As
ruminants have complex digestive systems, to help break down

Spongiform Encephalopathy
What topic did you decide to study? The topic of my research paper is bovine spongiform
encephalopathy, also known as the "mad cow disease". There is also another name that it is known
by which is, Creutzfeldt Jacob disease (vCJD) which is the human form of BSE. Why did you
choose this topic? I chose this topic because it was unique. This was unique to me especially
because I recently as a nurse aide took care of a patient tell death that was suffering from this
disease. I really didn't know much about it, but after recent events and watching the path of life it
brought I was interested in learning more in–depth about the disease. What question(s) did you want
to answer or what was your hypothesis regarding this topic? When I first heard ... Show more
Were you surprised? Was it what you expected? I think in the beginning I was a bit confused on
even how cows even developed the disease, but after reading further into the report it really
surprised me how rapid this disease developed. I didn't expect the actual carrier to be so complex as
it was. I did not expect it to be so transferable to know that almost all the meat that people eat from
a cow in the most infectious areas. Was (were) your question(s) fully answered by what you found
in the research? If you had a hypothesis was it supported by the research or not? If not, what
question(s) remain to be resolved? In conclusion, the questions that I have asked myself been
answered tremendously. The only question that still really remains is, have we contained the
situation? Or are we still facing the issue of potential worldwide infection? What was the most
valuable thing you learned from doing this

Difference Between Digestive System And Digestive System
What the digestive system does
The digestive system is when the body does to break down food. Firstly, it enters the mouth and is
broken down by the teeth of the animal and saliva. Then it travels along the oesophagus to the
stomach. Then in the stomach for further breaking down, it is broken down by hydrochloric acid and
enzymes. The acid breaks down bacteria and the food material into smaller molecules. Once this is
complete it then moves onto the small intestine. Enzymes are secreted from the pancreas into here
and bile from the liver which emulsifies fats. Nutrients from the food are absorbed into the
bloodstream. Then it moves onto the large intestines where water is absorbed to produce faeces
waste. Then it is moved to the rectum to be released from the anus. This is the basic digestive
process of a monogastric animal, other animals are more complex and different processes happen.
Comparing ruminants and non–ruminants
A ruminant is an animal such as a cow which is a foregut fermenter and has four chambers for their
digestion. They also regurgitate their food unlike non–ruminants. Ruminants chew their food briefly
before swallowing it first time. The first part of their digestion is the rumen which has specialised
bacteria to digest cellulose. They then regurgitate and re–chew the food, it is called cud and the cud
returns to the rumen. They chew this cud for 6–8 hours per day whilst resting. This is an advantage
compared to the horse because it means that the fibre is

Mad Cow Disease Epidemic's Lingering Impacts

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