Form and Function

1. Dr.VMS

2. Form and Meaning
 Message - concept - meaning - what
 Method - manner - form - how

3. Form and function
There is no one-to-one relationship between a particular
function (writing, drawing, word processing, etc.) and the
object used (pencil, computer) to carry out that function.
in language there is a lack of a one-to-one relationship
between the various forms we encounter and the functions
they perform.
A particular function may be performed by different forms.

4. Realizations of the Subject
 ‘Who or what carried out the action denoted by the
verb?’
 ‘Who or what is this sentence about?’

5. NPs functioning as Subject
 [NP The hedgehog] ate the cream cake.
 [NP A rat] bit my toe.
 [NP This shoe] hurts me.
 [NP Academics] never lie.

6. PPs functioning as Subject
 [PP Under the stairs] was a safe area to be during the
war.
 [PP Outside the fridge] is not a good place to keep
milk.
 [PP After Saturday] would be a good time to go away
for a few days.
 [PP Between eleven and midnight] suits me alright.

7. AP and AdvP functioning as Subject
 AP functioning as Subject
 [AP Restless] is what I would call him.
 AdvP functioning as Subject
 [AdvP Cautiously] is how I would suggest you do it.

8. Finite clauses functioning as
Subject
 [That he will go to New York soon] is obvious.
 [Because he is generous] doesn’t mean that he is rich.
 [What the terrorists said] puzzled the police.
 [Why she consented] remains a mystery.

9. To-infinitive clauses functioning as
Subject with a Subject of their own
 [For Judith to buy that house] would spell disaster.
 [For us to understand the issues] requires a major
mental effort.
 [For Janet to go to College] would be a good idea.
 [For Karl to visit art galleries] would not be desirable.

10. To-infinitive clauses functioning as Subject
without a Subject of their own
 ) [To be a good teacher] is more difficult than people
think
 [To see her] is to love her
 [To surrender our arms] will seem cowardly.
 [To break down this fence] could lead to a conflict with
the neighbours

11. -ing participle clauses functioning as
Subject with a Subject of their own
 Pete breaking the rules] is unacceptable.
 [Students walking on the roof] poses a safety risk.
 [Damien fooling around] embarrasses his friends.
 [George buying all those books] will cost his father a
fortune.

12. -ing participle clauses functioning
as Subject with a Subject of their
own
 without a Subject of their own
 [Going on holiday] always creates tensions.
 [Running a business] is hard work.
 [Swimming in this lake] will make you ill.
 [Refusing to help the needy] is selfish.

13. Small Clauses functioning as
Subject
 [The kitchen free of cockroaches] is a welcome
prospect

14. Realisations of the Direct Object
 Direct Objects are usually constituents which refer to
an entity that can be said to undergo the action
denoted by the verb.
 A simple way of determining what is the Direct Object
in a particular sentence is to ask ‘Who or what is
affected by the action denoted by the verb?’
 Eric lost his keys yesterday
 What is affected by the process of losing?’
 the answer is his keys. This NP is therefore the DO of
the sentence

15. Realisations of the Direct Object
 Direct Objects can be realised by the following range
of phrases and clauses:
 Noun Phrases,
 Prepositional Phrases,
 finite clauses and nonfinite clauses.

16. NPs functioning as Direct Object
 Sarah admires [NP the President].
 Ralph enjoys [NP her company].
 William lit [NP the barbecue].
 Nina described [NP the event].

17. PPs functioning as Direct Object
 Speaker A: Where will the new discotheque be built?
 Speaker B: Where will the new discotheque be built?
 Speaker A: Are you going on holiday before or after
Easter?
 Speaker B: I prefer [PP before Easter

18. Finite clauses functioning as Direct
Object
 That-clauses functioning as Direct Object
 The government believes [that the voters are stupid].
 She admits [that she ignored the red light].
 Maggie doubts [that her boyfriend will ever change].
 We regret [that we appointed you].

19. Finite Wh-clauses functioning as
Direct Object
 He knows [what she means].
 He explained [who would be in charge of the
investigation].
 I don’t remember [why Paul said that].
 They finally decided [where they will send their child
to school].

20. To-infinitive clauses functioning as Direct
Object
 with a Subject of their own:
 Ann considers [Helen to be an excellent director].
 They believe [the tabloid newspapers to contain
nothing but smut].
 without a Subject of their own:
 They expect [to leave the country within twenty-four
hours].
 She proposed [to open a restaurant in London].

21. without a Subject of their own,
introduced by a Wh-word
 He forgot [what to say to the examiners].
 The dentist couldn’t decide [who to see next].

22. Bare infinitive clauses functioning
as Direct Object
 We saw [the sun rise].
 Rick could hear [his tutor rage with anger].
 She made [her boyfriend cry].
 I let [the situation pass].

23. ing participle clauses functioning as
Direct Object
 with a Subject of their own:
 I heard [Jamie singing in the bath].
 The witness saw [someone running away].
 without a Subject of their own
 She abhors [eating meat].
 Willy intended [registering for the exams].

24. -ed participle clauses functioning
as Direct Object
 We had [the prisoners jailed].
 She watched [the ship moored].
 Small clauses functioning as Direct Object
 Martin considers [Tim a creep]. (1/4(16) of Chapter 4)
 Larry judges [the Head of Department a genius].
 Phil deems [Henry foolish]. (1/4(17) of Chapter 4)

25. NPs functioning as Indirect Object
 She told [NP her brother] a lie.
 Gertrude gave [NP her friend] a birthday present.
 We sent [NP the committee] an angry letter
 The curator of the museum showed [NP the party]
some rare paintings

26. Wh-clauses functioning as Indirect
Object
 Sean told [whoever wanted to hear it] his story

27. AdvPs functioning as Adjunct
 He cleaned the house [AdvP quite cheerfully].
 [AdvP Officially], the company denied all
responsibility.
 He [AdvP urgently] needed to see a doctor.
 They [AdvP repeatedly] had their car stolen.

28. PPs functioning as Adjunct
 Otto cooked his evening meal [PP in a rush].
 We met [PP outside Paris].
 Frank cut the bread [PP with a penknife].
 They always drink sherry [PP before dinner].

29. NPs functioning as Adjunct
 Helen discovered the Italian restaurant [NP yesterday].
 The crisis began [NP last year].
 He resigned [NP the month before last].
 He wants me to do it [NP this second].

30. Finite clauses functioning as
Adjunct
 They will be cooking the meal, [when we arrive].
 [While Francis was watching tv], Paul was peeling the
potatoes.
 [Since he never used his card], the library cancelled his
membership.
 We’ll go to Paris, [if you promise not to smoke].

31. To-infinitive clauses functioning as
Adjunct
 with a Subject of their own
 We need some music, [ for us to enjoy the evening
 Catherine will need to work harder, [ for her to reach her
life’s ambition]
 without a Subject of their own:
 [So as to move about more easily], Robert bought himself a
car.
 You will need to travel to the United States, [to hear him
lecture].
 [To produce an essay every two weeks], you will have to
work very hard.

32. Bare infinitive clauses functioning
as Adjunct
 Rather than sell the painting], Ike preferred to destroy
it.
 Ray wants to travel by train, [sooner than fly].

33. -ing participle clauses functioning
as Adjunct
 with a Subject of their own:
 [The streets being completely deserted], Jackie
preferred to take a cab.
 Sally stared out of the window, [her thoughts drifting
away dreamily].
 without a Subject of their own
 [Working on his essay late], Tom was quickly
becoming tired
 [Standing on a table], Dawn addressed the crowd.

34. -ed participle clauses functioning
as Adjunct
 with a Subject of their own
 [The attack averted], the people of the town could come
out of hiding.
 We were all excited, [the plan accepted by the government].
 without a Subject of their own
 Meg joined Amnesty International, [convinced that this
would benefit political prisoners].
 [Formulated clearly], this statement will cause no
problems.
 She died in her car, [suffocated by exhaust fumes].

35. Small clauses functioning as
Adjunct
 He is from a wealthy background, [his father a
businessman].
 [The doctor ill], we had no-one to look after my sister.
 She went back to her homeland, [her mind free of
hate].
 [The police unrepentant], we took them to court.