The document discusses several studies on how the number of choices presented to individuals can impact motivation and decision making. The key findings are: 1. The famous jam study found that fewer people made a purchase (30% vs. 60%) when given a large assortment of jams compared to a small assortment. 2. A student essay study showed that more students completed an optional essay and wrote higher quality essays when given a limited set of topics rather than an extensive set. 3. A chocolate tasting study demonstrated that participants felt more frustrated and less satisfied, and were less likely to purchase chocolates when given 30 options rather than 6. 4. While more choices are generally thought to

2. When Choice is Demotivating: Can One
Desire Too Much of a Good Thing?
Sheena S. Iyengar & Mark R. Lepper

3. Popular ideas
u “More choice, the better”
u Human desire for choice “unlimited”
u Aisles of potato chips
u Enormous fast food options to “have
it our way”

4. Exasperated grocery
shopper

5. Two sides of a coin..
u Choice is GOOD
u Increases intrinsic motivation
u Enhances performance ( in some cases – preference matching contexts)
u Exciting & attractive
u Choice is BAD
u Difficult to manage
u Need expert opinions
u Frustrating
u More regret

6. The famous jam study
60%
24 6
3%
40%
30%
supermarket
Tasting
booth
$1 concession

7. Study 2: Students essay
u Optional extra credit
essay in class
u Two conditions
u Limited-choice(6)
u Extensive choice(30)
u Two measures:
u % of students who
completed
u Quality of essay
65%
Limited choice: 74% Extensive choice: 60%
Quality:
Limited > Extensive

8. Hypothesis at the end of Study 1&2
u Hypothesis 1:
u Choosers in extensive choice set are more likely to use a satisficing heuristic
u While, choosers in limited choice context are more likely to use optimizing
heuristic
u Hypothesis 2:
u Choosers in extensive choice contexts
u enjoy choice making process more
u Feel more responsible

9. Study 3: Chocolates
Extensive choice: 30 Limited choice: 6 No choice
Time 24s 9s
Too many About right
Number of choices
Enjoyable
Frustrating & difficult
Satisfaction 5.46 6.28 4.92
Purchasing 12% 48% 10%

10. Hypothesis Supported/Not Supported
u Hypothesis 1:
u Choosers in extensive choice set are more likely to use a satisficing heuristic
u While, choosers in limited choice context are more likely to use optimizing
heuristic
u Hypothesis 2:
u Choosers in extensive choice contexts enjoy choice making process more
u More difficult
u More frustrating
u More dissatisfied
u More regret
Satisficing heuristic
in both cases
Also feel more
responsible
result

11. Choice Overload worsens..
u Cost associated with making the “wrong” choice, or even beliefs that there
are truly “wrong” choices (e.g. stock market)
u Substantial time and effort would be required for choosers to make truly
informed comparisons among alternatives
u PARADOX : As the freedom of individuals expands, so too does their
dependence on institutions and other people

12. Can There Ever Be Too Many Choices? A
Meta-Analytic Review of Choice Overload
Benjamin Scheibehenne, Rainer Greifeneder & Peter M. Todd

13. Arguments in favor of choice
overload hypothesis
u Makes choice more difficult
u as the differences between
attractive options get smaller
u the amount of available
information about them increases
u Exhaustive comparison is
undesirable from a time & effort
perspective
u Decisions makers satisfaction
decreases
Arguments against choice
overload hypothesis
u Large variety of choices
u increases the likelihood of
satisfying diverse consumers
u Do not have to search for options
u Allows direct comparison & get a
sense of overall quality distribution
u Increases freedom of choice

14. What is Meta-Analysis?
u Combines results from multiple studies
u Uses statistical techniques
u Improves estimates of the size of the effect
u Resolves uncertainty in reports

15. Difference in study

16. Meta – Analysis Choice Overload
u Adverse effects due to increase in choices not very robust
u Overall effect size is ZERO
u Large positive and large negative effect reported
u CONCLUSION : more choice is better with regard to consumption quality and if
decision makers had well-defined preferences prior to choice
u Choice overload does occur depending on moderator variable

17. Confused by too many choice?
Choice overload in tourism
Jeomg-Reol Park & SooCheong Jang

18. Hypothesis
1. Choosing ‘No choice’
decreases as more
choices given.
BUT, increases when too
many choices presented.
2. Chance of ‘No
choice’ differs
between familiar &
unfamiliar destinations
3. Difference in level of
perceived regret between
those chose a product and
those who chose ‘no
choice’
4. Perceived regret across
various number of choices
differs between those who
made a choice and those who
made ‘no choice’

19. Study
u Spring destination. Two choices:
u Familiar destination
u Unfamiliar destination
u Choice sets : 1, 3, 10, 20, 30
u Familiar : 18.75% - no choice
u Unfamiliar : 23.87% - no choice

20. No choice graph
Choice
overload
starts

21. Result : Hypothesis
1. Choosing ‘No choice’
decreases as more
choices given.
BUT, increases when too
many choices presented.
2. Chance of ‘No
choice’ differs
between familiar &
unfamiliar destinations
3. Difference in level of
perceived regret between
those chose a product and
those who chose ‘no
choice’
4. Perceived regret across
various number of choices
differs between hose who
made a choice and those who
made ‘no choice’

22. Implications & Suggestions
u More than 22 options in a choice set may drive consumers to make ‘no choice’
which would eventually lead to losses for the tourism product supplier.
u Suggestion: develop a screening process
u Budget?
u Favorite hotel?
u Duration of stay?
u Preferred activity?
u Do no show hundreds of options
u Provide 22 or less choices