Int 463 international relations part ii dr. osman sabri k

1. INT 463 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS-Part II
Dr. Osman Sabri Kıratlı
Neo-Realism: A structural theory of IRKenneth Waltz: Theory
of International Politics, 1979.
Key AssumptionsWaltz shares key assumptions with classical
realism: sovereignty, statism and self-help.Innovation:
international politics works like the market. This means that
‘human nature’ based explanations should be dismissed. Also,
explanations based on the nature of states should be dismissed.
The International SystemThe interactions of states generate
systemic pressures that states have to contend with. Structural
theory.It is these constraints that explain the behaviour of
states.
Structural RealismInternational Politics is essentially a struggle
for power not because of human nature but due to anarchy

2. Anarchy is not chaos, but the absence of a political authority
Two different organizing principles : anarchy and hierarchy
Anarchy reflects to the decentralised nature of international
politics
Hierarchy is the basis of the domestic order
Units of the international system are functionally similar
sovereign states
Distribution of capabilities across units is key to understanding
international politics. The position of the state in the system
determines external behaviour.
The Security Dilemma
Assume that a particular state seeks only to survive by pursuing
a status quo policy (which necessitates the maintenance of
power)This state’s possession of power – no matter how much
the state tries to assure others that it is for defensive purposes
only – must necessarily result in fear/suspicion on the parts of
othersMain reason: The same tools that are used for status quo
and prestige policies are used for imperialist policiesAbsent any
enforceable guarantee against the use of force for expansion –
and anarchy precludes the enforcement of any guarantee – the
realist worldview stipulates that the global community is driven
with arms races and the constant threat of both imperial and
preventative warThus, war is likely to occur even when political
reasons for war are absent
PolarityNumber of Great Powers determines the structure of the

3. international system (Unipolar, Bipolar, Multipolar)Polarity i s
important because it can help explain how a peaceful stability
can be achieved.Mechanism for peace: balance of power.
Imbalances are dangerous in a competitive environment.
CriticismThere are two categories of criticism: theoretical and
political.Theory-based criticism: anarchy is not a static
condition; states are not the only relevant actors in the system;
notion of sovereignty is questionable. Also, very weak theory in
explaining change.Politics-based criticism: if the principles of
world politics are static, it legitimises inequality and war.
The Cold War: The BeginningMany countries became
communist immediately after World War 2 including:
Czechoslovakia (1948)
Poland (1947)
Hungary (1947)
China (1949)
Cuba (1959)
North Korea (1945)
The Cold War: The BeginningGermany, which had been ruled
by the Hitler and the Nazis until their defeat in 1945 was split
in two.The western side became West Germany and the eastern
side became East Germany.East Germany became another
communist country.
Cold War: CharacteristicsThe USSR had a lot of influence over

4. many of the new communist countries (especially those in
Europe).The USA was very worried that the USSR’s influence
over these countries was making the USSR and communism
more powerful.The USA did not want communism to spread any
further – they were worried about the domino effect (one
country becomes communist, then another, then another etc)
Cold War: CharacteristicsThe tension and rivalry between the
USA and the USSR was described as the Cold War (1945-
1990).There was never a real war between the two sides
between 1945 and 1990, but they were often very close to war
Both sides got involved in other conflicts in the world to either
stop the spread of communism (USA) or help the spread (USSR)
(proxy wars).
Cold War: Characteristics
American objectives after the WW2:
Promote open markets for US goods to prevent another
depression
Promote ‘democracy’ throughout the world, especially in Asia
and Africa
Stop the spread of communism- “Domino Effect”
Soviet objectives after the WW2:
Create greater security for itself
lost tens of millions of people in WWII and Stalin’s purges
feared a strong Germany
Establish defensible borders
Encourage friendly governments on its borders
Spread communism around the world

5. Cold War: Instruments
Methods:Espionage [KGB vs. CIA]Arms Race [nuclear
escalation]Ideological Competition for the minds and hearts of
Third World peoples [Communist govt. & command economy
xy wars”Bi-
Polarization of Europe [NATO vs. Warsaw Pact]
Cold War: Instruments
Truman Doctrine:
1947: British help Greek government fight communist
guerrillas.
They appealed to America for aid, and the response was the
Truman
Doctrine.
America promised it would support free countries to help fight
communism.
Greece received large amounts of arms and supplies and by
1949 had
defeated the communists.
The Truman Doctrine was significant because it showed that
America, the
most powerful democratic country, was prepared to resist the
spread of
communism throughout the world.
Marshall Plan:

6. In 1947, US Secretary of State Marshall announced the
Marshall Plan.
a massive economic aid plan for Europe to help it recover from
the damage caused by the war.
There were two motives:
Helping Europe to recover economically would provide markets
for American goods, so benefiting American industry.
A prosperous Europe would be better able to resist the spread of
communism
Cold War: Instruments
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
In 1949 the western nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization to co-ordinate their defense against USSR.
It originally consisted of:
America Belgium Britain Canada Denmark France Holland Italy
Luxembourg Norway Portugal
Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, some former Soviet
republics have applied for membership to NATO.
Warsaw Pact:
Organization of communist states in Central and Eastern
Europe.
Established May 14, 1955 in Warsaw, Poland
USSR established in in response to NATO treaty
Founding members: Albania (left in 1961 as a result of the
Sino-Soviet split) Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Hungary Poland
Romania USSR East Germany (1956)

7. Cold War: Arms and Space RaceUSSR launched Sputnik I, the
first artificial satellite into geocentric orbit on October 4, 1957.
The race to control space was on.April 12, 1961: Yuri Gagarin
became first human in space and first to orbit Earth.
US felt a loss of prestige and increased funding for space
programs and science education.
On May 25,1961, Kennedy gave a speech challenging America
to land a man on the moon and return him safely by the end of
the decade.
Apollo 11 landed on the moon on July 16, 1969.Cold War
tensions increased in the US when the USSR exploded its first
atomic bomb in 1949. Cold War tensions increased in the USSR
when the US exploded its first hydrogen bomb in 1952. It was
1000 times more powerful than the Hiroshima atomic bomb.
Cold War: Berlin Wall
Built on August 13, 1961
The West Germans called it Schandmaur, the "Wall of Shame."
Over the years, it was rebuilt three times. Each version of the
wall was more higher, stronger, repressive, and impregnable.
Towers and guards with machine guns and dogs stood watch
over a barren no man's land. Forbidden zones, miles wide, were
created behind the wall. No one was allowed to enter the zones.
Anyone trying to escape was shot on sight.
Early 1960s view of east side of Berlin Wall with barbed wire at
top.
A view from the French sector looking over the wall.

8. Cold War: Cuban Missile Crisis
Closest the world ever came to nuclear war.
In 1962, the USSR lagged far behind the US in the arms race.
Soviet missiles were only powerful enough to be launched
against Europe but US missiles were capable of striking the
entire Soviet Union.
In April 1962, Soviet Premier Khrushchev deployed missiles in
Cuba to provide a deterrent to a potential US attack against the
USSR.
Meanwhile, Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend his
island nation from an attack by the US. Ever since the failed
Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, Castro felt a second attack was
inevitable. Consequently, he approved of Khrushchev's plan to
place missiles on the island. In the summer of 1962 the USSR
secretly installed the missiles.
CIA map showing range of Soviet supplied intermediate and
medium range missiles if launched from Cuba
Cold War: Cuban Missile Crisis
The crisis began on October 15, 1962 when radars revealed
Soviet missiles under construction in Cuba.
After seven days of intense debate, Kennedy imposed a

9. blockade around Cuba to stop the arrival of more Soviet
missiles and demanded that the Soviets remove all of their
offensive weapons from Cuba.
Tensions finally began to ease on October 28 when Khrushchev
announced that he would dismantle the installations and remove
the missiles, expressing his trust that the US would not invade
Cuba.
Further negotiations were held to implement the October 28
agreement, including a US demand that Soviet bombers be
removed from Cuba, and specifying the exact form and
conditions of US assurances not to invade Cuba.
Fail Safe- movie recommendation
Castro, Kennedy, Khrushchev
Cold War: Detente
In 1969 Nixon began negotiations with USSR on SALT I,
common name for the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
Agreement.
SALT I froze the number of ballistic missile launchers at
existing levels
It was the first effort between US/USSR to stop increase
nuclear weapons.
SALT II was a second round of US/USSR talks (1972-1979),
which sought to reduce manufacture of nuclear weapons. SALT
II was the first nuclear treaty seeking real reductions in
strategic forces to 2,250 of all categories on both sides.
Nixon and Brezhnev toast the SALT I treaty.
Carter and Brezhnev sign the SALT II treaty.

10. Cold War: Detente
Detente/Rapproachement was interrupted late 1970s-early 1980s
due to two factors:
1- In 1978, the USSR invaded Afghanistan and tried to set up a
friendly government.
In 1989 the Soviets finally withdrew. Islamic extremists used
the opportunity to take over the country.
The defeat weakened the Soviet’s economy and morale.
2- The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposal by
President Reagan in 1983 to use ground and space-based
systems to protect the US from attack by nuclear ballistic
missiles. It focused on strategic defense rather than doctrine of
mutual assured destruction (MAD). It was quickly nicknamed
“Star Wars.”
Cold War: The End
Gorbachev becomes Soviet premier and understands that the
Soviet economy cannot compete with the West, partly because
of Afghanistan and partly because of the costs of keeping up
militarily.
Gorbachev recognizes there is increasing unrest in the country.
1985: Gorbachev initiates the reforms of perestroika
(restructuring of economic policies) and glasnost (openness,
more freedom and civic rights)
November 1989: Berlin Wall collapses
Boris Yeltsin (far left) stands on a tank to defy the 1991 coup

11. The Wall Falls, 1989
A wave of rebellion against Soviet influence occurs throughout
its European allies.
Poland’s Solidarity movement breaks the Soviet hold on that
country
Hungary removed its border restrictions with Austria.
Riots and protests break out in East Germany.
East Germans storm the wall. Border guards do not fight back.
The wall is breached.
Eventually East and West Germany are reunited in 1990.
On December 21, 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and
Belarus signed the Belavezha Accords declaring the USSR
dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS) in its place.
On December 26, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental
body of the Soviet Union, recognized the collapse of the Soviet
Union and dissolved itself.
International Political Economy
Economic systems answer the questions:
What to produce?
How to produce?
How to distribute?
Politics: pursuit of power/ Economics: pursuit of wealthFocus:
the interplay between politics and economics in the
international context

12. Three classical theories of IPE?
Mercantilism/NationalismEconomic
LiberalismMarxismRelationship b/n economics and
politicsPolitics decisiveEconomics autonomousEconomics
decisiveMain actors/ units of
analysisStatesIndividualsClassesThe nature of economic
relationsConflictual zero-sum game Cooperative positive-sum
gameConflictual Economic goalsState powerMaximum
individual well-beingClass interests
Mercantilism/Nationalism: Starting AssumptionsAccepts
Capitalism as the optimal economic systemArgues that
functioning of markets is not neutralMarket outcomes determine
the relative wealth and power of states in international
politicsStates must focus on the distribution of gains ('relative
gains') from economic activity (Liberals emphasize 'absolute
gains')State must take action to tip market outcomes in their
favor!

13. Mercantilism: What is the purpose of the economy?Wealth
translates into power (economic and military)Main purpose of
national economy is to increase state powerIncrease success in
relative terms (i.e., US trade deficit with China)
Mercantilism/Nationalism: What is the relationship between
politics and economics?Economics is subordinate to
politicsEconomics a tool to be used for larger international
political strugglesStructures of the international economic
system are largely determined by the interests of the major
economic powers
Mercantilism: Basic Arguments
(1) International politics about the struggle
for power among states
(2) Economics an inherent part of larger political struggles
POLITICS AND ECONOMICS ARE INSEPARABLE
(3) Key question for IPE is how economics affects state power
Mercantilism: Strategies for Success
Domestic:
■ Emphasis on the structure of the economyProducing the
'right stuff': Need for high value-added industries
(e.g.technology)Created advantage through industrial policies
aimed at altering structure rather than size of economy (i.e.,
production subsidies; R&D aid, etc.)

14. International
■ Make sure state gains relatively more from international
exchange than other states
Trade Balance: Value of exports minus importsTrade
ProtectionsAutarky (self-sufficiency)Strategic Trade (selective
protection)How?: Through Tariffs, Import Quotas, Export
Subsidies, Voluntary Export Restraints (VERs), Non-Tariff
Barriers, and so onInvestment Controls (FDI and portfolio)
■ Examples of Success - Japan and East Asian 'Tiger
Economies'
Mercantilism: WeaknessesWho Gains?Defining Key
IndustriesFailures - Latin America; India, Japan's long
stagnation
Mercantilism: Three Answers
How does the economy work?
■ Capitalist markets that tend to benefit the more powerful
What is the economy for?
■ To promote the power of the state
What is the relationship between power and economics?
■ Politics and economics are inseparable
Liberalism: How does the economy work?Crucial role of
MARKETS in the economy.Markets use PRICES to connect
buyers to sellersIf rely on markets, get higher economic growth
(because of more efficient use of resources) Economic
Rationality (homo economicus)Laws of Supply/Demand
Determine OutcomesHarmony of Interests (“Positive-Sum

15. Game”)
Liberalism: How does the economy work?Market behavior
motivated by individual self-interest“It is not from the
benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we
expect our dinner, but from regard to their own interest.” (Adam
Smith)Liberals see the collective interest as being best served
by the free exercise of individual self-interest (tempered by
competition)The “Invisible Hand”
Liberalism: What is the economy for?Improve the economic
condition of private actors (individuals, firms,
entrepreneurs)Best achieved by increasing overall growth
(Bigger ‘economic pie’)Less concerned with distribution of
wealthMarket justice vs. distributive justicePoor best served by
a strong economy
Liberalism: What is the relationship
between politics and economics?Market decisions more
effective than political decisions (government failure) –Laissez-
faire: “State which governs least governs best”Government sets
‘rules of the game’ (i.e., competition policy) and serves as a
referee (i.e., antitrust enforcement)Direct intervention only
with:
• public goods (indivisible and inexcludable)
• (clear) market failure : when markets fail to bring about
socially desirable outcomes (Example: Environmental
Protection)

16. Liberalism: Policy Implications
Domestic:Limited government role in economy (provide public
goods)Uphold competitive markets (i.e., antitrust laws)
International:Free TradeFree Flows of CapitalOpen Economies
Liberalism: Three Answers
1. How does the economy work?MARKETS guided by PRICES
increase economic efficiency
2. What is the economy for?To increase INDIVIDUALS’
economic well-being
3. What is the relationship between politics and economics?The
two realms are/should be seperateIf governments don’t interfere
increased economic growth
increases wealth increased personal well-beingMarkets allow
everyone to win!
Liberalism: Strengths and Weaknesses
Strength:Logical Connection from individual interest to
societyStrong Historical EvidenceClear Guide to Policy-
MakersMaximizes Personal Freedom
Weaknesses:Favors Efficiency over Equity (or other
values)Assumes a fair playing fieldFree Markets and the Crash
Marxism: Criticism of Market Economies Market economies
often result in unequal societies where there are a few very
wealthy individuals and many poor people.Market economies
often encourage free trade that enables large private companies

17. to exploit the laborers or the resources of less-developed
nations. Market economies often result in economic monopolies
(when one company controls a business sector) that stop
competition and result in higher prices
Marxism: Basic AssumptionsMarket economies are social
arrangements created by specific historical forcesPrivate
property is a social construct, not something created by
natureWorkers produce surplus valueOwners of capital
(capitalists) take all or most of itAccumulation of capital in the
hands of capitalistsPower is rooted in ownership and control of
capital Division of society into classes based on their roles in
the economy and the stateStruggle between classes for power –
for control of the economy and the stateCapitalism will
inevitably collapse due to its inherent contradictions
*
Marxism: Basic Assumptions
Marxism: Basic Assumptions
MaterialismStructure and SuperstructureEconomics primary
over Politics
of CapitalismLenin and Imperialism
Normative Commitment

18. Egalitarianism over efficiency
Marxism: Three Answers
1- What is the economy for?Normatively: To help the
massesEmpirically: To serve the wealthy by exploiting the
masses
2- How does the economy work?
I- Dependency Theory (Terms of Trade and dependent
development)
II-World System Theory (Core, Periphery and
Semiperiphery)
III- Theory of Imperialism
3- Relationship between Politics and Economics?Politics
derives from economics
Marxism: Strength and Weaknesses
Strength:Highlights Nature of Inequality in IPERelates National
Development to International Economy
Weaknesses:Failure of CommunismPoorly Developed
ConceptsVastly different historical examples
Strands of Marxism: ImperialismJohan Galtung: “Imperialism is
a complete structure encompassing the military, social, pol itical
and economic relations”Modern imperialism is different from
the colonial era. Today, control is not direct but mediated
though transportation and communication, linking the centers in
the core and peripheries to each other. This link is also
established by international organizations. The centers make
agreements through international organizations whose
headquarters are in the core countries. These organizations vary

19. from IGO’s through multinational corporations to the military
alliances and treaties.
Strands of Marxism: Dependency TheoryAndre Gunder Frank,
Fernando Henrique Cardoso Capitalism operates systematically
to underdevelop and exploit the economies of less developed
countries (LDCs)Poverty is a process in which the LDCs are
caught and cannot escape because of the inherent relationship
between developed and underdeveloped nations. Economic
exploitation is an integral part of the capitalist system and is
required to keep it functioning.
Strands of Marxism: World System TheoryImmanuel
WallersteinAgainst modernization theoryStructural Theory: the
structure is capitalismSystem is divided to core, periphery,
semi-periphery countriesTransnational division of labourYet,
room for changes: transition from periphery to semi-periphery
etc. is possibleNot exactly exploitation of periphery by the core,
instead a dynamic process where core capitalists exploit
workers in all zones of the capitalist world-economy
Three Paradigms
Left Right
marxism nationalism liberalism
dependency
Imperialism

20. World Systems
Right vs. left: amount of government intervention
*
Global Transformations
Technological advancesExpansion of international commerce
(exports and imports)Rising importance of private capital flows
(stock markets and multinational corporations)Increasing travel
and migration (international tourism and domestic
diversity)Increased communication and interaction between
peoples (through all sorts of media)New global networks, a
global culture, a global society?
Global TransformationsGlobalization made possible
by:TechnologyCommunication networksInternet accessGrowth
of economic cooperation – trading blocs (EU, NAFTA,
etc.)Collapse of ‘communism’Movement to free tradeDecline in
barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and capi tal since the
end of World War II
Global Transformations: Rising ActorsMacro-regions: like the
EU, or NAFTA, these regions coordinate capital flows within a
locational unit but also provide access to the globalization
process. Micro-regions: global cities offering new opportunities
esp. in low wage jobs and information occupations. Civil
societies: growth of network organizations

21. Economic GlobalizationThe increasing reliance of economies on
each otherThe opportunities to be able to buy and sell in any
country in the worldThe opportunities for labour and capital to
locate anywhere in the worldThe growth of global markets in
finance
Technological Globalization“World Wide Web” has exploded in
last 10 yearsComputers can move money around world =
“finance capital”Silicon Valley is 9th largest economy in world!
AfricaMore computers in Manhattan than all of Africa!Post-
colonial infrastructures don’t support technology
Cultural GlobalizationCultural Imperialism: Dominance of one
culture over othersHollywood movies, McDonald’s, Apple,
Starbucks Dominance of the English language and invasion of
other languagesDo people all over the world have the same
taste?A new impetus to cultural homogenization in the form of a
consumer culture
Africa“Culture Industry”: opportunities for Africans to sell
their culture in the “global market” that values traditional
culture
Global Transformations: Different PerspectivesStrong
Globalization thesis: a range of qualitative and quantitative
changes introduce a new stage in human historyWeak
Globalization thesis: despite technological shifts and increasing
internationalization of trade, finance, social patterns and human
mobility, nothing much has really changed

22. Global Transformations: Different Perspectives
Hyperglobalists:Thomas Friedman, Susan Strange, Kenichi
Ohmae, etc.A neoliberal position which expect convergence in
institutional and social configurationsDenationalization of
economies, radical transformation of society, global diffusion of
cultures, weakening state power
Global Transformations: Different Perspectives
Skeptics:Is it really new?20th vs. 19th C: The world economy is
no more than internationalized and integrated by the start of the
21st C. than in pre-WWI era In the 19th C. world trade grew
eleven times more quickly than world production, more than it
grew after WWII era. Looking at the trade to GDP ratio and
other forms of capital flow, financial markets were more open
in pre WWI era than today.Africa, Asia and South America were
all within the trading systemIn terms of labour mobility, people
have less opportunities to move largely due to restricted
migration policies adopted by first world countries. Many of the
features of financial integration today have some counterparts
in the 19th C. such as gold standard for dollar dominance,
London for New York, etc.
Global Transformations: Different Perspectives
Still some differences from earlier eras:Today, there is more
generalized and institutionalized free trade through the WTO,
foreign investment is different in its form and destination, the
scale of short term financial flows is greater, the international
monetary system is quite different, and the labour mobility is

23. much more restricted.
Global Transformations: CritiquesGlobalization as a tool for
Western dominance? Exploitation of bourgeoisie? Hypocricy of
the West?New types of strafication, hierarchy, winners and
losersWinners: advanced economies, transnational industry and
finance, skilled labourLosers: periphery countries, unskilled
labour, immigrants
ConstructivismSkeptical of realist and liberal assumptionsTry to
identify roots of state interests and see how people use language
to socially construct the worldNorms dictate the conception of
interestsSocial norms are the behaviors and cues within a
society or group. Could be defined as "the rules that a group
uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes
and behaviors".States derive interest and identity through
interaction in international culture
Constructivism
Wendt abandons rationalist assumption – assumption that states’
identities are given (exogenous; fixed) either by,human nature
(classical realism) or international system (neorealism)
State identities and interests are not given (exogenously), rather
they are constructed socially (social interaction)… hence social
constructivism.. Self- -regarding
identities
behavior of states, but they do not change states’ identities or
interests… they only constrain behaviour in strategic sense, but
they do not constitute it!

24. Constructivists – institutions not only constrain behaviour but
also constitute it. They can change identities and preferences
ConstructivismTwo important claims of Constructivists(1)
interests and identities do change… and they are socially
constructed! They are not givens! They are not exogenous
Ideational structure of International Relations(2) Anarchy (as
defined by Neorealists) is not the most important structural
characteristic of international system. Neorealist conception of
structures is too limited! They only focus on material forces.
The key structures of the international system are
intersubjective or social (rather than material). The way we
interact (and think) constitute an important structure as well!
Thus, our interests derive from the identities we construct for
ourselves
Constructivism
Structure is a malleable entity… agents can shape the structure!
Self-help and Security Dilemma and Power Politics are not
essential feature of anarchyThey are the result of our interaction
based on self-help and power politics! Our practices made that
way(Physical) structure has no causal power apart from
processes and interaction
Self-help and power politics are the result of our interaction (or
practices) based on power politics and self help!
If states’ practices change, then so will the structure, so will our
understanding of structure…!!!
Therefore “Anarchy (as structure) is what states make of it!”

25. FeminismGender Matters- rather than sexHistory- His story1-
written by males 2- wars- males 3- for males
Current paradigms (esp. realism) are flawed because the
universal truths they propose apply only to males
Males have normally hold top positions; factors only …