This document discusses theories and models of motivation including:
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McClelland's need theory which posit that motivation comes from fulfilling physiological, safety, social and esteem needs.
- Herzberg's two-factor theory that distinguishes between motivators like achievement and hygiene factors like salary.
- Expectancy theory which states that motivation depends on the expectation that effort will lead to good performance and performance will be rewarded.
- Equity theory which proposes that employees are motivated to maintain fair relationships between their inputs and outcomes relative to others.
- Goal-setting theory showing that specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees are committed to them.
4. 6-4
Need Theories of Motivation
Needs
Physiological or
psychological
deficiencies that
arouse behavior.
5. 6-5
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Motivation is a function of five basic needs –
physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-
actualization
Human needs emerge in a predictable stair-
step fashion
6. 6-6
McClelland’s Need Theory
Need for achievement
Desire to accomplish something difficult.
Need for affiliation
spend more time maintaining social
relationships, joining groups, and wanting to be
loved
Need for power
Desire to Influence, coach, teach, or encourage
others to achieve.
7. 6-7
McClelland’s Need Theory
Achievement-motivated people share three
common characteristics:
1. Preference for working on tasks of
moderate difficulty
2. Preference for situations in which
performance is due to their efforts
3. Desire more feedback on their successes
and failures
8. 6-8
Motivating Employees Through
Job Design
Job Design
any set of activities that
involve the alteration of
specific jobs or
interdependent systems
of jobs with the intent of
improving the quality of
employee job experience
and their on-the-job
productivity
9. 6-9
Top-Down Approaches
Scientific management
that kind of management which conducts a
business or affairs by standards established by
facts or truths gained through systematic
observation, experiment, or reasoning
10. 6-10
Top-Down Approaches
Job enlargement
putting more variety into a job
Horizontal loading
Job rotation
moving employees from one specialized job to
another
stimulate interest and motivation while
providing employees with a broader
perspective of the organization
13. 6-13
Top-Down Approaches:
Job Enrichment
Job enrichment
Modifying a job such that an employee has the
opportunity to experience achievement,
recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and
advancement
15. 6-15
The Job Characteristics Model
Intrinsic motivation
Occurs when an individual is “turned on to
one’s work because of the positive internal
feelings that are generated by doing well,
rather than being dependent on external factors
(such as incentive pay or compliments from the
boss) for the motivation to work effectively.”
16. 6-16
The Job Characteristics Model
Core job
characteristics
job characteristics
found to various
degrees in all jobs
Skill variety
Task
identity
Task
significance
Autonomy
Feedback
19. 6-19
Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals)
Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals)
Represent “employment terms individuals
negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms
from flexible schedules to career
development.”
20. 6-20
Cultivating Employee Engagement
Employee engagement
“the harnessing of organization members’
selves to their work roles; in engagement,
people employ and express themselves
physically, cognitively, and emotionally during
role performance.”
21. 6-21
What Contributes to Employee
Engagement?
PE Fit
the compatibility between an individual and a
work environment that occurs when their
characteristics are well matched.
22. 6-22
What Contributes to Employee
Engagement?
Sense of meaningfulness
task purpose is important and meaningful
Sense of choice
ability to use judgment and freedom when
completing tasks
23. 6-23
What Contributes to Employee
Engagement?
Sense of competence
feelings of accomplishment associated with
doing high-quality work
Sense of progress
feeling that one is accomplishing something
important
24. 6-24
Practical Takeaways
Budget resources to measure, track, and
respond to surveys of employee
engagement
Consider assessing the individual traits
associated with employee engagement
during the hiring process
25. 6-25
Practical Takeaways
Top-down approaches to job design can be
used to redesign jobs so that they contain
the four psychological states highlighted by
Ken Thomas
Increase engagement levels by relying on
job crafting to create the psychological
states recommended by Thomas
26. 6-26
Causes of Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction
an affective or
emotional response
toward various
facet’s of one’s job
27. 6-27
Causes of Job Satisfaction
Need fulfillment
extent to which the characteristics of a job allow
an individual to fulfill his or her needs
Discrepancies
satisfaction is a result of met expectations
Value attainment
Extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one’s
work values
28. 6-28
Causes of Job Satisfaction
Equity: satisfaction
is a function of how “fairly” an individual is
treated at work
Dispositional/Genetic Components
satisfaction is partly a function of both personal
traits and genetic factors
30. 6-30
Correlates of Job Satisfaction
Organizational commitment
reflects the extent to which an individual
identifies with an organization and is committed
to its goals
Organizational citizenship behavior
employee behaviors that exceed work-role
requirements
31. 6-31
Correlates of Job Satisfaction
Withdrawal
cognitions
Represent an
individual’s
overall thoughts
and feelings
about quitting
32. 6-32
Counterproductive Work Behavior
Counterproductive work behavior
represent types of behavior that harm
employees, the organization as a whole, or
organizational stakeholders such as customers
and shareholders.
theft, gossiping, back-stabbing, drug and
alcohol abuse, destroying organizational
property, violence, tardiness, sabotage, and
sexual harassment
34. 6-34
Equity Theory
Equity theory
model of motivation
that explains how
people strive for
fairness and justice in
social exchanges or
give-and-take
relationships
35. 6-35
The Individual-Organization
Exchange Relationship
An employee’s inputs, for which he expects
a just return, include education/training,
skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality
traits, effort expended, and personal
appearance.
36. 6-36
The Individual-Organization
Exchange Relationship
On the outcome side the organization
provides such things as pay/bonuses, fringe
benefits, challenging assignments, job
security, promotions, status symbols,
recognition, and participation in important
decisions.
37. 6-37
Negative and Positive Inequity
Negative inequity
Comparison in which another person receives
greater outcomes for similar inputs.
Positive inequity
Comparison in which another person receives
lesser outcomes for similar inputs.
38. 6-38
Dynamics of Perceived Inequity
1. People have varying sensitivities to
perceived equity and inequity
2. Inequity can be reduced in a variety of
ways
40. 6-40
Thresholds of Equity and Inequity
Equity sensitivity
reflects an
individual’s
“different
preferences for,
tolerances for, and
reactions to the
level of equity
associated with any
given situation”
41. 6-41
Thresholds of Equity and Inequity
Benevolents
people who have a higher tolerance for
negative inequity prefer their outcome/input
ratio to be lower than ratios from comparison
others
Sensitives
adhere to a strict norm of reciprocity and are
quickly motivated to resolve both negative and
positive inequity
42. 6-42
Thresholds of Equity and Inequity
Entitleds
have no tolerance for negative inequity
expect to obtain greater output/input ratios than
comparison others and become upset when
this is not the case.
43. 6-43
Organizational Justice
Distributive justice
The perceived fairness of how resources and
rewards are distributed.
Procedural justice
The perceived fairness of the process and
procedures used to make allocation decisions.
Interactional justice
quality of the interpersonal treatment people
receive when procedures are implemented.
44. 6-44
Question?
Employees at Globe Trade have always felt
that resources and rewards are allocated
unfairly at work. Such employee
perceptions reflect _________.
A.Distributive justice
B.Interpersonal justice
C.Equitable justice
D.Procedural justice
45. 6-45
Practical Lessons from Equity
Theory
No matter how fair management thinks the
organization’s policies, procedures, and
reward system are, each employee’s
perception of the equity of those factors is
what counts.
Managers benefit by allowing employees to
participate in making decisions about
important work outcomes
46. 6-46
Practical Lessons from Equity
Theory
Employees should be given the opportunity
to appeal decisions that affect their welfare.
Managers can promote cooperation and
teamwork among group members by
treating them equitably
47. 6-47
Practical Lessons from Equity
Theory
Employees’ perceptions of justice are
strongly influenced by the leadership
behavior exhibited by their managers
Managers need to pay attention to the
organization’s climate for justice.
48. 6-48
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Expectancy
theory
Holds that people
are motivated to
behave in ways that
produce valued
outcomes.
49. 6-49
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Motivation boils down to the decision of how
much effort to exert in a specific task
situation.
Expectancy
represents an individual’s belief that a
particular degree of effort will be followed by a
particular level of performance.
50. 6-50
Expectancy
The following factors influence an
employee’s expectancy perceptions:
Self-esteem.
Self-efficacy.
Previous success at the task.
Help received from others.
Information necessary to complete the task.
Good materials and equipment to work with
51. 6-51
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Instrumentality
A performance outcome perception
Valence
the positive or negative value people place on
outcomes
Outcomes
different consequences that are contingent on
performance
53. 6-53
Managerial and Organizational
Implications of Expectancy Theory
Some workers value interesting work and
recognition more than money
Extrinsic rewards can lose their motivating
properties over time and may undermine
intrinsic motivation
54. 6-54
Goals: Definition and Background
Goal
what an individual is trying to accomplish
object or aim of an action
55. 6-55
Goals: Definition and Background
Management by objectives
management system incorporating participation
in decision making, goal setting, and feedback
56. 6-56
How Does Goal Setting Work
Goals direct attention
Goals regulate effort
Goals increase persistence
Goals foster the development and
application of task strategies and action
plans
57. 6-57
Insights from Goal-Setting
Research
1. Specific high goals lead to greater
performance
Goal specificity – quantifiability of a goal
2. Feedback enhances the effect of specific,
difficult goals
3. Participative goals, assigned goals, and
self-set goals are equally effective.
58. 6-58
Insights from Goal-Setting
Research
4. Action planning facilitates goal
accomplishment.
Action plan outlines the activities or tasks that
need to be accomplished in order to obtain a
goal.
5. Goal commitment and monetary incentives
affect goal-setting outcomes
Goal commitment – extent to which an
individual is personally committed to achieving
a goal
59. 6-59
Practical Application of
Goal Setting
Step 1: Set goals
Use time and motion studies, average past
performance, benchmarking
Should be SMART
60. 6-60
Practical Application of
Goal Setting
Two additional recommendations:
1. For complex tasks, managers should train
employees in problem-solving techniques
and encourage them to develop a
performance action plan
61. 6-61
Practical Application of
Goal Setting
2. Because of individual differences, it may be
necessary to establish different goals for
employees performing the same job.
63. 6-63
Practical Application of
Goal Setting
Step 2: Promote goal commitment
Involve employees in the goal setting and
action planning process
Have managers explain the rationale behind
higher level goals
64. 6-64
Practical Application of
Goal Setting
Step 3: Provide support and feedback
ensure that each employee has the necessary
abilities, training, technology/equipment, and
information needed to achieve his or her goals
70. 6-70
Guidelines for Participative Leadership
(Cont.)
Express concerns
Tentative proposals
Record ideas
Build on ideas
Tactful
Avoid defensiveness
Utilize suggestions
Appreciation
Encourage participation
71. 6-71
Benefits of Delegation
Decision quality improvement
Subordinate implementation commitment
Enriched job
Time management
Management development
72. 6-72
Risks of Delegation
Power sharing
Mistakes
Competition
Personal achievement
Performance bias
Subordinate characteristics
Distrust
Leader authority
73. 6-73
Guidelines for Delegation
What to Delegate
Tasks that can be done better by a subordinate
Urgent but not high priority
Relevant to a subordinate’s career
Appropriate difficulty
Both pleasant and unpleasant tasks
Tasks not central to the manager’s role
74. 6-74
Guidelines for Delegation (Cont.)
How to Delegate
Specify responsibilities
Provide adequate authority limits
Specify reporting requirements
Ensure subordinate acceptance of
responsibilities
