1. Theorists of Sociology/Ch. 1
• Credited with coining the term “sociology,” meaning “the study of society”
Comte, Positivism • Analyzed social order, what held society together, and why chaos did not reign
Auguste • Questioned what causes society to change once it is already set on a specific course
(1798-1857) • Saw that society was capable of change—it did not need to remain static
• Believed that sociologists could utilize the scientific method to reform society and make it a better place to live
• His conclusions have long since been abandoned, but he is considered by many to be the Father of Sociology
• Often considered the “second founder of sociology
Spencer, Social • Disagreed with Comte and believed that sociology should NOT guide social reform: societies are organic in nature
Herbert Darwinism and should not be tampered with
(1820-1903) • Agreed with Comte, however, that society was organic and capable of change
• Societies move from lower forms (barbaric) to higher forms (civilized) as generations pass; over time, the fittest
(most intelligent and resourceful) survive to build stronger societies. This is called “survival of the fittest,” which is
often incorrectly attributed to Charles Darwin
• However, sometimes, misguided do-gooders interfere and help less fit survive, which accounts for lower classes still
remaining
• Agreed with Comte, that people should attempt to change society
Marx, Karl Class • Marx was a radical and supported revolution, for which he was thrown out of Germany. He then moved to England,
(1818-1883) Conflict where he honed the concept of class conflict.
• Marx believed that throughout history, the crux of human misery stemmed from conflict between two distinct social
classes: the bourgeoisie, or the capitalists, and the proletariats, or the working class.
• He believed that the capitalists owned everything: capital (cash or goods used to generate income), land, factories,
and machines, and in turn exploited the working class to perpetuate the cycle of production to keep the capitalists in
power.
• Marx felt that a bloody revolution by the workers was the only solution to breaking the class conflict that would lead
to a truly classless and equal society that would be free of exploitation.
• Marx’s ideas would later be used as the basis for communism, despite the fact that he, himself, shunned the concepts
behind what we know today as “Marxism”.
• Prior to Durkheim’s involvement, sociology had been seen as a part of history and economics. His goal was to
Durkheim, Social change the world’s view so that sociology would be seen as its own academic discipline.
Emile Integration • He was the first to approach sociology by applying rigorous research via scientific studies.
(1858-1917) • Durkheim conducted research on suicide rates to show how social forces impact people’s behavior—he identified
social integration, which he used to explain that people with weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide.
• Central to Durkheim’s theory, and the part that remains very relevant to sociology today: Human behavior cannot be
understood only in terms of the individual; we must always examine the social forces that affect people’s lives.

2. • Focused on capitalism, which, at the time, was changing society. He concluded that changes in religion brought
about capitalism.
• This was in direct conflict with Marx, who concluded that economics were the impetus behind capitalism.
Weber, Max The • Weber termed the Protestant ethic, or the desire to invest capital in order to make more money, the spirit of
(1864-1920) Protestant capitalism.
Ethic • Weber’s conclusion was controversial when he made it and remains so today.
• Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism
Merton, Functional • Merton did not view society through the standard functionalist’s lens—i.e., each part of the system working in
Robert Analysis tandem to keep the whole running smoothly
(1910-2003) • Instead, he used the term functions to refer to the beneficial outcome of people’s actions, or such actions that helped
keep society in balance.
• In contrast, he used the term dysfunctions to describe the harmful outcome of people’s actions, or such actions that
caused society to fall out of balance.
Until this point, notice that all contributors have been male, and all have been European.
Consider life in North America in the 1800’ss. What were the roles of women expected to be?
The Forgotten Sociologists
The women below made important contributions to the field of sociology during the 1800’s, often times at great risk to themselves and their families,
even physically. Most of their ideas and writings were ignored, pushed aside, or neglected. Thankfully, today, they are recognized for what they are
—historically relevant social writings by women who were not afraid to analyze the world in which they lived and consider how changes might be
made.
Harriet Martineau
(1802-1876)
Frances Perkins
(1800-1965)
Alice Paul
(1885-1977)
Beatrice Potter Webb
(1858-1943)

3. Marion Talbot
(1858-1947)
Anna Juliet Cooper
(1858-1864)
Florence Kelley
(1859-1932)
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
(1860-1935)
Ida B. Wells-Barnett
(1862-1932)
Emily Greene Balch
(1867-1961)
Grace Abbott
(1867-1939)
W.E.B. Du Bois
(1868-1963)
• Born in Massachusetts
• Lived in time of unimaginable racism—difficult for us to believe
• First African American to receive PhD from Harvard
• Between 1897 and 1914, conducted numerous studies of black society in U.S.
• Believed that social science could provide answers to race problems
• Shared in the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909
Jane Addams
(1850-1935)
• Family background of wealth and privilege
• Dropped out of medical college due to illness and on a trip to Europe became dedicated to the cause of social justice

4. • Addams opened Hull-House in the slums of Chicago in 1889 to offer assistance to the poor, sick, elderly, and immigrants in need of help.
• Addams worked to bridge the gap between social classes—the rich and the poor, the factory owners and the exploited workers.
• She also founded the ACLU, the American Civil Liberty Union, and fought for the 8-hour work day and child labor laws.
• Co-winner of Nobel Peace Prize in 1931
Parsons vs. Mills
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)
• Major sociologist of the 1900’s who, like many, had come to rely heavily on theory.
C. Wright Mills (1916-1962)
• Came to deplore Parsons and other sociologist’s conceptual analyses of society and urged them to get to working on actual social reform.
• Mills believed that what he called the power elite in the country were taking over the freedoms of the general population and that theorists
were missing the bigger picture.
• Upon his death, his ideas gained in popularity with a new generation of sociologists, which lead directly into the turbulent 60’s and 70’s.