Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
The purpose of my research is to determine the effectiveness intense phonemic instruction in the classroom as on student’s ability to read successfully.
There is a fast-moving worldwide shift from English being taught as a foreign language (EFL) to English being the medium of instruction (EMI) for academic subjects such as science, mathematics, geography and medicine. EMI is increasingly being used in universities, secondary schools and even primary schools.
M.Wright
LANGUAGE LEARNING NEEDS OF FILIPINO-CHINESE LEARNERS AS INPUTS FOR THE PROP...CarloMedoranda
This descriptive research aimed to identify the objective and subjective learning needs of grades 4 – 6 elementary school learners of Bayanihan Institute. It also looked into the most and least important needs of the learners, proposed intervention program to enhance English instruction in the school, and determined the implications of the research findings to the teaching of English as a second language to the young Filipino-Chinese learners.
“But, Did It Work?”Effects of Teacher-Implemented ComputerAssisted Instructio...inventionjournals
Four students with learning disabilities participated in a supplemental repeated reading intervention in order to increase oral reading fluency (ORF) skills. Teachers implemented the computerized intervention with the students in an inclusive classroom during reading/language arts time. The students engaged with the computerized repeated reading program three times per week for 10 weeks. Teachers administered generalization passages once a week to determine each student’s reading skills on passages that had not been read. Study data revealed mixed results as the students increased their ORF on progress monitoring generalization passages and tended to reach their goals, but only two of the four students showed a positive level change on the computerized repeated reading intervention passages. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.
The purpose of my research is to determine the effectiveness intense phonemic instruction in the classroom as on student’s ability to read successfully.
There is a fast-moving worldwide shift from English being taught as a foreign language (EFL) to English being the medium of instruction (EMI) for academic subjects such as science, mathematics, geography and medicine. EMI is increasingly being used in universities, secondary schools and even primary schools.
M.Wright
LANGUAGE LEARNING NEEDS OF FILIPINO-CHINESE LEARNERS AS INPUTS FOR THE PROP...CarloMedoranda
This descriptive research aimed to identify the objective and subjective learning needs of grades 4 – 6 elementary school learners of Bayanihan Institute. It also looked into the most and least important needs of the learners, proposed intervention program to enhance English instruction in the school, and determined the implications of the research findings to the teaching of English as a second language to the young Filipino-Chinese learners.
“But, Did It Work?”Effects of Teacher-Implemented ComputerAssisted Instructio...inventionjournals
Four students with learning disabilities participated in a supplemental repeated reading intervention in order to increase oral reading fluency (ORF) skills. Teachers implemented the computerized intervention with the students in an inclusive classroom during reading/language arts time. The students engaged with the computerized repeated reading program three times per week for 10 weeks. Teachers administered generalization passages once a week to determine each student’s reading skills on passages that had not been read. Study data revealed mixed results as the students increased their ORF on progress monitoring generalization passages and tended to reach their goals, but only two of the four students showed a positive level change on the computerized repeated reading intervention passages. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.
Implementing a RTI Model for ELL: An Urban Case StudyClaudia Rinaldi
THis session will provide present the implementation of an RTI model in urban schools with large percentage of ELL. Student Achievement in reading and teacher perceptions of implementation will be presented.
Factors Affecting Language Learning StrategiesRiduan Huda
There are a host of factors which appear to influence the use of language learning strategies by language learners. These factors may be sociocultural, situational or related to the personality of the language learner. Some factors are said to affect the type of learning strategy used by the language learner, whilst other factors are said to affect frequency of use of particular learning strategies. In this presentation. I will describe only five factors affecting language learning strategies.
The Bridging Process: Filipino Teachers’ View on Mother TongueRSIS International
This paper recognized that teachers play the main
element in the success of the new language policy, the Mother
Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) in the
Philippines. Their views as implementer on this approach are
essential in the attainment of the MTB-MLE objectives. In this
descriptive paper, the authors report a comprehensive account of
the 35 teachers’ perception on the efficiency and effectiveness of
MTB approach in teaching at Malvar Central School, Batangas,
Philippines for the school year 2016-2017. Using adopted
questionnaire, needed data were gathered and statistically
treated. The study found out that the respondents moderately
perceived mother tongue- based approach as effective and
efficient in achieving learning goals. The implications of these
findings are discussed within the theoretical and practical issues
surrounding the use of mother tongue-based in the Philippines
The Effects of Instructional Materials on Students’ Performance in English La...AJHSSR Journal
: This research is designed to investigate effects of Instructional Materials on students’ performances
in English Language in secondary schools in Katagum Zone, Bauchi State, Nigeria. It is also aimed at finding out
why some teachers do not use Instructional Materials to teach English Language. In the study, one hundred students
have been randomly selected from selected public and private secondary schools in Katagum Zone consisting of
fifty male and fifty female students to constitute the sample. The sample size was divided into group viz,
experimental and control groups. English Language was taught to the experimental group on a series of lessons
using most suitable, appropriate and available Instructional Materials while the control group was taken through the
same lesson without the utilization of any Instructional Materials. After the experiment students taught with
Instructional Materials performed better than the control group not taught with Instructional Materials. It also shows
there is no significant difference in the performance of gender taught using Instructional Materials. Based on above
findings, some recommendations that could bring about improvement on the performance of students, teachers
school authorities, NGOs and governments have been made.
The purpose of this study is to determine if there were relationships among learning style
preference, gender and English language performance of EFL Libyan secondary school students
in Malaysia. Specifically, the study was guided by three research questions focused on Libyan
student’s level of performance in EFL class in Malaysia, their learning styles and gender, and the
relationship between students’ learning styles and their English language performance. There has
been a limited number of studies on Libyan secondary schools’ student studying in Malaysia.
This study was a correlational study involving 108 Libyan secondary school students in Malaysia.
Data was analysed using the statistical package for Social Science (SPSS, version 20.0). The
results showed that most learners who participated in this study had a medium proficiency level
in the English language and majority of the Libyan students preferred independent learning style.
It was found that there was a difference in the learning styles preferred by female and male
secondary school students. The study also revealed that there was no significant relationship
between students’ overall learning styles and their English language performance and.
Recommendations were offered. Future researches could use more than one school to obtain
accurate results and could also focus on gender biases.
An Assessment of Reading Ability among Pre-School Children in Elgeyo Marakwet...paperpublications3
Abstract: Teaching reading and success in reading ability is therefore important for young learners. However, the ability for teachers to teach reading is not well documented. Little research has been conducted on teachers’ competence and attitudes towards reading ability among learners at preschool level. The objective of this study was to asses reading ability among Pre-School Children in Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya. The theory of planned behaviour and education production function theory guided the study. The study employed the mixed methods approach. An explanatory research design was used. The target population was all the 1252 pre-school teachers in Elgeyo Marakwet County Kenya. Multistage random sampling technique was used to select the participating schools and individual teachers. A sample size of 294 schools was used. The instruments utilised were questionnaires, and observation schedules. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The study results indicated that the pre-school children reading ability was poor. The study therefore recommended that pre-school teachers be trained to improve their competency in English phonology as to improve the reading ability of pre-school children.
Keywords: English Phonology, Teacher Competency, Reading Ability.
Title: An Assessment of Reading Ability among Pre-School Children in Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya
Author: Muthoni Bilhah Kiptoo, Prof. Khaemba Ongeti, Prof. J.K. Too
ISSN 2349-7831
International Journal of Recent Research in Social Sciences and Humanities (IJRRSSH)
Paper Publications
Remedial Instruction in Language Disfluencies in the Non-Psycho-Expert Lensijtsrd
This qualitative case study discovered and explored the plights of languages teachers conducting remedial instruction in language disfluencies, the way teachers conduct remedial instruction in language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens, and the way learners progress in the kind of remediation they receive. The informants of the study were the language teachers of Buenavista National High School. These teachers are selected purposively as those who have encounter in remedial instruction for language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens. The data were gathered through interviews with the informants. The study revealed that language teachers conducting remedial instruction in language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens face dire situations on insufficiency in terms of background knowledge on language disfluencies, time, and resources for remediation. Another problem that they face is the learners attitude toward remedial instruction as well as parental or stakeholder support. Weak retention of the learners, insignificant change in the learning behavior and the use of colloquial words also contribute to the unwanted scenario of students undergoing remediation. Language teachers conduct remedial instruction in language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens through utilizing various teaching strategies, going back to the basics, having awareness on learner diversity, seeking parental or stakeholder support, exemplifying passion for teaching, and having an encouraging class environment. Learners progress in such kind of remediation through the use of language in praxis or utilizing the communicative language teaching by teachers where students use language practically. Learners as well show activeness in the class knowing that they both share the same learning pace among peers. Most importantly, learners progress due to the acceptance and understanding of the teachers on the type of learners they have. Mick Mars P. Silvano, LPT, Maelt | Evelyn C. Bandoy, LPT, EdD "Remedial Instruction in Language Disfluencies in the Non-Psycho-Expert Lens" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-2 , February 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd20303.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/20303/remedial-instruction-in-language-disfluencies-in-the-non-psycho-expert-lens/mick-mars-p-silvano-lpt-maelt
Implementing a RTI Model for ELL: An Urban Case StudyClaudia Rinaldi
THis session will provide present the implementation of an RTI model in urban schools with large percentage of ELL. Student Achievement in reading and teacher perceptions of implementation will be presented.
Factors Affecting Language Learning StrategiesRiduan Huda
There are a host of factors which appear to influence the use of language learning strategies by language learners. These factors may be sociocultural, situational or related to the personality of the language learner. Some factors are said to affect the type of learning strategy used by the language learner, whilst other factors are said to affect frequency of use of particular learning strategies. In this presentation. I will describe only five factors affecting language learning strategies.
The Bridging Process: Filipino Teachers’ View on Mother TongueRSIS International
This paper recognized that teachers play the main
element in the success of the new language policy, the Mother
Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) in the
Philippines. Their views as implementer on this approach are
essential in the attainment of the MTB-MLE objectives. In this
descriptive paper, the authors report a comprehensive account of
the 35 teachers’ perception on the efficiency and effectiveness of
MTB approach in teaching at Malvar Central School, Batangas,
Philippines for the school year 2016-2017. Using adopted
questionnaire, needed data were gathered and statistically
treated. The study found out that the respondents moderately
perceived mother tongue- based approach as effective and
efficient in achieving learning goals. The implications of these
findings are discussed within the theoretical and practical issues
surrounding the use of mother tongue-based in the Philippines
The Effects of Instructional Materials on Students’ Performance in English La...AJHSSR Journal
: This research is designed to investigate effects of Instructional Materials on students’ performances
in English Language in secondary schools in Katagum Zone, Bauchi State, Nigeria. It is also aimed at finding out
why some teachers do not use Instructional Materials to teach English Language. In the study, one hundred students
have been randomly selected from selected public and private secondary schools in Katagum Zone consisting of
fifty male and fifty female students to constitute the sample. The sample size was divided into group viz,
experimental and control groups. English Language was taught to the experimental group on a series of lessons
using most suitable, appropriate and available Instructional Materials while the control group was taken through the
same lesson without the utilization of any Instructional Materials. After the experiment students taught with
Instructional Materials performed better than the control group not taught with Instructional Materials. It also shows
there is no significant difference in the performance of gender taught using Instructional Materials. Based on above
findings, some recommendations that could bring about improvement on the performance of students, teachers
school authorities, NGOs and governments have been made.
The purpose of this study is to determine if there were relationships among learning style
preference, gender and English language performance of EFL Libyan secondary school students
in Malaysia. Specifically, the study was guided by three research questions focused on Libyan
student’s level of performance in EFL class in Malaysia, their learning styles and gender, and the
relationship between students’ learning styles and their English language performance. There has
been a limited number of studies on Libyan secondary schools’ student studying in Malaysia.
This study was a correlational study involving 108 Libyan secondary school students in Malaysia.
Data was analysed using the statistical package for Social Science (SPSS, version 20.0). The
results showed that most learners who participated in this study had a medium proficiency level
in the English language and majority of the Libyan students preferred independent learning style.
It was found that there was a difference in the learning styles preferred by female and male
secondary school students. The study also revealed that there was no significant relationship
between students’ overall learning styles and their English language performance and.
Recommendations were offered. Future researches could use more than one school to obtain
accurate results and could also focus on gender biases.
An Assessment of Reading Ability among Pre-School Children in Elgeyo Marakwet...paperpublications3
Abstract: Teaching reading and success in reading ability is therefore important for young learners. However, the ability for teachers to teach reading is not well documented. Little research has been conducted on teachers’ competence and attitudes towards reading ability among learners at preschool level. The objective of this study was to asses reading ability among Pre-School Children in Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya. The theory of planned behaviour and education production function theory guided the study. The study employed the mixed methods approach. An explanatory research design was used. The target population was all the 1252 pre-school teachers in Elgeyo Marakwet County Kenya. Multistage random sampling technique was used to select the participating schools and individual teachers. A sample size of 294 schools was used. The instruments utilised were questionnaires, and observation schedules. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The study results indicated that the pre-school children reading ability was poor. The study therefore recommended that pre-school teachers be trained to improve their competency in English phonology as to improve the reading ability of pre-school children.
Keywords: English Phonology, Teacher Competency, Reading Ability.
Title: An Assessment of Reading Ability among Pre-School Children in Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya
Author: Muthoni Bilhah Kiptoo, Prof. Khaemba Ongeti, Prof. J.K. Too
ISSN 2349-7831
International Journal of Recent Research in Social Sciences and Humanities (IJRRSSH)
Paper Publications
Remedial Instruction in Language Disfluencies in the Non-Psycho-Expert Lensijtsrd
This qualitative case study discovered and explored the plights of languages teachers conducting remedial instruction in language disfluencies, the way teachers conduct remedial instruction in language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens, and the way learners progress in the kind of remediation they receive. The informants of the study were the language teachers of Buenavista National High School. These teachers are selected purposively as those who have encounter in remedial instruction for language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens. The data were gathered through interviews with the informants. The study revealed that language teachers conducting remedial instruction in language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens face dire situations on insufficiency in terms of background knowledge on language disfluencies, time, and resources for remediation. Another problem that they face is the learners attitude toward remedial instruction as well as parental or stakeholder support. Weak retention of the learners, insignificant change in the learning behavior and the use of colloquial words also contribute to the unwanted scenario of students undergoing remediation. Language teachers conduct remedial instruction in language disfluencies in the non-psycho-expert lens through utilizing various teaching strategies, going back to the basics, having awareness on learner diversity, seeking parental or stakeholder support, exemplifying passion for teaching, and having an encouraging class environment. Learners progress in such kind of remediation through the use of language in praxis or utilizing the communicative language teaching by teachers where students use language practically. Learners as well show activeness in the class knowing that they both share the same learning pace among peers. Most importantly, learners progress due to the acceptance and understanding of the teachers on the type of learners they have. Mick Mars P. Silvano, LPT, Maelt | Evelyn C. Bandoy, LPT, EdD "Remedial Instruction in Language Disfluencies in the Non-Psycho-Expert Lens" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-2 , February 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd20303.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/20303/remedial-instruction-in-language-disfluencies-in-the-non-psycho-expert-lens/mick-mars-p-silvano-lpt-maelt
Education, discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization (e.g., rural development projects and education through parent-child relationships).
(Read Arne Duncan’s Britannica essay on “Education: The Great Equalizer.”)
Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists term socialization or enculturation. Children—whether conceived among New Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance Florentines, or the middle classes of Manhattan—are born without culture. Education is designed to guide them in learning a culture, molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood, and directing them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures, there is often little formal learning—little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes or teachers. Instead, the entire environment and all activities are frequently viewed as school and classes, and many or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed on from one generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know, and, hence, there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The outcome is formal education—the school and the specialist called the teacher.
As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily life, less a matter of showing and learning in the context of the workaday world, and more abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling, and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and imitating. As society gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger generation. In short, there develop philosophies and theories of education.
Britannica Money Britannica Money
Money basics for kids: 5 skills to teach them now
This article discusses the history of education, tracing the evolution of the formal teaching of knowledge and skills from prehistoric and ancient times to the present, and considering the various philosophies that have inspired the resulting systems. Other aspects of education are treated in a number of articles. For a treatment of education as a discipline, including educational organization, teaching methods, and the functions and training of teachers, see teaching; pedagogy; and teacher education. For a description of education in various specialized fields, see historiography; legal education; medical education; sci
After School Program in Partnership with EkStep: An Experiment by Mantra4ChangeEkStepFoundation
Mantra4Change, conducted an interesting experiment to study the effectiveness of technology in improving learning outcomes. They designed a one-month pilot that would involve teaching children English on a tablet, using the Genie app provided by e-learning platform EkStep. The objectives of the experiment were to improve learning outcomes, use after-school hours profitably and increase parents’ investment in their children’s education. What were the outcomes? Read all about the experiment in this report.
Research topic Comparing the effect of paired versus repeat.docxbrittneyj3
Research topic: Comparing the effect of paired versus repeated reading on improving Saudi EFL students' reading fluency.
Introduction
Fluency reading in one of acquired skill that is significantly important in formal communication. The art of reading involves coordination of brain functions and eyes. However, fluency in reading is an improved skill that can acquired through practice. People with physical or mental impairment might have difficulty in reading. All students in a class have distinct reading abilities. In prompting their fluency in reading, the two methods is applied; paired and repeated reading. In paired reading, two or more students are grouped and subjected to similar reading material assessing the reading pattern for each. Every student here will exhibit a unique reading style to compete with others. On the other hand, in repeated reading, students with fluency reading difficulties are subjected to repeat reading exercise in which assessment in done on every stage acquainting the level of fluency (Gorsuch, & Taguchi, 2008).
Saudi Arabia is an Arabic speaking nation. Their countries first language is Arabic. Their English learning experience is greatly hampered by reading difficulty since it’s a foreign (second) language. A study done in one of Saudi EFL teachers college showed that the student had a significant interest in learning how to improve their reading experience. It was discovered that, at least 20% of those interested in English, had a significant competitive experience in acquiring the standard rate of fluency in reading (Williams, 2013). Some of the factors highlighted as leading impediment to the improved fluency reading were; difficulty in understanding the meaning of the text, spelling and pronunciation problems, difficulty in scanning and skimming, limited vocabulary, syntactic parsing difficulty among others.
There are many ways of enhancing fluency reading skills. These skills can better be improved during younger ages of the reader. However, fluency in reading can be improved by training children to read aloud. These provide a clear model for fluent reading during elementary periods of learning ( Chang,2010) . Fluency can also be enhanced when learners listens to an audio recording and systematically listening along the audio. It can also be attained through practice sight words using playful activities.
Learners can enhance their reading fluency through training and performance in reading theaters or spoken word competitions. ( Al-Otaibi, 2004), choral reading is a practice by which the teacher reads an enlarged text several time until the leaner’s master the text and can fluently read it on their own. This is also another way of improving fluency reading( Kuhn , 2015 ). The prime purpose in this study is to compare the significance of the two basic methods of improving fluency among the EFL students and how the counteracting effects on the methods.
Problem o.
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Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
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The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
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Wong ratcliff effects of the reading first program on acquisition of early literacy skills nfaerj v23 numbwe
1. NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
VOLUME 23, NUMBER 3, 2010
1
Effects of the Reading First Program on Acquisition of Early
Literacy Skills
Monica Wong-Ratcliff, Ed.D.
Assistant Professor
Texas A&M University Kingsville
Kingsville, TX
Sherlyn Powell, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
University of Louisiana Monroe
Monroe, LA
Glenda Holland, Ed.D.
Chair, Educational Leadership and Counseling
Texas A&M University Kingsville
Kingsville, TX
ABSTRACT
This study investigated effects of the Reading First program on first grade students’
literacy acquisition as measured by the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills (DIBELS). A matching procedure was used for three Reading First schools
and three non-Reading First schools in two rural schools districts in Louisiana. The
results showed that first grade Reading First students had better performances in
reading than non-Reading First students at the beginning of the school year.
However, differences in the adjusted means of DIBELS subtests (Nonsense Word
Fluency and Oral Reading Fluency) were not statistically significant at the end of
the school year. Also, all of the first graders in both Reading First and non-Reading
First schools demonstrated significant gains in reading skills. As school districts
required non-Reading First schools to implement some Reading First components in
reading instruction, the findings indicated that Reading First practices, which were
based on scientifically based reading research, helped produce positive reading
outcomes in both Reading First and non-Reading First classrooms.
2. NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
2____________________________________________________________________________________
The development of early literacy skills of young children, with or without
disabilities, has raised national concern (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). In 1997,
Congress mandated the National Reading Panel (the NRP or the Panel). The NRP was
charged to assess the status of research-based knowledge, including the effectiveness of
various approaches to teaching children to read (National Reading Panel, 2000). In
response to this Congressional mandate to identify key skills and methods essential to
reading achievement, the NRP issued a report in 2000 (National Reading Panel, 2000).
The Panel reviewed more than 100,000 research studies on reading, citing five key areas
of reading instruction that needed to be emphasized: (a) phonemic awareness, (b)
phonics, (c) fluency, (d) vocabulary, and (e) text comprehension. These five critical areas
of reading instruction were incorporated into the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act and
the Reading First (RF) initiative as essential components of effective reading instruction
(Learning Point Associates, 2004).
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and Reading First Initiative
Reading First (RF) was authorized under Title I, Part B, Subpart 1 of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as amended by the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act (Center for Child Development, 2006). The U.S. Department of Education
(ED) (2002) stated that the RF program is the academic cornerstone of NCLB. It is the
largest and most focused early reading initiative that the United States of America has
undertaken in history.
RF is designed to close the achievement gaps between different groups of students
by ensuring that more children receive effective reading instruction in the early grades
(Center for Child Development, 2006). The purpose of the RF program is to ensure all
children learn to read fluently by the end of third grade (U.S. Department of Education,
2002), thereby ensuring that every student can read at or above grade level by grade 4.
This goal was established because children who are not proficient readers by the end of
fourth grade are not likely to be proficient readers in their lifetime (Learning Point
Associates, 2004). As a result, it is more constructive to ensure that students are good
readers in the primary grades than to provide remedial reading instruction in higher
grades. The RF initiative provides guidance on several key elements, which can be
thought of as four “pillars” of an effective reading program (Learning Point Associates,
2004). The four pillars are: (a) valid and reliable assessments, (b) instructional programs
and aligned materials, (c) aligned professional development, and (d) dynamic
instructional leadership.
This study investigated effects of the RF program on acquisition of early literacy
skills of young readers. First grade student reading performances in RF schools were
compared with those in non-RF using Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
(DIBELS) subtests. The subtests were Letter Naming Fluency (LNF), Phoneme
Segmentation Fluency (PSF), Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF), and Oral Reading
Fluency (ORF). Specifically, differences in mean scores of the DIBELS Fall Benchmark
Assessment and differences in mean scores of the DIBELS Spring Benchmark
Assessment, between first grade students in the RF schools and those in the non-RF
3. MONICA WONG-RATCLIFF, SHERLYN POWELL, AND GLENDA HOLLAND
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schools were investigated. Additionally, we wanted to know whether children in RF
schools have higher gains in early literacy skills than those in non-RF schools as
measured by DIBELS and whether RF is effective in helping children to acquire reading
skills.
Methodology
The study was quasi-experimental with a nonequivalent control group pretest-
posttest. The pretests consisted of two DIBELS subtests administered during the Fall
Benchmark Assessment in School Year 2007-08: Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF),
and Non-sense Word Fluency (NWF), and one subtest administered in winter 2007: Oral
Reading Fluency (ORF). The subtests administered in the Spring Benchmark Assessment
were used as posttests. The first graders in the three Reading First (RF) schools served as
the experimental group, whereas students in the three non-Reading First (non-RF)
schools served as the control group.
A matching procedure was used for the schools in the research design. The RF
schools and non-RF schools had similar demographics and school performance scores.
The demographics included geographical location of the school districts, free or reduced
lunch percentage, socio-economic status, and ethnicity of the school population. The
sample consisted of 130 first grade students from three RF schools and 153 first grade
students from three non-RF schools.
Reading Instruction in RF and Non-RF Schools
RF schools. The RF school district adopted SRA/McGraw-Hill Open Court in
2005. The daily reading instruction and intervention were based on a three-tiered reading
model. The 130 first grade RF students received 120 minutes of core reading instruction
every day in inclusive classrooms where the whole group and small group instruction
were delivered. During the small group instructional time, the students worked at reading
centers, where differentiated instruction was delivered to each student in all 5 areas of
reading instruction.
Moreover, the RF schools had a 30-minute intervention block on their daily
schedule. The students who were at grade level worked on reading enrichment activities
while the teacher provided intervention for Tier 2 students who needed strategic
intervention. The students identified as at-risk in the DIBELS subtests received 30
minutes of intensive intervention from the reading interventionist or paraprofessional in
the inclusive classroom during this intervention block. Each group consisted of 3
students. The Voyager Passport was used as a supplementary reading program for
intensive intervention. All lessons were scripted and presented by paraprofessionals who
were trained by the publisher to deliver the intervention. The Tier 3 students received
another 30 minutes of intervention from the interventionist or paraprofessional during the
day in the reading lab.
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The reading coach and reading interventionist administered the DIBELS Ongoing
Progress Monitoring (OPM) every three weeks to determine whether a student was
responding adequately to intervention. The OPM was brief DIBELS measures. The
information from these assessments was used to create a progress chart recording the
reading performance of a student. The Florida Center for Reading Research (2006)
recommended that if a particular student was not demonstrating adequate progress as
determined by the aim line of OPM, the teacher modified the instruction in the student’s
reading program to accelerate reading achievement.
Non-RF schools. The non-RF school district used the Scott Foresman Reading
Program. The district changed its reading instructional strategies within the past three
years, from whole group to small group instruction. Reading centers were incorporated
into the reading block. Before School Year (SY) 2007-08, 160 minutes were utilized for
reading and English Language Arts/Writing instruction. In SY 2007-08, the school
district adopted some RF practices in its non-RF schools. Core reading instruction was
extended to 120 minutes for Reading and Spelling and 30 minutes for ELA/Writing.
DIBELS was used to identify instructional needs of the students.
Non-RF schools also followed the three-tiered instructional model. The school
district trained its paraprofessionals to become interventionists. Two non-RF schools
participating in this study utilized paraprofessionals to provide 30 minutes of intervention
to the Tier 2 students who needed strategic intervention. The non-RF schools also used
Voyager Passport as their supplementary reading program. Students identified as at-risk
received two 30-minute intensive intervention sessions from their classroom teacher. In
this way, they had 60 minutes of reading intervention a day.
The district assigned one reading coach to provide professional development for
classroom teachers in the non-RF schools. The certified teachers in non-RF schools
administered the OPM every two weeks to students who needed strategic and intensive
intervention. The district reading coordinator led an assessment team to conduct the
DIBELS benchmark assessments three times a year.
Instrumentation
The instrument used in this study was Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills (DIBELS), 6th Edition (Good & Kaminski, 2002). DIBELS contains various
subtests to measure the reading abilities of students (Moats, 2003). In this study, four first
grade DIBELS subtests were examined: (a) LNF, (b) PSF, (c) NWF, and (d) ORF. These
subtests were chosen because individualized instructional recommendations were based
on the subtest scores and the risk status of the students.
Letter Naming Fluency
Moats (2003) stated that Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) is a powerful indicator of
risk for reading failure. Students are presented with a random mixed of uppercase and
lowercase letters and asked to name them as many as they can within one minute. The
5. MONICA WONG-RATCLIFF, SHERLYN POWELL, AND GLENDA HOLLAND
____________________________________________________________________________________5
lowest 20% in a district are at high risk for failing to achieve literacy benchmarks,
whereas the group scores between the 20th
and 40th
percentiles are at some risk.
Phoneme Segmentation Fluency
Phonemic Segmentation Fluency (PSF) is a direct evaluation of phonemic
awareness (Moats, 2003). Moats asserted that by the end of kindergarten, most children
can separate and pronounce the sounds of a three-phoneme syllable. Those who cannot
may be exhibiting phonological processing difficulties, which is a warning sign for
reading difficulty. The examiner gives the student a word or syllable with three or four
phonemes and asks the student to say the individual sounds that make up the word. For
example, the examiner says “sat” and the student says /s/ /a/ /t/. The score is the number
of correct phonemes produced in one minute.
Nonsense Word Fluency
Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) is a standardized, individually administered
assessment of the alphabetic principle (Moats, 2003). This subtest measures a child’s
ability to link letters with sounds and use that knowledge to decode three-letter syllables
that form nonsense words. In this subtest, the child reads randomly ordered VC and CVC
words. The child receives credit for producing individual sounds or the correct
pronunciation of the word. For example, the examiner will give the child credit for
reading “raj” as a whole word or for saying /r/ /a/ /j/ in isolation.
Oral Reading Fluency
Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) is a standardized, individually administered
assessment of accuracy and fluency with connected text (Good, Kaminski, & Dill, 2002).
It consists of benchmark passages at each grade level to measure accuracy and speed in
oral reading. This subtest is used to identify children who need additional assessment and
intervention and progress monitoring in reading. Student performance is measured by
having students read a passage aloud for one minute.
Results
Fall Assessment
The study examined three DIBELS subtests that were administered in fall 2007:
Letter Naming Fluency (LNF), Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF), and Nonsense
Word Fluency (NWF). Using a one-way ANOVA, the LNF mean scores of RF schools
and non-RF schools showed the effect of the RF program was significant, F(1,281) =
45.586, p < .001. A significant difference existed for mean scores of PSF between RF
schools and non-RF schools (F(1, 281) = 29.947, p < .001). The ANOVA also showed
significant differences for mean scores of NWF between RF schools and non-RF schools
6. NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
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(F(1, 281) = 45.630, p < .001). The DIBELS subtests mean scores of first grade RF
students in the Fall Benchmark Assessment were significantly higher (p < .001) than
those of non-RF students. Effect sizes were small, ranging from .096 to .140. Means and
the standard deviations for Fall subtests are displayed in Table 1.
Table 1
One-Way ANOVA of Means of RF and Non-RF Schools for DIBELS Subtests in Fall 2007
RF Schools Non-RF Schools
Subtests N M SD N M SD F ES
(2
)
LNF 130 48.35 14.709 153 35.63 16.643 45.586*** .140
PSF 130 48.48 13.847 153 37.42 19.183 29.914*** .096
NWF 130 38.62 16.082 153 25.44 16.585 45.630*** .140
LNF = Letter Naming Fluency; PSF = Phoneme Segmentation Fluency; NWF =
Nonsense Word Fluency
*** p < .001
Spring Assessment
A univariate ANCOVA was conducted on the subtests administered in spring
2008 using mean scores in the Fall Benchmark Assessment as the covariate. The
ANCOVA results indicated that the Fall PSF mean score was a significant covariate, F(1,
280) = 36.936, p < .001. There was a significant difference between the group means of
PSF in the Spring Benchmark Assessment (F(1, 280) = 20.722, p < .001). The adjusted
mean of PSF in non-RF schools (Adjusted mean = 61.351) was numerically greater than
that of RF schools (Adjusted mean = 53.511). The difference between the adjusted means
was significant, favoring the non-RF schools (p < .001); however, the effect size was
small (.069).
The ANCOVA results showed that the Fall NWF mean score was a significant
covariate, F(1, 280) = 97.643, p < .001. However, the difference between the group
means of NWF in Spring Benchmark Assessment was not significant (F(1, 280) = 1.647,
p > .05). Table 2 displays adjusted means and standard errors of the subtest NWF
administered in spring 2008. The adjusted mean of NWF in RF schools (Adjusted mean =
71.079) was numerically greater than that of the non-RF schools (Adjusted mean =
67.417). However, the difference between means of NWF was not significant.
The ANCOVA results indicated that the Winter ORF mean score was a
significant covariate, F(1, 280) = 97.643, p < .001. However, the difference between the
7. MONICA WONG-RATCLIFF, SHERLYN POWELL, AND GLENDA HOLLAND
____________________________________________________________________________________7
group means of ORF in Spring Benchmark Assessment was not significant (F(1, 280) =
2.594, p > .05). Table 2 provides the adjusted means and the standard errors of the subtest
ORF administered in spring 2008. The adjusted mean of ORF in non-RF schools
(Adjusted mean = 46.657) was numerically greater than that of the RF schools (Adjusted
mean = 43.880). However, the difference between the means of ORF was not significant.
To summarize, the findings indicated no significant differences in the means of Spring
NWF and Spring ORF between RF schools and non-RF schools. However, the difference
between group means of Spring PSF was significant (p < .001), favoring non-RF schools.
Table 2
The Adjusted Means and Standard Errors of DIBELS Subtests in Spring 2008
RF Schools Non-RF Schools
Subtests N Posttest
Means
Adjusted
Means
SE N Posttest
Means
Adjusted
Means
SE Partial
Eta
Squared
PSF 130 48.48 53.511 1.238 153 59.87 61.351*** 1.137 .069
NWF 130 77.12 71.079 2.150 153 62.29 67.417 1.970 .005
ORF 130 53.22 43.880 1.237 153 38.72 46.657 1.135 .009
LNF = Letter Naming Fluency; PSF = Phoneme Segmentation Fluency; NWF =
Nonsense Word Fluency
*** p < .001
Gain Scores in Early Literacy Skills
Correlated t-tests were used to determine if there were gains in the scores of
DIBELS subtests between fall 2007 and spring 2008. Three subtests were examined: (a)
PSF, (b) NWF, and (c) ORF. First grade students in RF schools and non-RF schools
demonstrated noteworthy gains in their reading skills from fall 2007 to spring 2008. The
magnitude of improvement (effect sizes) for RF schools ranged from .452 (PSF) to 1.516
(ORF). The magnitude of improvement for non-RF schools ranged from 1.091 (PSF) to
1.708 (NWF). Tables 3 and 4 display the results.
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Table 3
Paired Samples Statistics for RF Schools on DIBELS Subtests
DIBELS
Subtests
Fall/Winter
2007
Spring
2008
Mean
Difference t
Degree
of
Freedom
p ES
PSF 48.48 55.25 6.769 5.155 129 .001*** .452
NWF 38.62 77.12 38.492 17.019 129 .001*** 1.493
ORF 33.81 53.22 19.415 17.288 129 .001*** 1.516
*** p < .001
Table 4
Paired Samples Statistics for Non-RF Schools on DIBELS Subtests
DIBELS
Subtests
Fall/Winter
2007
Spring
2008
Mean
Difference t
Degree
of
Freedom
p ES
PSF 37.42 59.87 22.444 13.496 152 .001*** 1.091
NWF 25.44 62.29 36.843 21.128 152 .001*** 1.708
ORF 18.22 38.72 20.503 17.244 152 .001*** 1.394
*** p < .001
Effectiveness of RF Program in Improving Reading Skills
As seen in Table 5, nearly 80% of first grade students in RF schools scored in the
Low Risk category in Fall LNF, which is a measure of alphabet recognition. Also, a high
percentage of students met the benchmark goals in PSF (89%) and NWF (85%).
Therefore, 88.5% of students were in the Benchmark – At grade level instructional
category in Fall 2007 (see Table 6). Across all subtests, the highest percentage of students
in the Low Risk/Established category was found in PSF, showing particular strength in
phonemic awareness. In spring 2008, 98% of the students met the benchmark goal.
Moreover, the students maintained similar performance in NWF. Eighty-five percent of
the students reached the benchmark goal in fall 2007 and spring 2008. As for the ORF,
about two thirds of the students met the benchmark goal on this subtest. In other words,
one third of the students demonstrated a need for additional instructional support or
intensive intervention to meet future benchmark goals. The instructional
recommendations matched the findings (see Table 6).
9. MONICA WONG-RATCLIFF, SHERLYN POWELL, AND GLENDA HOLLAND
____________________________________________________________________________________9
Table 5
Percentages of RF Students in Each Descriptive Level of Performance for Four DIBELS
Subtests
Fall Winter Spring
Letter
Naming
Fluency
(LNF)
At Risk 4%
Some Risk 18%
Low Risk 78%
Phoneme
Segmentation
Fluency
(PSF)
Deficit 4% Deficit 0%
Emerging 7% Emerging 2%
Established 89% Established 98%
Nonsense
Word
Fluency
(NWF)
At Risk 2% Deficit 2%
Some Risk 13% Emerging 13%
Low Risk 85% Established 85%
Oral
Reading
Fluency
(ORF)
At Risk 4% At Risk 9%
Some Risk 29% Some Risk 24%
Low Risk 67% Low Risk 67%
Table 6
Percentages of Students Categorized Under the Three Instructional Recommendations
RF Schools
Benchmark/ Instructional
Support
Fall Winter Spring
Intensive – Need Substantial
Intervention
.8% 9% 9%
Strategic – Additional
Intervention
10.7% 25% 24%
Benchmark – At grade level 88.5% 66% 67%
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Discussion
Acquisition of Early Literacy Skills
The DIBELS subtests mean scores of first grade RF students were significantly
higher than those of non-RF students in fall 2007. Students in RF schools demonstrated
better reading skills in alphabet recognition, phonemic awareness, and alphabetic
principles than students in non-RF schools. These findings were consistent with the
summer 2005 progress report on Louisiana RF program, which stated that kindergarten
students in Louisiana RF schools demonstrated a positive trend in reading performances
(Center for Child Development, 2005). Therefore, it was not surprising to find that first
grade RF students would have better reading performances than those students in non-RF
schools at the beginning of the school year.
Our research indicated that although the students in the non-RF schools started the
school year with significantly lower scores in the DIBELS subtests than those of the RF
schools, their reading skills improved during the school year, especially in phonemic
awareness. These findings support prior research which demonstrated that phonemic
awareness can be learned (National Reading Panel, 2000; O’Shaughnessy & Swanson,
2000; Schneider, Ennemoser, Roth, & Kusper, 1999; Torgesen, Alexander, Wagner,
Rashotte, Voeller, & Conway, 2001).
Gains in Early Literacy Skills
The findings indicated that both RF students and non-RF students demonstrated
significant gains in reading skills. These findings were consistent with recent studies
regarding extended reading instructional time and intervention (Coyne, Kame’enui,
Simmons, & Harn, 2004; Denton, Fletcher, Anthony, & Francis, 2006; Harn, Linan-
Thompson, & Roberts, 2008; Wanzek & Vaughn, 2008). Moreover, the findings of the
present study added another piece of evidence to previous research on the use of
paraprofessionals as intervention implementers (Allor & McCathren, 2004; Lane,
Fletcher, Carter, Dejud, & DeLorenzo, 2007; Vadasy, Jenkins, & Pool, 2000; Vadasy,
Sanders, & Peyton, 2006; Vadasy, Sanders, & Tudor, 2007).
Reading First and Acquisition of Early Literacy Skills
The findings of this study showed that no significant differences existed in
DIBELS adjusted means between RF and non-RF students in phonics skills and in oral
reading fluency by the end of the school year. Although the components of reading
instruction measured in this study were different from that of the Reading First Impact
Study: Interim Report, the findings were similar (Gamse, Bloom, Kemple, & Jacob,
2008). The Reading First Federal Advisory Committee contended that RF was “an
implementation project designed to disseminate what has been learned through research
to improve the reading achievement of students in high-poverty, low-performing schools”
(U.S. Department of Education, 2008, p. 7). It seemed likely that the effects of the RF
11. MONICA WONG-RATCLIFF, SHERLYN POWELL, AND GLENDA HOLLAND
____________________________________________________________________________________11
program were spread to non-RF schools in the Impact Study. However, to an extent, the
findings of the impact study could be interpreted as “a rather remarkable achievement of
the Reading First legislation: it does appear that the federally provided funds were
effectively leveraged by states and school districts in efforts to more broadly impact early
literacy learners attending their high needs schools” (U.S. Department of Education,
2008, p. 7). The Louisiana Literacy Plan was designed to address the learning needs and
improve the literacy rates of students in PK – adult education in the state (Louisiana
Department of Education, 2006). The plan stated that “the instructional model, research-
based programs and strategies, and professional development components are highly
aligned with the model used in Louisiana’s Reading First model” (p. 4).
The spreading of the effects of the RF program to non-RF schools was inevitable.
Shanahan (2008) contended that if the RF schools and the comparison group schools
were engaged in similar practices, why would people expect outcome differences in one
of the groups? Therefore, instead of concluding that the treatment did not work, perhaps
the treatment worked in both sets of classrooms. From this perspective, the findings of
the present study provided evidence that the reading instructional strategies and
interventions that were based on scientifically based reading research (SBRR) helped
improve the reading skills of young children in both the RF schools and the “less” RF
schools. The findings also supported the contentions made by the Reading First Federal
Advisory Committee that the dissemination efforts of the RF program were successful
(U.S. Department of Education, 2008).
High percentages of students maintained the Low Risk/Established category
throughout the school year as measured by the DIBELS LNF, NWF, and PSF indicators.
Specifically, 98% of the students met the benchmark goal in PSF and 0% of the students
were identified as at-risk. The results indicated that the students would have a low risk of
future reading difficulties in the areas of alphabetic principle, phonics, and phonemic
awareness.
The percentage of the students achieving the benchmark goal in oral reading
fluency remained the same at the end of the school year (67%). These findings were
consistent with Louisiana’s Reading First Program: 2007 Annual Evaluation Report,
where 60% of first grade RF students achieved the benchmark goal in Louisiana (Center
for Child Development, 2007). The overall findings indicated the RF program met the
learning needs of children in early literacy acquisition.
Conclusions
This study confirmed that the Reading First (RF) program met learning needs of
young children in early literacy acquisition. With the widespread partial replication of the
RF practices in non-RF schools, this study provided evidence that the practices produced
similar results in both sets of classrooms. The first graders in both the RF and non-RF
schools demonstrated significant gains in their reading skills. The findings were
consistent with the recent research regarding extended reading instructional time and
intervention (Coyne, Kame’enui, Simmons, & Harn, 2004; Denton, Fletcher, Anthony, &
Francis, 2006; Harn, Linan-Thompson, & Roberts, 2008; Wanzek & Vaughn, 2008).
12. NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
12____________________________________________________________________________________
Moreover, from a legislative perspective, RF was a federal initiative which
disseminated research-based reading instructional strategies into high-poverty, low-
performing schools to help improve reading achievement (U.S. Department of Education,
2008). The findings indicated that the dissemination efforts of the RF program were
successful.
Implications for Practice
This research established that extended instructional time and intervention lead to
successful reading outcomes for young children. This study provided evidence that
DIBELS is an effective tool to identify and assign students to tiered-based intervention.
In addition, well-trained paraprofessionals are effective intervention implementers in
early literacy acquisition.
Furthermore, this study confirmed that the dissemination efforts of the Reading
First (RF) program were successful. The researchers support the recommendations made
by the Reading First Federal Advisory Committee to the members of Congress and other
policy-makers which include: (a) continuing to provide funding for RF, (b) incorporating
funding and authority for rigorous evaluations in future legislation, and (c) extending and
improving innovative plans that were part of the RF legislation (U.S. Department of
Education, 2008).
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