White Line Follower.pptxWhite Line FollowerByFawaz Alana.docx

White Line Follower.pptx
White Line Follower
By
Fawaz Alanazi
Fawaz
motor control
Motor Control
The H bridge was chosen as a method of controlling the motors
as it supplies efficient control over forwards and backwards on
each motor.
The image shows a basic diagram of a h bridges when all the
switches are open there is no current going through the H bridge
and the motor does not move.

The diagram above shows the 4 switching elements namely low
side left, low side right, high side left and high side right. The
motor changes its direction according to the element that is
switched on. For example, if the switch of high side left and
low side right is turned on then the motor will rotate forward as
with the flow of the current to the ground through motor coil.
the h-bridge is preferred for interfacing DC motor with the
microcontroller for the control of direction of the rotation and
speed of the motor. H-bridge the name is derived from the real
shape of the circuit of the motor. The h-bridge has 4 switching
elements which are shown.
3
H -BRIDGE
It is an electronic circuit which enable voltage to be applied
across a load in either direction.
It allows a circuit full control over standard electronic DC
motor. That is with an H- bridge , logic chip
H- bridges are available as integrate circuits.

4
How the motor operates
The red line shows the current path if the top right and the
bottom left switches are closed. This will send the motor
spinning in one direction for example forward. If the opposite
switches were to be closed then the motor would go into
reverse.
5
table for directionH BRIDGE INPUT
PIN Direction1234FWD1001REV0110LEFT1000RIGHT0001
H-bridge driver IC L293D
The outputs in L293D are motors which consist of 2 inputs and

2 outputs each. Motor 1 has the input 1 and 2 and motor 2 has
the inputs 3 and 4. Likewise, the motor 1 has outputs 1 and 2
and motor 2 has outputs 3 and 4. Logic 1 and enable 1 will
enable the inputs 1 and 2 and outputs 1 and 2 which means
motor 1. Furthermore, enable 2 will enable inputs and outputs 3
and 4 which are motor 2.
7
L293D
It is a dual H-bridge motor driver.
Can control two motors.
16 pins.
Out put current of 600 mA and peak output current 1.2 per
channel.
Power supply can be as large as 36 volts.
for protection of circuit from back EMF output diodes are
included within the L293D.
Circuit Connections
Pin 1 and 9 are the 2 enable pins in which pin 1 enables motor 1
and pin 9 enables motor 2. The L293D has four output pins
connected to its input terminals and various logics can be

provided to control the motor’s direction. The motor 1 would be
connected across output 1 and 2 which are pin 3 and 6 while the
motor 2 would be connected across output 3 and 4 which are
pins 11 and 14. Pins 4, 5, 12 and 13 are connected to the ground
while pins 16 and 8 are connected to VCC=5V.
The diagram below shows the L293D’s circuit connections.
9
? ? ? ? ? ?
Questions
SUGGESTED STRUCTURE FOR GROUP PROJECT REPORT
The following information is a revised subset of the Major
Project Handbook given to Year 3 BEng students, however, its
revision means that it may also be used, in revised form, for the
Group Project report.
The following is meant to be a guide to help you, not a straight-
jacket. Each major section should be present in some way,
although not necessarily in a chapter of its own. The chapter
layout must be appropriate to each particular project.
Referencing:
A significant guide to referencing is included in appendices 4
and 5. Note that your External Examiner is keen to ensure we,
as staff, take particular note of the quality and accuracy of your
referencing; so you should too.
.

1. TITLE
· Title of work
· Full name of student
· Name of Supervisor
· Date of submission
Example:
A Study of the use of Wireless
Underwater Sensor Networks in Swansea Bay
by
Joe Bloggs
Supervisor: Dr Kapilan Radhakrishnan
April 2014
2. DECLARATION FORM (see Appendix 1)
This states that the candidate is the author of the Project and the
work contained therein has been done by the candidate.
3. ABSTRACT(1 page or around 300 words)
The abstract is shortsummary of the entire project. It should
summarise the important points and should include:

a) The overall aims and objectives.
b) A summary of the methods used.
c) A summary of the major findings and/or deliverables.
d) A statement of conclusions and recommendations.
Keep it concise. The idea of the Abstract is that someone could
read it and decide from it whether it would be worth their while
to read the whole report. Although it’s the first thing that
appears in the report, it is the last thing to be written.
4. CONTENTS PAGE
Show the main chapter and the sub-chapters. Also provide a List
of Tables/Figures.
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
This chapter should start off by setting the context for the work:
· What is the project about? What are the initial aims and
objectives for the project?
· Aim - what is the overall research question you're trying to
answer?
· Objectives - what are the actions you're going to take to try to
satisfy the aim?
· A brief description of what is coming up in the following
chapters (this should be the final paragraph of the introduction).
Usually, you start with a very broad statement of the problem
and refine that down to more specific items. Unless yours is a
problem area with which all readers of your report will be
familiar (very unlikely), you will want to describe the problem
in some detail and give sufficient background information so
that everyone can understand it.

You should then describe the objectives, aims or goals of your
particular piece of work. Your overall aim was presumably to
solve a particular problem or to answer a particular question.
This could be broken down into a number of specific objectives
that together work towards achieving the aim.
The introduction should end with a section that leads the reader
in to the rest of the report. The important thing is to give your
reader a clear picture of what your report is setting out to do.
CHAPTER 2 - RESEARCH & REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Year 2 projects should include some element of review and
scholarly research. Your work is done in the context of an
academic discipline; Electronics. Show how your project fits
into the framework of that discipline by reviewing books and
papers describing the problem you are trying to solve and
potential solutions to the problem.
The listing below is probably too detailed for a Group Project,
however, it gives you enough detail to help you to consider
what you might include.
· What other research has been done in your field?
· Who did this research?
· What were their results?
· How do these results relate to other researchers' work in the
field?
· Split the literature review into sections, each looking at a
different part of the research problem
· Write an introductory paragraph at the start of the chapter that
briefly describes the sections
· Write a concluding paragraph at the end of the chapter that

briefly sums up the most important points.
The Literature Review gives your reader sufficient background
knowledge for them to be able to appreciate later why the
approach you took was valid or best. Since they may not be
familiar with either the problem or the possible solutions or
both, you need to provide them with a basic grounding in the
important and relevant material. This does not, however, mean
that you should include a detailed tutorial.
You also need to demonstrate that you considered a number of
possible solutions to the problem and that you took a range of
material into account. This part of the review usually
summarises quite succinctly approaches that have been taken by
other people in similar situations. Some will have been
successful and some not, and this should be indicated. It is
perfectly all right to express justified disagreement with
something you’ve read - “criticism” is often an excellent feature
of a review.
The most important attribute that your review should possess is
relevance.
It is strongly recommended that a first draft of this section is
developed in the first term.
CHAPTER 3 - RESEARCH AND/OR DEVELOPMENT
METHODOLOGY
This section is overly detailed for Year 2 Group Project,
however, it has been left in for you to get a flavour of what’s to
come on a degree course, if applicable to you. You should try to
address at least some of the ideas presented here.
Research Methodology

Here you explain in detail the what, why and how of the
procedures you used in order to generate the solution to the
idea.
The rule is to describe your method in sufficient detail to allow
the reader to replicate your study. What research
methodology/methodologies did you use - experimental
(hypothesis testing), investigative, action, survey, case-study
etc? Do not include a review of all possible methods that could
be used – the reader is interested in what method you chose and
why.
For each of the layers of the research onion, decide which
method you intend to use and explain:
· Why you have chosen that method
· What are the advantages of that method to your project
· If there are any disadvantages to the method then how will you
work around them?
Also indicated what evaluation criteria are to be used? What
methods of testing and statistical analysis are to be used?
Development Methodology (for Development-based Projects)
· For your given design and construction project explain:
· Why you have chosen your particular method of
implementation
· What are the advantages of that method to your project
· If there are any disadvantages to the method then how you will
work around them.
· What software/hardware are you going to use, and why is it
appropriate for the project?
· Do you need any particular hardware, and if so why?

· Materials and Tools. eg why are you using a particular
package or language to design and develop your software?
CHAPTER 4 - DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION
This is a major section which describes your deliverable. It may
be a hardware or software artefact.This may span more than one
chapter and will have title(s) which reflect its content.
Design
If you’ve built something to solve a problem, you had to make
some design decisions along the way. Why did you choose to do
something one way rather than another? Why did you choose to
include one thing but leave out something else? Which factors
did you think were most important and which did you choose to
ignore?
Don’t just list your decisions; place them in a context. It should
be possible for the reader to understand how your design
decisions contributed to meeting your objectives. Also
important is that you show the method by which you
accomplished your design - “process” is as important as
“product” to an engineer.
· What processes did you use?
· How did they contribute to ensuring that what you did was
complete/consistent/correct?
It should be possible for the reader to understand how your
design decisions contributed to meeting your objectives. Also
important is that you show the method by which you
accomplished your design - “process” is as important as

“product” to an engineer. What processes did you use? How did
they contribute to ensuring that what you did was
complete/consistent/correct? Don’t just write about what you
did, or how you did it. Why you did it is most important.
The starting point for your design is, of course, your
requirements. In some projects the requirements are specified in
advance. The customer provides a document that (in more or
less detail) specifies the behaviour of the item to be
constructed. More commonly, the customer has a more vague
“need” for something, and it is part of the project itself to refine
that into a more detailed set of requirements. A project that
doesn’t have a written set of requirements is not a very good
one, though it would not be normal to describe the requirements
in much detail in the body of the report. It is better to include
the requirements specification document as an appendix to your
report. If a detailed discussion of how you elicited, analysed
and specified the requirements is necessary, (for “necessary”,
read interesting and relevant), it could be a separate chapter
before this one.
The “design” stage is often held to be the key stage of your
project. It is certainly the part of project reports that is most
closely looked at by external examiners! It is the one where you
can show off your ability to apply your engineering and
commercial knowledge and skills to best advantage. This is
precisely what you will be doing in your working life if your
chosen career is in any way related to your degree.
Implementation
After you designed your solution to your problem, you
implemented it. This section normally describes how you did
that. What tools and techniques did you use? What difficulties
did you encounter, and how did you overcome them?
This chapter of your report should only address issues that are

interesting. Mundane details about how the program is
structured should be left out. On the other hand, if you
developed something new or applied an old technique in a new
way, then that is of interest and should be included.
If, in your project, you designed something but did not build it,
there may still be scope for an equivalent to this chapter, in that
you could discuss issues that would probably arise during future
implementation and provide advice on how potential problems
could best be prevented or solved.
Involving potential users of the system in the evaluation is
always a good idea, where applicable. If this can be done in a
simulation of the real environment, then so much the better.
Feedback from users which is structured is more useful than
their verbal comments.
CHAPTER 5 – EVALUATION
Evaluation usually comes in one of two forms: either you
compare what you did with your objectives, or you can compare
what you did with what someone else did.
· What conclusions can be drawn from your data?
· Did your data back up the research in your literature review or
disagree with it?
· Did you meet your objectives? If not, why not?
· Did you meet your aim? If not, why not?
· Overall, are the answers what you would expect? If not then
why not?
· If you were to do it again, what would you do differently?
CHAPTER 6 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

· This section should summarise everything you've done
· Does your project suggest any further avenues for research?
This chapter is where you tie up all the loose ends in the
previous chapters. It is most important that it relates to what
you have described previously, and that it does so in a relevant
and concise fashion.
In your summing-up, you need to show how what you did
contributed to meeting the objectives you set in the
introduction. In doing so, it is appropriate to repeat (in
summary form) key points from your review, design,
implementation and evaluation as necessary.
Any further work that can, or should, be undertaken to expand
upon your work is to be highlighted, fully explained and
justified. The benefits gained from your work should be
identified (these are notto include personal benefits). Also, any
recommendations should be included here.
It is perfectly OK to have some loose ends left at the end of a
project. Sometimes there will be aspects you simply did not
have time to address. Other times there will be things that you
were unable to do because of force of circumstances. Above all,
there will have been pointers raised during the course of the
project that you did not anticipate and were not within your
scope to tackle. All these things can be discussed in this chapter
and, where further work can be identified, a distinct sub-
section, “Suggestions for further work”, should be included.
CHAPTER 7 – REFLECTION
The key question here is:
· What did you learn while doing the project? How did it change
you as a person?

You will need to reflect upon the work that you’ve done and
there is a specific mark allocated to this in the marking scheme.
Reflection is the process of looking back at something which
has happened in order to show what you have learned from it.
The purpose of reflective writing is to help you learn from a
particular practical experience. It will help you to make
connections between the documented theory and what you did in
practice. Through reflection, you should be able to make sense
of what you did and help yourself to do a superior job next
time. Put simply - could you have done it better and, if so, how?
CHAPTER 8 – REFERENCES
A list of references (work directly quoted or paraphrased in
your text) and its source. For more information on this, see
Appendices 4 and 5.
CHAPTER 9 – BIBLIOGRAPHY
A list of background reading undertaken, but not necessarily
directly quoted in the text.
APPENDICES
Appendices to a report contain information that, while not
important or interesting enough to be included in the body of
the report, is nevertheless relevant. Common examples include
program source code, program documentation, intermediate
documents. Your report stands alone without these, but the
reader may occasionally wish to refer to them.
The key word here is “occasionally”. If it is crucial to read
something in order to understand some point being made in the
report, then that “something” should be replicated in the body
of the report.
· Test data used to evaluate the product.

· Tables too detailed for the main text
· Technical notes
· Copies of documents not generally available but referred to in
the report
(Note: If you have a lot of program source code, do not print it
all out, instead provide it on a CD or DVD)
8.2 GENERAL POINTS ABOUT REPORT
8.2.1 Spelling and Grammar
You should take care to present your work in an attractive,
legible format.
Spelling and grammar should always be checked as part of the
proof reading process. A poor standard of spelling will create a
poor impression to the reader and will invariably be marked
down as will poor sentence construction and punctuation. Be
careful when using the spell checker on the word processing
package that it is set to UK English and notUS English.
8.2.2 Word Limit
The Project documentation has a word limit of 5,000-10000
words. Other relevant material, eg code listings, may be
included in appendices and are not subject to the word limit.
The word limit is set for the following reasons:
a) The discipline to write at this length is considerable. It is a
substantial piece of academic work yet it requires good editorial
skills to avoid excessive length.

b) It encourages incisiveness and a good grasp of
technical/theoretical
issues to bring them into sharp focus.
c) It necessitates a tight definition of the topic.
d) It necessitates a meaningful analysis of the relevant literature
not a mere
listing of sources with brief comments.
e) It necessitates communication of complex ideas in clear and
precise fashion.
Condensing a lot of information/ ideas into a well-structured
answer within the word limit is a real skill. It shows you have
the ability to sift information, construct an argument, and
express yourself succinctly. If you have difficulty "pruning"
material to fit a word limit, remember that economy of words
and clarity of expression are important. Sometimes, it may be
useful to create footnotes/endnotes or appendices so that you
can refer to information without losing the thrust of your
argument.
8.2.3 Style Requirements
You should make sure that the final submitted versions of your
work conform with the following specifications. If in any doubt,
consult your supervisor or the Project Co-ordinator.
· White, A4 paper in portrait format to be used. Seek guidance
for illustrative material.
· Black word-processed print to be used. The font chosen for the
main body of the finished work should be easy to read. eg
Times New Roman, Arial, Calibri.
· Text should be double-spaced (or 1.5 spaced) and printed one
side of page only.

· For successful binding, the left margin on each sheet should
not be less than 40 mm, other margins to be not less than 20
mm.
· Pages should be numbered consecutively throughout the main
text (including appendices) Numbering should be bottom centre
of each page, approximately 10 mm away from the edge.
· Each chapter should begin on a separate page.
· Illustrative material should be arranged near the appropriate
text. Where possible, avoid the use of folding/oversized
material.
· Tables or figures should be given a number, a title and a
source if not derived from original research work. As with other
illustrative material, they should be placed as close as possible
to any text reference and referred to by their number in the text.
8.2.4 Assessment
The breakdown of marking criteria is shown in the Group
Project Module specification in the Student Handbook. In
arriving at an assessment mark, a number of factors will be
taken into account by the markers, some of which are listed
below, however, for this project the assessment will not be as
rigorously applied as for the final Degree Dissertation. Use the
information below as a guide.
· The original aims and objectives of the Project were clear,
satisfactory at honours degree level, and had been fully met.
· The relationship between the current and previous research in
the topic area was defined, with similarities and differences
considered.
· The methodology employed was appropriate and applied in a
suitable manner. Where knowledge was gathered from external
sources valid and reliable methods were used. Critical use was
made of published work and source materials.

· Due credit was given to previous workers for ideas and
techniques used by other authors. There is a clear appreciation
of the relationship of the special theme to the wider field of
knowledge. Where a conceptual framework was used/developed,
use was made of it in a systematic way.
· The document was organised in a logical manner and the style
is attractive.
· The ideas presented and software developed display original
and creative thought.
· The work opens up possibilities for future projects and
research.
· A working system that meets the requirements laid down in
the project specification was developed.
· The system produced was evaluated through the application of
appropriate test data.
· The challenging nature of the project.
· The degree to which the project is original, creative and
interesting.
· The quality, reliability, timeliness and maintainability of the
deliverable.
The more of the following your report has, the lower the mark it
will attract:
· errors of fact;
· vague aims and objectives;
· vague requirements for artefacts;
· unexplained or ill-judged design decisions;
· little or no analysis, solely descriptive;
· trite conclusions;
· misinterpretations of literature;
· development of poor quality artefacts;
· work that was facile;
· little evidence of work done by the student;
· spelling mistakes, poor grammar, odd structure, crazy layout.

Some of the above are mutually dependent – a project with
weak practical outcomes is likely to be weak on conclusions as
well.
8.2.5 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is defined as the unacknowledged use of another's
work as if it were one's own. To illustrate, if you when you are
evaluating the state of the art of a subject area you come across
a really good section in a textbook or research journal that made
a salient point and you copied it without acknowledgement, that
would be plagiarism. So using the words of another author, or
even using figures from elsewhere, without saying where they
came from is a serious academic offence. What you are doing
really amounts to theft of another person's intellectual property
and deception in trying to pass it off as your own work. This is
regarded as very serious.
The following are clear examples of plagiarism:
· Using directly quoted material without placing it within
quotation marks (or indenting and single spacing the quote);
· Paraphrasing the work of an author and attempting to pass it
off as your own by not including a citation;
· Submitting the work of someone else as if it is your own.
· Incorporating a piece of program code within your solution
without reference to the source.
· Inability to defend written work in a viva situation.
You can, of course use the ideas, program code and data of
others - there is no problem if you acknowledge the source.
That is why the referencing system is so important. See
Appendices 4 and 5 for more detail on this.
Plagiarism is a serious matter and will not be tolerated.

Disciplinary action will be taken against transgressors.
8.2.6 Handing in your Project Report
· Students must submit two copies of their project
documentation. A CD/DVD/memory stick with source code,
installation instructions etc. should also be supplied if required,
one with each copy of the document.
· Each copy of your report should have a signed copy of the
Declarations and the Form of Consent. These should be included
just after the title page. A copy of the forms can be found in
Appendices 1 and 2.
· All projects must also be submitted through TurnItIn.
APPENDIX 4: REFERENCING CONVENTIONS
When you refer to a piece of work in an essay, report, program
or academic paper, you must give adequate bibliographic
information to allow the reader to trace the original document.
(For note on Plagiarism See Section 8.2.5). So, if you wish to
incorporate points made by another author or figures derived
from a survey or report, acknowledge the sources used in the
text of your project and give full details of the source in the
reference list at the end of your work.
A reference is usually in two parts:
1. a marker at the end of the text being quoted or referred to,
and
2. a complete citation in either a footnote or, more usually in
computer science, collected with other citations in a
“References” section at the end of your work.
Note sometimes you will find references at the foot of the page

rather than at the end of the work but it is simpler to provide an
alphabetical list at the end of the project.
The Numeric System
Citations use a sequential number scheme, with the citation
number enclosed in square brackets corresponding to the
appropriate reference provided at the end of the document.
Example :
In your work :
...... as Smith [14] has shown ......
...... blue has been shown [14] to be the best ......
In the Reference at the end :
[14] A. Smith, A Book Title, 2nd ed., Wiley, 2002
The numbering should be sequential as citations are used, the
first reference used in the document should begin with one, the
second is two, etc. If the same reference is used in the document
then you may repeat the previously assigned reference number
e.g.
In your work :
….. from Smith [1] we find that ……
….. Jones et al [2] also states …….
….. it has been shown [1] that ……
….. which matches similar findings [3] …..
…. other research [1][2][3] has proven …..
In the Reference at the end :

[1] A. Smith, A Book Title, 2nd ed., Wiley, 2002
[2] D. Jones, B. Thomas, Another Book Title, O’Reilly,
2004
[3] K. Smith, Yet Another Book Title, Chichester: Wiley,
2006
When using a reference you don’t explicitly need to specify the
author(s) name, but specifying the author’s name can increase
readability. Also, if many authors contributed to the book,
paper, etc, then identify the first author and use “et al” to
indicate that there were many contributors.
In your work :
….. it has been shown [2] that ……
….. Jones et al [2] also states …….
Quotations should be placed in quotes, italicized and tabbed
from the edge, with a clear reference to the source. In addition,
for clarity it is recommended that a single blank line be added
before and after the quotation
For example:
“It becomes clear that, in most cases, the goal of finding out
about people through interviewing is best achieved when the
relationship of interviewer and interviewee is non-hierarchical
and when the interviewer is prepared to invest his/her own
personal identity in the relationship” Bloggs et al [6]
The author’s name (Bloggs et al) in the above is optional but is
included for readability.
When should a citation be used?
1. All direct quotes must be cited.

2. Even when you have translated an author’s words into your
own (which you should make every effort to do), you must still
give them credit by including a citation. When an entire
paragraph of material is based on one author’s ideas, you only
need place one citation at the end of the paragraph. Exceptions
to this rule follow in (3) and (4).
3. All statistics that are cited require a citation immediately
following the sentence in which they appear.
4. All historical events and dates mentioned require a citation.
5. References should be included for all websites used.
Reference Information and Structure
All references should be added to a “References” section
included towards the end of the document.
The details which need to be included in references (author,
title, etc) depend on the type of publication you are citing
(articles, books, etc). For the commonest types of publication,
the examples below show the information you should give, as
well as the correct use of italics and punctuation.
Accessed from:
http://www.swan.ac.uk/lis/help_and_training/htmdocs/bibliogra
phic_referencing/numeric_referencing_examples.asp
There are a number of referencing systems but the Numeric
system is the system that MUST BE USED FOR THE Project.
For a full explanation and examples of the numeric systems see
Appendix 5.
APPENDIX 5: NUMERIC REFERENCING SYSTEM

Numeric Referencing Guidelines
The details which need to be included in references (author,
title, etc) depend on the type of publication you are citing
(articles, books, etc). For the commonest types of publication,
the examples below show the information you should give, as
well as the correct use of italics and punctuation.
Accessed from:
http://www.swan.ac.uk/lis/help_and_training/htmdocs/bibliogra
phic_referencing/numeric_referencing_examples.asp
Book
Author(s) or editor(s) of book | Title of book: and sub-title if
there is one (in italics) | Edition (if not the first) | Place of
publication | Publisher | Year of publication
Author(s) and Title should be given as they appear on the title
page inside the book. (The front cover may have less detail.)
Information such as the year, place of publication and publisher
is usually on the back of the title page.
Edition should be abbreviated: 2nd ed.
Place of publication is usually a town or city. For U.S. place
names, give the two-letter state abbreviation as well.
Examples
[1] W.-K. Chen, Linear Networks and Systems. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 1993.
[2] S. Lin and D. J. Costello, Jr., Error Control Coding:
Fundamentals and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1983.
[3] G. C. Clark, Jr. and J. B. Cain, Error-Correction Coding for
Digital Communications. New York: Plenum Press, 1981.
[4] R. Steele and L. Hanzo, Eds., Mobile Radio
Communications, 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley, 1999.
[5] M. A. Soderstrand, W. K. Jenkins, G. A. Julien, and F. J.

Taylor, Eds., Modern Applications of Residue Number System
Arithmetic to Digital Signal Processing. New York: IEEE Press,
1986.
Chapter in a Book
Author(s) of chapter | "Title of chapter" (in quotes) | in Title of
book (in italics) | Edition (if not the first) | Editor(s) of book |
Place of publication | Publisher | Year of publication | Pages
covered by chapter
Examples
[6] G. O. Young, “Synthetic structure of industrial plastics,” in
Plastics, 2nd ed., vol. 3, J. Peters, Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1964, pp. 15-64.
[7] S. Godsill, P. Rayner, and O. Cappé, “Digital audio
restoration,” in Applications of Digital Signal Processing to
Audio and Acoustics, M. Kahrs and K. Brandenburg, Eds.
Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic, 1988, pp. 133-194.
[8] J. K. Hao and R. Dorne, “Study of genetic search for the
frequency assignment problem,” in Artificial Evolution:
European conference, AE 95, Brest, France, September 4-6,
1995 : selected papers,” J.-M. Alliot, Ed. Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, 1063. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1996, pp.
333-344.
Journal Article
Author(s) of article | "Title of article" (in quotes) | Title of
Journal (in italics) | Volume number (and issue number if there
is one) | Pages covered by article | Date of Publication
Date of Publication should include the month or season if it
appears on the journal: e.g. Feb. 1987; Winter 2000; Mar.-Apr.
1963
Examples
[9] G. Strang, “Wavelets,” American Scientist, vol. 82, pp. 250-
255, 1994.

[10] I. S. Qamber, “Flow graph development method,”
Microelectronics Reliability, vol. 33, no. 9, pp. 1387-1395, Dec.
1993.
[11] F. Bonomi and K. Fendick, “The rate-based flow control
framework for the ABR ATM service,” IEEE Network, vol. 9,
pp. 25-39, 1995.
[12] E. H. Miller, “A note on reflector arrays,” IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and Propagation., to be published.
Article from Conference Proceedings (published)
Author(s) of article | "Title of paper" (in quotes) | in Title of
proceedings (in italics) | Location and date of conference |
Pages covered by article
Examples
[13] R. Bauer and J. Hagenauer, “Iterative source/channel-
decoding using reversible variable length codes,” in
Proceedings of the IEEE Data Compression Conference (DCC),
Snowbird, UT, Mar. 2000, pp. 93-102.
[14] A. K. Salkintzis, C. Chamzas, and C. Koukourlis, “An
energy saving protocol for mobile data networks,” in
International Conference on Advances in Communication and
Control (COMCON 5), June 26-30, 1995, pp. 107-113.
Paper Presented at a Conference (unpublished)
Author(s) of paper | "Title of paper" in quotes | presented at
Title of conference | Location and date of conference
Unpublished papers are often made available as reprints to
conference delegates but do not appear in collected conference
proceedings, so no pagination should be given.
Examples
[15] F. Comellas and J. Ozón, “An ant algorithm for the graph
coloring problem,” presented at ANTS ’98 – From Ant Colonies
to Artificial Ants: First International Workshop on Ant Colony
Optimization, Brussels, Belgium, Oct. 1998.
[16] L. Gao, J. Kurose, and D. Towsley, “Efficient schemes for
broadcasting popular videos,” presented at the 8th International

Workshop on Network and Operating Systems Support for
Digital Audio and Video (NOSSDAV ’98), Cambridge, UK, July
1998.
Thesis or Dissertation
Author of thesis | "Title of thesis" (in quotes) | Qualification
and type of report | University/Institution | Year of award
Qualification should be abbreviated as Ph.D., M.Phil., etc. The
type of report (e.g. thesis, dissertation, etc) should be given as
it appears on the document as the terminology may vary
between countries. It is helpful to add the country unless the
university is particularly well-known.
Examples
[17] E. F. Mastrovito, “VLSI architectures for computation in
Galois Field,” Ph.D. dissertation, Linköping University,
Sweden, 1991.
[18] A. Chini, “Multi carrier modulation in frequency selective
fading channels,” Ph.D. dissertation, Carleton University,
Canada, 1994.
[19] Y. W. Kim, “Study and implementation of system
synchronization for DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting),”
Masters thesis, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology, Korea, 1996.
[20] J. G. O. Moss, “Spread spectrum technologies for future
communication systems,” D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford,
1998.
Technical Report
Author(s) of report | "Title of report" in quotes | Series title and
number (if applicable) | Place and date of publication
Technical reports are often not formally published and may not
have clear publication details. Give as much information as you
can so your readers can obtain the report if they wish.
If the place of publication is obvious from the series title there's

no need to repeat it at the end.
Examples
[21] M. Krunz and S. K. Tripathi, “Scene-based characteristics
of VBR MPEG-coded video traffic,” University of Maryland,
CS-TR-3573, 1997.
[22] J. H. Stott, “Phase noise in OFDM: Further insights,
including the use of weighting functions,” BBC, R&D
Department, Technical Note no. R&D 0166(94), Dec. 1994.
[23] A. Dan, P. Shahabuddin, D. Sitaram, and D. Towsley,
“Channel allocation under batching and VCR control in movie-
on-demand servers,” IBM Research Report, 1994.
[24] International Telecommunications Union, “Terrestrial
digital multimedia/television broadcasting system development
in China,” ITU-T Document 6E/50-E, Geneva, Mar. 26, 2001.
Standard
Name of the organization which produced the standard | "Title
of standard" (in quotes) | Catalogue code or number of standard
| Date of publication
Standards are frequently issued in draft and revised versions.
Make sure you cite all the catalogue/numbering and date
information exactly as it appears on the document.
If the name of the organization appears in the catalogue code or
number of the standard it can be abbreviated.
Examples
[25] International Standards Organisation, “Information
technology – Generic coding of moving pictures and associated
audio information: Video specification,” ISO/IEC 13818-2,
Nov. 1994.
[26] Federal Communications Commission, “Code of Federal
Regulations,” Title 47, Ch. 1, Part 73, Radio Broadcast
Services. Secs. 73.683, 73.684 and 73.699.
[27] European Telecommunications Standards Institute, “Digital
Audio Broadcasting (DAB) to mobile, portable and fixed
receivers,” ETSI EN 300 401 v1.3.3, May 2001.

[28] Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers,
“Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer
(PHY) Specifications,” IEEE Draft standard 802.11 D3.1, Apr.
1996.
Patent
Author(s) of the patent | "Title of patent" (in quotes) | Issuing
country/organisation and number of the patent | Date of filing
Examples
[29] L. Idoumghar, “Using a hybrid genetic algorithm to solve
the frequency assignment problem,” Patent TDF, N. 01 06 885,
May 2001.
[30] Z. Yang, “Terrestrial digital multimedia/television
broadcasting system,” P.R.China Patent 00 123 597.4 filed Aug.
25, 2000, issued Mar. 21, 2001.
[31] S. Kawa, K. Kiyoshi, and S. Takeshi, “Route bus service
controlling system,” U.S. Patent 4 799 162, Jan. 1989.
Unpublished Source
Author(s) | "Title of document" (in quotes) | Type of document |
Date (if applicable)
The type of document might be an unpublished manuscript, e-
mail or private correspondence, etc. Clearly these are not
available to your readers but you should still give as much
detail as you can.
Examples
[32] B. Chen and C.-E. W. Sundberg, “Adaptive multicarrier
modulation for IBOC-AM,” Unpublished work.
[33] R. Cupo and M. Shariat, “All-digital AM system
architecture,” Private communication, May, 1998.
Online Source
Author(s) | "Title of source" | Organization/Publisher/Date |

[Online] | Available: access information | [Accessed: Date of
access]
An online source may not always contain clear author or
publisher details. When you cite an online source try to describe
it in the same way you would describe a similar printed
publication. If possible, give sufficient information for your
readers to retrieve the source themselves.
The access information will usually be just the URL of the
source. If the item is only available by e-mail, ftp or some other
method, include a brief mention of how to obtain it.
As well as a publication/revision date (if there is one), the date
of access is included since an online source may change
between the time you cite it and the time it is accessed by a
reader.
Examples
[34] T. Rahkonen, “Analysis of analog circuits using Volterra
series,” University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland, 1999. [Online].
Available:
http://www.ee.oulu.fi/~timor/DCourse/Chp1_2.pdf. [Accessed:
Sept. 14, 2002]
[35] S. McCanne and S. Floyd, “The UCB/LBNL network
simulator,” 1997. [Online]. Available:
http://www.mash.cs.berkeley.edu/ns/. [Accessed: Jan. 23, 1999]
[36] Advanced Television Technology Center, Inc., “ATTC
introduces RF data capture project,” Press release, Mar. 2000.
[Online]. Available: http://www.attc.org/RFCapture.PDF.
[Accessed: Mar. 15, 2001]
[37] “AlphaCom Communications introduces VMSK
technology,” The Business Journal Online, May, 2000. [Online].
Available: http://www.business-
journal.com/LateMay00/Alpha.html. [Accessed: May 2, 2000]
[38] “A ‘layman’s’ explanation of Ultra Narrow Band
technology,” Oct. 3, 2003. [Online]. Available:
http://www.vmsk.org/Layman.pdf. [Accessed: Dec. 3, 2003]
[39] European Telecommunications Standards Institute, “Digital
Video Broadcasting (DVB); Implementation guidelines for DVB

terrestrial services; transmission aspects,” ETSI TR-101-190,
1997. [Online]. Available: http://www.etsi.org. [Accessed: Aug.
17, 1998]
[40] S. J. Salamon, “DTV receiver performance studies,”
presented at the 49th Annual Broadcasting Symposium, IEEE
Broadcasting Technology Society, Sept. 24, 1999. [Online].
Available: http://www.attc.org/BTS_Rx.PDF. [Accessed: Jan.
18, 2000]
[41] P. Karn, “General-purpose Reed-Solomon encoder/decoder
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[42] A. Harriman, “Compendium of genealogical software,”
Humanist, Jun., 1993. [Online]. Available e-mail:
[email protected] Message: get GENEALOGY REPORT.
[Accessed: Jun. 8, 2003]
Reflective Sensor
HOA0708/0709
DESCRIPTION
FEATURES
Choice of phototransistor or photodarlington
output
•
Focused for maximum response•

Ambient light and dust protective filter•
Adjustable mounting slot•
The HOA0708/0709 series consists of an infrared
emitting diode and an NPN silicon phototransistor
(HOA0708- 001, - 011) or photodarlington
(HOA0709- 001, - 011) encased side- by- side on
converging optical axes in a black thermoplastic
housing. The detector responds to radiation from the
IRED only when a reflective object passes within its
field of view. The HOA0708- 011 and HOA0709- 011
employ an IR transmissive filter to minimize the effects
of visible ambient light and provide a smooth optical
face which prevents the accumulation of airborne
contaminants in the optical path. The HOA0708/0709
series employs plastic molded components. For
additional component information see SEP8505,
SDP8405, and SDP8105.
Housing material is polycarbonate. Housings are
soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons and ketones.
Recommended cleaning agents are methanol and
isopropanol.
.390(9.91)
.370(9.40)
.710(18.03)
.690(17.53)
.210(5.33)
.190(4.83)
-011 INCLUDES AN INTEGRAL
AMBIENT LIGHT FILTER

.110(2.79)
.090(2.29)
NOM
.210(5.33)
.190(4.83)
NOM
A
K
E
C
.020(.51) SQ.LEADS .130(3.30)
.120(3.05)
.160(4.06)
.140(3.56)
.150(3.81) MIN
.610(15.49)
.586(14.98)
.15(3.80)
TEST SURFACE
.0.62(1.60)R
2 PLCS
DIM_033.ds4

INFRA-56.TIF
OUTLINE DIMENSIONS in inches (mm)
3 plc decimals ±0.010(0.25)Tolerance
2 plc decimals ±0.020(0.51)
Honeywell reserves the right to make
changes in order to improve design and
supply the best products possible.
h232
Reflective Sensor
HOA0708/0709
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
UNITS TEST CONDITIONSMINPARAMETER SYMBOL TYP
MAX
IR EMITTER
DETECTOR
COUPLED CHARACTERISTICS
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS
Operating Temperature Range -40¡C to 85¡C
Storage Temperature Range -40¡C to 85¡C
Soldering Temperature (5 sec) 240¡C

IR EMITTER
Power Dissipation 70 mW [À]
Reverse Voltage 3 V
Continuous Forward Current 50 mA
DETECTOR TRANS. DARLINGTON
Collector-Emitter Voltage 30 V 15 V
Emitter-Collector Voltage 5 V 5 V
Power Dissipation 70 mW [À] 70 mW [À]
Collector DC Current 30 mA 30 mA
SCHEMATIC
h 233
Reflective Sensor
HOA0708/0709
IRED Forward Bias Characteristics
gra_073.ds4
Forward voltage - V
F
o
rw
a

rd
c
u
rr
e
n
t
-
m
A
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

100
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Pulsed
condition
TA = 80°C
TA = -40°C
TA = 25°C
Fig. 1 Non-Saturated Switching Time vs
Load Resistance gra_079.ds4
Load resistance - Ohms
R
e
sp
o
ns
e
t
im
e
-
µ
s

1
10
100
1000
10 100 1000 10000
Phototransistor
Photodarlington
Fig. 2
Dark Current vs
Temperature gra_301.cdr
Fig. 3 Collector Current vs
Ambient Temperature gra_076.ds4
Free-air temperature - °C
N
o
rm
a
liz
e
d
c
o

lle
ct
o
r
c u
rr
e
n
t
0.0
0.6
1.2
-50
0.4
0.2
0.8
1.0
-25 0 25 50 100 75
Fig. 4
Collector Current vs

Distance to Reflective Surface gra_080.ds4
Distance to reflective surface - inches
N
o
rm
al
iz
e
d
c
o
lle
ct
o
r
c u
rr
en
t
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4

0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
IF = 40 mA
VCE = 5.0
Fig. 5 Collector Current vs
IRED Forward Current gra_081.ds4
IRED forward current - mA
N
o
rm
a
liz
e
d
c
o
lle

ct
o
r
c u
rr
e
n
t
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.0
0 10 20 40 50 30
VCE = 5V
d = 0.15 in.
Fig. 6

All Performance Curves Show Typical Values
h234
Reflective Sensor
HOA0708/0709
h 235
Device
Operating
Temperature Range Package
��
��
��
��

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SEMICONDUCTOR
TECHNICAL DATA
SINGLE SUPPLY, LOW POWER
DUAL COMPARATORS
ORDERING INFORMATION
LM293D
LM393D
TA = –25° to +85°C
TA = 0° to +70°C
SO–8
Plastic DIP
PIN CONNECTIONS
Order this document by LM393/D
D SUFFIX
PLASTIC PACKAGE
CASE 751
(SO–8)
N SUFFIX
PLASTIC PACKAGE

CASE 626
1
1
8
8
(Top View)
Gnd
Inputs A
Inputs B
Output B
Output A VCC
–
–
+
+
1
2
3
4

8
7
6
5
LM393AN,N
LM2903D
LM2903N
TA = –40° to +105°C
SO–8
Plastic DIP
SO–8
LM2903VD
LM2903VN
TA = –40° to +105°C
SO–8
Plastic DIP
1MOTOROLA ANALOG IC DEVICE DATA
��
��

��
The LM393 series are dual independent precision voltage
comparators
capable of single or split supply operation. These devices are
designed to
permit a common mode range–to–ground level with single
supply operation.
Input offset voltage specifications as low as 2.0 mV make this
device an
excellent selection for many applications in consumer
automotive, and
industrial electronics.
• Wide Single–Supply Range: 2.0 Vdc to 36 Vdc
• Split–Supply Range: ±1.0 Vdc to ±18 Vdc
• Very Low Current Drain Independent of Supply Voltage: 0.4
mA
• Low Input Bias Current: 25 nA
• Low Input Offset Current: 5.0 nA
• Low Input Offset Voltage: 2.0 mV (max) LM393A
5.0 mV (max) LM293/393
• Input Common Mode Range to Ground Level
• Differential Input Voltage Range Equal to Power Supply
Voltage
• Output Voltage Compatible with DTL, ECL, TTL, MOS, and
CMOS Logic
Levels
• ESD Clamps on the Inputs Increase the Ruggedness of the
Device
without Affecting Performance

Representative Schematic Diagram
(Diagram shown is for 1 comparator)
VCC + Input – Input Output
Q3
R4
Q4
Q5
R2
Q6
Q14
Q16
Q15
Q12
Q11
Q10
Q9
Q8
Q2
Q1
F1
2.0 k

2.1 k
R1
4.6 k
LM393, LM393A, LM293, LM2903, LM2903V
2 MOTOROLA ANALOG IC DEVICE DATA
MAXIMUM RATINGS
Rating Symbol Value Unit
Power Supply Voltage VCC +36 or ±18 Vdc
Input Differential Voltage Range VIDR 36 Vdc
Input Common Mode Voltage Range VICR –0.3 to +36 Vdc
Output Short Circuit–to–Ground ISC Continuous mA
Output Sink Current (Note 1) ISink 20
Power Dissipation @ TA = 25°C PD 570 mW
Derate above 25°C 1/RθJA 5.7 mW/°C
Operating Ambient Temperature Range TA °C
LM293 –25 to +85
LM393, 393A 0 to +70
LM2903 –40 to +105
LM2903V –40 to +125

Maximum Operating Junction Temperature TJ(max) °C
LM393, 393A, 2903, LM2903V 125
LM293 150
Storage Temperature Range Tstg –65 to +150 °C
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (VCC = 5.0 Vdc, Tlow ≤
TA ≤ Thigh,* unless otherwise noted.)
Ch i i S b l
LM393A
U iCharacteristic Symbol Min Typ Max Unit
Input Offset Voltage (Note 2) VIO mV
TA = 25°C – ±1.0 ±2.0
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – 4.0
Input Offset Current IIO nA
TA = 25°C – ±50 ±50
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – ±150
Input Bias Current (Note 3) IIB nA
TA = 25°C – 25 250
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – 400
Input Common Mode Voltage Range (Note 4) VICR V
TA = 25°C 0 – VCC –1.5
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh 0 – VCC –2.0
Voltage Gain RL ≥ 15 kΩ, VCC = 15 Vdc, TA = 25°C AVOL 50
200 – V/mV
Large Signal Response Time – – 300 – ns
Vin = TTL Logic Swing, Vref = 1.4 Vdc

VRL = 5.0 Vdc, RL = 5.1 kΩ, TA = 25°C
Response Time (Note 5) VRL = 5.0 Vdc, RL = 5.1 kΩ, TA =
25°C tTLH – 1.3 – µs
Input Differential Voltage (Note 6)
All Vin ≥ Gnd or V– Supply (if used)
VID – – VCC V
Output Sink Current
Vin ≥ 1.0 Vdc, Vin+ = 0 Vdc, VO ≤ 1.5 Vdc, TA = 25°C
ISink 6.0 16 – mA
Output Saturation Voltage VOL mV
Vin ≥ 1.0 Vdc, Vin+ = 0 Vdc, ISink ≤ 4.0 mA, TA = 25°C – 150
400
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – 700
* Tlow = 0°C, Thigh = +70°C for LM393/393A
NOTES: 1. The maximum output current may be as high as 20
mA, independent of the magnitude of VCC, output short circuits
to VCC can cause excessive
heating and eventual destruction.
2. At output switch point, VO�1.4 Vdc, RS = 0 Ω with VCC
from 5.0 Vdc to 30 Vdc, and over the full input common mode
range (0 V to VCC = –1.5 V).
3. Due to the PNP transistor inputs, bias current will flow out of
the inputs. This current is essentially constant, independent of
the output state, there
fore, no loading changes will exist on the input lines.
4. Input common mode of either input should not be permitted

to go more than 0.3 V negative of ground or minus supply. The
upper limit of common
mode range is VCC –1.5 V.
5. Response time is specified with a 100 mV step and 5.0 mV of
overdrive. With larger magnitudes of overdrive faster response
times are obtainable.
6. The comparator will exhibit proper output state if one of the
inputs becomes greater than VCC, the other input must remain
within the common mode
range. The low input state must not be less than –0.3 V of
ground or minus supply.
LM393, LM393A, LM293, LM2903, LM2903V
TA ≤ Thigh,* unless otherwise noted.)
Ch i i S b l
LM393A
U iCharacteristic Symbol Min Typ Max Unit
Output Leakage Current IOL µA
Vin– = 0 V, Vin+ ≥ 1.0 Vdc, VO = 5.0 Vdc, TA= 25°C – 0.1 –
Vin– = 0 V, Vin+ ≥ 1.0 Vdc, VO = 30 Vdc, Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh
– – 1.0
Supply Current ICC mA
RL = ∞ Both Comparators, TA = 25°C – 0.4 1.0

RL = ∞ Both Comparators, VCC = 30 V – 1.0 2.5
TA ≤ Thigh, unless otherwise noted.)
Ch i i S b l
LM392, LM393 LM2903, LM2903V
U iCharacteristic Symbol Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Unit
Input Offset Voltage (Note 2) VIO mV
TA = 25°C – ±1.0 ±5.0 – ±2.0 ±7.0
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – 9.0 – 9.0 15
Input Offset Current IIO nA
TA = 25°C – ±5.0 ±50 – ±5.0 ±50
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – ±150 – ±50 ±200
Input Bias Current (Note 3) IIB nA
TA = 25°C – 25 250 – 25 250
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – 400 – 200 500
Input Common Mode Voltage Range (Note 3) VICR V
TA = 25°C 0 – VCC –1.5 0 – VCC –1.5
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh 0 – VCC –2.0 0 – VCC –2.0
Voltage Gain AVOL 50 200 – 25 200 – V/mV
RL ≥ 15 kΩ, VCC = 15 Vdc, TA = 25°C
Large Signal Response Time – – 300 – – 300 – ns
Vin = TTL Logic Swing, Vref = 1.4 Vdc
VRL = 5.0 Vdc, RL = 5.1 kΩ, TA = 25°C
Response Time (Note 5) tTLH – 1.3 – – 1.5 – µs
VRL = 5.0 Vdc, RL = 5.1 kΩ, TA = 25°C

Input Differential Voltage (Note 6) VID – – VCC – – VCC V
All Vin ≥ Gnd or V– Supply (if used)
Output Sink Current ISink 6.0 16 – 6.0 16 – mA
Vin ≥ 1.0 Vdc, Vin+ = 0 Vdc, VO ≤ 1.5 Vdc TA = 25°C
Output Saturation Voltage VOL mV
Vin ≥ 1.0 Vdc, Vin+ = 0, ISink ≤ 4.0 mA, TA = 25°C – 150 400
– – 400
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – 700 – 200 700
Output Leakage Current IOL nA
Vin– = 0 V, Vin+ ≥ 1.0 Vdc, VO = 5.0 Vdc, TA = 25°C – 0.1 –
– 0.1 –
Vin– = 0 V, Vin+ ≥ 1.0 Vdc, VO = 30 Vdc,
Tlow ≤ TA ≤ Thigh – – 1000 – – 1000
Supply Current ICC mA
RL = ∞ Both Comparators, TA = 25°C – 0.4 1.0 – 0.4 1.0
RL = ∞ Both Comparators, VCC = 30 V – – 2.5 – – 2.5
* Tlow = 0°C, Thigh = +70°C for LM393/393A
LM293 Tlow = –25°C, Thigh = +85°C
LM2903 Tlow = –40°C, Thigh = +105°C
LM2903V Tlow = –40°C, Thigh = +125°C
NOTES: 2. At output switch point, VO�1.4 Vdc, RS = 0 Ω with
VCC from 5.0 Vdc to 30 Vdc, and over the full input common
mode range (0 V to VCC = –1.5 V).
3. Due to the PNP transistor inputs, bias current will flow out of
the inputs. This current is essentially constant, independent of
the output state, there
fore, no loading changes will exist on the input lines.

5. Response time is specified with a 100 mV step and 5.0 mV of
overdrive. With larger magnitudes of overdrive faster response
times are obtainable.
6. The comparator will exhibit proper output state if one of the
inputs becomes greater than VCC, the other input must remain
within the common mode
range. The low input state must not be less than –0.3 V of
ground or minus supply.
LM393, LM393A, LM293, LM2903, LM2903V
LM293/393,A LM2903
Figure 1. Input Bias Current versus
Power Supply Voltage
Figure 2. Input Bias Current versus
Figure 3. Output Saturation Voltage
versus Output Sink Current
Figure 4. Output Saturation Voltage
versus Output Sink Current
Figure 5. Power Supply Current versus
Figure 6. Power Supply Current versus

VCC, SUPPLY VOLTAGE (Vdc) VCC, SUPPLY VOLTAGE
(Vdc)
VCC, SUPPLY VOLTAGE (Vdc) VCC, SUPPLY VOLTAGE
(Vdc)
ISink, OUTPUT SINK CURRENT (mA) ISink, OUTPUT SINK
CURRENT (mA)
I
,
IN
P
U
T
B
IA
S
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
(n
A

)
IB
V
,
S
AT
U
R
AT
IO
N
V
O
LT
A
G
E
(V
dc
)
O
L
I

,
S
U
P
P
LY
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
(m
A
)
C
C
80
70
60
50

40
30
20
10
0
0 5.0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5.0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
10
1.0
0.1

0.01
0.001
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5.0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
1.2
0.4
10
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
0 5.0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

TA = 0° C
TA = +25° C
TA = +25° C
TA = +85° C
TA = –40° C
TA = +70° C
TA = +125°C
RL = �
TA = 0° C
TA = +25° C
TA = +25° C
TA = 0° C
TA = +25° C
TA = –40° C
TA = –40° C
TA = 0° C
TA = +25° C
TA = +85° C
1.0

0.8
0.6
I
,
S
U
P
P
LY
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
(m
A
)
C
C
V

,
S
AT
U
R
AT
IO
N
V
O
LT
A
G
E
(V
dc
)
O
L
I
,
IN
P

U
T
B
IA
S
C
U
R
R
E
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T
(n
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)
IB
TA = +125°C
RL = �
TA = –55° C
TA = +70° C
TA = +125°C
TA = –55° C

Out of
Saturation
TA = +85° C
Out of
Saturation
TA = –55° C
TA = 0° C
LM393, LM393A, LM293, LM2903, LM2903V
APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
These dual comparators feature high gain, wide
bandwidth characteristics. This gives the device oscillation
tendencies if the outputs are capacitively coupled to the
inputs via stray capacitance. This oscillation manifests itself
during output transitions (VOL to VOH). To alleviate this
situation, input resistors < 10 kΩ should be used.
The addition of positive feedback (< 10 mV) is also
recommended. It is good design practice to ground all
unused pins.
Differential input voltages may be larger than supply
voltage without damaging the comparator’s inputs. Voltages
more negative than –0.3 V should not be used.

Figure 7. Zero Crossing Detector
(Single Supply)
Figure 8. Zero Crossing Detector
(Split Supply)
Figure 9. Free–Running Square–Wave Oscillator Figure 10.
Time Delay Generator
Figure 11. Comparator with Hysteresis
10
D1 prevents input from going negative by more than 0.6 V.
R1 + R2 = R3
R3 ≤
R5
for small error in zero crossing.
Vin
10 k
D1
R1
8.2 k
6.8 k
R2
15 k
R3

+15 V
10 M
R5
220 k
R4
220 k
LM393
Vin(min) � 0.4 V peak for 1% phase distortion (∆Θ).
�
Θ
+VCC
10 k
Vin
–VEE
Vin
Vin(min)
VCC
VO
– VEE
∆Θ

Θ
LM393
–
+
LM393
51 k
51 k
51 k
RL
10 k
VCC
VCC
VCC
VO
VO
t
0
1.0 MΩ
0.001 µF –

+
LM393
VCC VCC
VO
Vin
VO
+ Vref
Vref
Vref
0
0
0
VC
tO
t
‘‘ON’’ for t � tO + ∆t
where:
∆t = RC � n (
Vref
VCC
)

R RL
VC C
LM393
–
+
RS
VCC
RL
Vref
R1
R2
RS = R1 | | R2
Vth1 = Vref +
(VCC –Vref) R1
R1 + R2 + RL
Vth2 = Vref –
(Vref –VO Low) R1
R1 + R2
R1

t�
–
+
LM393
�
�
�
LM393, LM393A, LM293, LM2903, LM2903V
OUTLINE DIMENSIONS
NOTES:
1. DIMENSION L TO CENTER OF LEAD WHEN
FORMED PARALLEL.
2. PACKAGE CONTOUR OPTIONAL (ROUND OR
SQUARE CORNERS).
3. DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING PER ANSI
Y14.5M, 1982.
1 4
58
F

NOTE 2 –A–
–B–
–T–
SEATING
PLANE
H
J
G
D K
N
C
L
M
MAM0.13 (0.005) B MT
DIM MIN MAX MIN MAX
INCHESMILLIMETERS
A 9.40 10.16 0.370 0.400
B 6.10 6.60 0.240 0.260
C 3.94 4.45 0.155 0.175
D 0.38 0.51 0.015 0.020
F 1.02 1.78 0.040 0.070
G 2.54 BSC 0.100 BSC

H 0.76 1.27 0.030 0.050
J 0.20 0.30 0.008 0.012
K 2.92 3.43 0.115 0.135
L 7.62 BSC 0.300 BSC
M ––– 10 ––– 10
N 0.76 1.01 0.030 0.040
� �
D SUFFIX
PLASTIC PACKAGE
CASE 751–05
(SO–8)
ISSUE R
N SUFFIX
PLASTIC PACKAGE
CASE 626–05
ISSUE K
SEATING
PLANE
1
4
58
A0.25 M C B S S
0.25 M B M
h

�
C
X 45
�
L
DIM MIN MAX
MILLIMETERS
A 1.35 1.75
A1 0.10 0.25
B 0.35 0.49
C 0.18 0.25
D 4.80 5.00
E
1.27 BSCe
3.80 4.00
H 5.80 6.20
h
0 7
L 0.40 1.25
�
0.25 0.50
��
NOTES:
1. DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING PER ASME

Y14.5M, 1994.
2. DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS.
3. DIMENSION D AND E DO NOT INCLUDE MOLD
PROTRUSION.
4. MAXIMUM MOLD PROTRUSION 0.15 PER SIDE.
5. DIMENSION B DOES NOT INCLUDE MOLD
PROTRUSION. ALLOWABLE DAMBAR
PROTRUSION SHALL BE 0.127 TOTAL IN EXCESS
OF THE B DIMENSION AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL
CONDITION.
D
E H
A
B e
BA1
C
A
0.10
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the suitability of its products for any particular purpose, nor
does Motorola assume any liability arising out of the
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LM393/D
��
◊
Building the Regulator
To build the regulator, you need three parts:
· A 7805 5-volt voltage regulator in a TO-220 case (Radio
Shack part number 276-1770)
· Two electrolytic capacitors, anywhere between 100 and 1,000
microfarads (typical Radio Shack part number 272-958)
The 7805 takes in a voltage between 7 and 30 volts and
regulates it down to exactly 5 volts. The first capacitor takes
out any ripple coming from the transformer so that the 7805 is
receiving a smooth input voltage, and the second capacitor acts
as a load balancer to ensure consistent output from the 7805.
The three leads are, from left to right, input voltage (7 to 30
volts), ground and output voltage (5 volts).
The 7805 has three leads. If you look at the 7805 from the front
(the side with printing on it), the three leads are, from left to
right, input voltage (7 to 30 volts), ground, and output voltage
(5 volts).
To connect the regulator to the transformer, you can use this
configuration.
The two capacitors are represented by parallel lines. The "+"
sign indicates that electrolytic capacitors are polarized: There is
a positive and a negative terminal on an electrolytic capacitor
(one of which will be marked). You need to make sure you get

the polarity right when you install the capacitor.
You can build this regulator on your breadboard. To do this,
you need to understand how a breadboard is internally wired.
On the outer edges of the breadboard are two lines of terminals
running the length of the board. All of these terminals are
internally connected. Typically, you run +5 volts down one of
them and ground down the other. Down the center of the board
is a channel. On either side of the channel are sets of five
interconnected terminals. You can use your volt-ohm meter to
see the interconnections. Set the meter's dial to its ohm setting,
and then stick wires at different points in the breadboard (the
test leads for the meter are likely too thick to fit in the
breadboard's holes).
In the ohm setting, the meter measures resistance. Resistance
will be zero if there is a connection between two points (touch
the leads together to see this), and infinite if there is no
connection (hold the leads apart to see this). You will find that
points on the board really are interconnected as shown in the
diagram. Another way to see the connections is to pull back the
sticker on the back of the breadboard a bit and see the metal
connectors.
Now connect the parts for your regulator:
1. Connect the ground wire of the transformer to one of the long
outer strips on the breadboard.
2. Plug the 7805 into three of the five-hole rows.
3. Connect ground from the terminal strip to the middle lead of
the 7805 with a wire -- simply cut a short piece of wire, strip
off both ends and plug them in.
4. Connect the positive wire from the transformer to the left
lead (input) of the 7805.
5. Connect a capacitor from the left lead of the 7805 to ground,
paying attention to the polarity.
6. Connect the 5-volt lead of 7805 to the other long outer
terminal strip on the breadboard.
7. Connect the second capacitor between the 5-volt and ground
strips.

You have created your regulator. It might look like this when
you are done (two views):
In both of the figures, the lines from the transformer come in
from the left. You can see the ground line of the transformer
connected directly into the ground strip running the length of
the board at the bottom. The top strip supplies +5 volts and is
connected directly to the +5 pin of the 7805. The left capacitor
filters the transformer voltage, while the right capacitor filters
the +5 volts produced by the 7805. The LED connects between
the +5 and ground strips, through the resistor, and lets you
know when the power supply is "on."
Plug in the transformer and measure the input and output
voltage of the 7805. You should see exactly 5 volts coming out
of the 7805, and whatever voltage your transformer delivers
going in. If you do not, then immediately disconnect the
transformer and do the following:
· Pull out the capacitors. Plug the transformer back in for a
moment and see if that changed anything.
· Make sure the ground wire and positive wire from the
transformer are not reversed (if they are, it is likely the 7805 is
very hot, and possibly fried).
· Make sure the transformer is producing any voltage at all by
disconnecting it and checking it with your volt meter. See the
previous page to learn how to do this.
Once you see 5 volts coming out of the regulator, you can test it
further and see that it is on by connecting an LED to it. You
need to connect an LED and a resistor in series -- something
that is easy to do on your breadboard. You must use the resistor
or the LED will burn out immediately. A good value for the
resistor is 330 ohms, although anything between 200 and 500
ohms will work fine. LEDs, being diodes, have a polarity, so if
your LED does not light, try reversing the leads and see if that
helps.
It might seem like we've had to go to a tremendous amount of

trouble just to get the power supply wired up and working. But
you've learned a couple of things in the process. Now we can
experiment with Boolean gates!
http://www.electronicshub.org/understanding-7805-ic-voltage-
regulator/
A regulated power supply is very much essential for several
electronic devices due to the semiconductor material employed
in them have a fixed rate of current as well as voltage. The
device may get damaged if there is any deviation from the fixed
rate. The AC power supply gets converted into constant DC by
this circuit. By the help of a voltage regulator DC, unregulated
output will be fixed to a constant voltage. The circuit is made
up of linear voltage regulator 7805 along with capacitors and
resistors with bridge rectifier made up from diodes. From giving
an unchanging voltage supply to building confident that output
reaches uninterrupted to the appliance, the diodes along with
capacitors handle elevated efficient signal conveyal.
Description:
As we have previously talked about that regulated power supply
is a device that mechanized on DC voltages and also it can
uphold its output accurately at a fixed voltage all the time
although if there is a significant alteration in the DC input
voltage.
ICs regulator is mainly used in the circuit to maintain the exact
voltage which is followed by the power supply. A regulator is
mainly employed with the capacitor connected in parallel to the
input terminal and the output terminal of the IC regulator. For
the checking of gigantic alterations in the input as well as in the
output filter, capacitors are used. While the bypass capacitors
are used to check the small period spikes on the input and
output level. Bypass capacitors are mainly of small values that
are used to bypass the small period pulses straightly into the
Earth.

A circuit diagram having regulator IC and all the above
discussed components arrangement revealed in the figure below.
Regulated Power Supply Circuit – ElectronicsHub.Org
The working of the components coupled in the circuit above is
revealed in the following table:
Component
Function
C1
This capacitor is known as bypass capacitor and is employed to
bypass extremely tiny duration spikes to the ground with no
distress the other components.
C2
C2 is the filter capacitor employed to steady the slow changes
in the voltage applied at the input of the circuit. Escalating the
value of the capacitor amplify the stabilization as well as the
declining value of the capacitor reduces the stabilization.
Moreover this capacitor is not alone capable to ensure very
constricted period spikes emerge at the input.
C3
C3 is known as a filter capacitor employed in the circuit to
steady the slow alterations in the output voltage. Raising the
value of the capacitor enlarges the stabilization furthermore
declining the value of the capacitor declined the stabilization.
Moreover this capacitor is not alone capable to ensure very fine
duration spikes happen at the output.
C4
C4 is known as bypass capacitor and worked to bypass very
small period spikes to the earth with no influence the other
components.
U1
U1 is the IC with positive DC and it upholds the output voltage
steady exactly at a constant value even although there are major
deviation in the input voltage.
As we have made the whole circuit till now to be operated on
the 5V DC supply, so we have to use an IC regulator for 5V DC.

And the most generally used IC regulators get into the market
for 5V DC regulation use is 7805. So we are connecting the
similar IC in the circuit as U1.
IC 7805 is a DC regulated IC of 5V. This IC is very flexible and
is widely employed in all types of circuit like a voltage
regulator. It is a three terminal device and mainly called input ,
output and ground. Pin diagram of the IC 7805 is shown in the
diagram below.
Pin Diagram of IC 7805 – ElectronicsHub.Org
The pin explanation of the 7805 is described in the following
table:
PIN NO.
PIN
DESCRIPTION
1
INPUT
In this pin of the IC positive unregulated voltage is given in
regulation.
2
GROUND
In this pin where the ground is given. This pin is neutral for
equally the input and output.
3
OUTPUT
The output of the regulated 5V volt is taken out at this pin of
the IC regulator.
In the circuit diagram C2 as well as C3 are filter capacitor while
bypass capacitors are the C1 and C4.The electrolytic polarized
capacitors are employed for this purpose. For the purpose of
filter capacitors normally 10mfd value of the capacitor used.
And in these projects we also used 100mfd value of the
capacitor. While in all kinds of circuit the value of bypass
capacitor is 0.1 mfd. And in generally un-polarized mainly disc
capacitors employed for this purpose.
Currently we have the circuit for the 5V DC positive regulation

and we are also familiar with the component values used in the
circuit. In the table below we have mentioned the value in detail
of all the components used in the circuit of 5V DC positive
regulator.
SNO
COMPONENT
TYPE
VALUE
1
C1
CAPACITOR
0.1 mfd
2
C2
CAPACITOR
1000 mfd
3
C3
CAPACITOR
1000 mfd
4
C4
CAPACITOR
0.1 mfd
5
U1
POSITIVE DC REGULATOR
7805
Example of 7805 Regulator:How to Get Constant DC Power
Supply from AC?
7805 Voltage Regulator Circuit Diagram – ElectronicsHub.Org
Also read the related post: Variable Voltage Power Supply
from Fixed Voltage Regulator
The output generated from the unregulated DC output is

susceptible to the fluctuations of the input signal.IC voltage
regulator is connected with bridge rectifier in series in these
project so to steady the DC output against the variations in the
input DC voltage.To obtain a stable output of 5V, IC 7805 is
attached with 6-0-6V along with 500mA step down transformer
as well as with rectifier.To suppress the oscillation which might
generate in the regulator IC, C2 capacitor of 0.1 uF value is
used. When the power supply filter is far away from the
regulated IC capacitor C2 is used.Ripple rejection in the
regulator is been improved by C4 capacitor(35uf) by avoiding
the ripple voltage to be amplified at the regulator output.The
output voltage is strengthen and deduction of the output voltage
is done capacitor C3(0.1uF). To avoid the chance of the input
get shorted D5 diode is used to save the regulator. If D5 is not
presented in the circuit, the output capacitor can leave its
charge immediately during low impedance course inside the
regulators.
http://www.analog.com/static/imported-
files/pwr_mgmt/PM_vr_design_08451a.pdf
General Design Fundamentals
A voltage regulator generates a fixed output voltage of a preset
magnitude that remains constant regardless of changes to its
input voltage or load conditions. There are two types of voltage
regulators: linear and switching.
A switching regulator converts the dc input voltage to a
switched voltage applied to a power MOSFET or BJT switch.
The filtered power switch output voltage is fed back to a circuit
that controls the power switch on and off times so that the
output voltage remains constant regardless of input voltage or
load current changes.
What are some of the switching regulator topologies?
There are three common topologies: buck (step-down), boost
(step-up) and buck-boost(step-up/stepdown). Other topologies
include the flyback, SEPIC, Cuk, push-pull, forward, full-
bridge, and half-bridge topologies.

How does switching frequency impact regulator designs?
Higher switching frequencies mean the voltage regulator can
use smaller inductors and capacitors. It also means higher
switching losses and greater noise in the circuit.
What losses occur with the switching regulator?
Losses occur as a result of the power needed to turn the
MOSFET on and off, which are associated with the MOSFET’s
gate driver. Also, MOSFET power losses occur because it takes
a finite time to switch to/from the conduction to non-conduction
states. Losses are also due to the energy needed to charge and
discharge the capacitance of the MOSFET gate between the
threshold voltage and gate voltage.
http://www.rakeshmondal.info/IC-7805-Voltage-Regulator
IC 7805 voltage Regulator
Voltage regulator IC's are the IC’s that are used to regulate
voltage.
IC 7805 is a 5V Voltage Regulator that restricts the voltage
output to 5V and draws 5V regulated power supply. It comes
with provision to add heatsink.
The maximum value for input to the voltage regulator is 35V. It
can provide a constant steady voltage flow of 5V for higher
voltage input till the threshold limit of 35V. If the voltage is
near to 7.5V then it does not produce any heat and hence no
need for heatsink. If the voltage input is more, then excess
electricity is liberated as heat from 7805.
It regulates a steady output of 5V if the input voltage is in rage
of 7.2V to 35V. Hence to avoid power loss try to maintain the
input to 7.2V. In some circuitry voltage fluctuation is fatal (for
e.g. Microcontroller), for such situation to ensure constant
voltage IC 7805 Voltage Regulator is used. For more
information on specifications of 7805 Voltage Regulator please
refer the data sheet here (IC 7805 Voltage Regulator Data
Sheet).
IC 7805 is a series of 78XX voltage regulators. It’s a standard,

from the name the last two digits 05 denotes the amount of
voltage that it regulates. Hence a 7805 would regulate 5v and
7806 would regulate 6V and so on.
The schematic given below shows how to use a 7805 IC, there
are 3 pins in IC 7805, pin 1 takes the input voltage and pin 3
produces the output voltage. The GND of both input and out are
given to pin 2.
Save this picture for reference.
7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC CIRCUIT
Introduction to voltage regulator | Description voltage
regulator:-
Voltage Regulator is one of the most important and commonly
used electrical components. Voltage Regulators are responsible
for maintaining a steady voltage across an Electronic system.
Voltage fluctuations may result in undesirable effect on an
electronic system, so to maintaining a steady constant voltage is
necessary according to the voltage requirement of a system.
Let us assume a condition when a simple light emitting diode
can take a max of 3V to the max, what happens if the voltage
input exceeds 3V ?, ofcourse the diode will burn out. This is
also common with all electronic components like, led’s,
capacitors, diodes etc. The slightest increase in voltage may
result in the failure of entire system by damaging the other
components too. For avoiding Damage in such situations
voltage regulator are used for regulated power supply.
Sensors for white line following car
Harry Byrne p133366

1
Team Layout
We decided to break the project up into three main areas.
Fawaz Alanazi – Motor control
Tom Baines – mincrocontroller
Harry Byrne – Sensors and power supply
2
Sensors
There are various options for sensors to follow a white line such
as:
LEDs and photodiodes
IR LEDs and photodiodes
LDRs (photoresistors)
IR LED’s and phototransistors
CCD Camera
LED and photodiodes need LDR’s have great sensitivity but
slow response time, but excellent for use on a white line on
varied coloured surfaces. Advantage of CCD( charged coupled
device is resolution but it is way beyond the scope of my
knowledge at this time. So I chose the IR LED and
phototansistor as stores had the device ready made in a compact
all in one unit
3

The HOA0708 reflective sensor consists of an infrared emitting
diode and an NPN silicon phototransistor
4
Comparator 339AN
These dual comparators feature high gain, wide
bandwidth characteristics. This gives the device oscillation
tendencies if the outputs are capacitively coupled to the
inputs via stray capacitance. This oscillation manifests itself
during output transitions (VOL to VOH). To alleviate this
situation, input resistors <10 kW should be used.
The addition of positive feedback (<10 mV) is also
recommended. It is good design practice to ground all
unused pins.
Differential input voltages may be larger than supply
voltage without damaging the comparator’s inputs. Voltages
more negative than –0.3 V should not be used.
5
Sensor circuit design
From the specification sheet of the sensor I had to work out a
few resistor values.
For the IR LED there was a 1.6v drop and it used 30mA so
using ohms law R=V/I 3.4/30mA=113Ω but used a 120Ω
resistor as that was available from stores.
For the Phototransitor using the same calculation as it was
limited to 100 micro Amps 5/100μA=47kΩ which was used as it
was in stores.

6
Comparator circuit
7
The two 10k resistors were used as a potential divider to use as
a bas voltage for the comparator
8
Links to sensors from comparator
9
(
RESULT
)
HND/HNC ASSIGNMENT SPECIFICATION

Student name:
Student P number:
Programme:
HND Electronics
Module:
Group Project
Module Level (4 or 5):
5
Module code:
M2X8520Contribution to Overall
Module Assessment (%):
100
Lecturer:
M Vanstone
Internal Verifier:
P Kear
Assignment Title:
Remote Controlled Buggy
Assignment No (x of x):
1 of 1
Hand Out Date:
10/10/12
Submission deadline:
May 2013
Referencing:
In the main body of your submission you must give credit to
authors on whose research your work is based. Append to your
submission a reference list that indicates the books, articles,
etc. that you have read or quoted in order to complete this
assignment (e.g. for books: surname of author and initials, year
of publication,title of book, edition, publisher: place of
publication).
Disclosure:

I declare that this assignment is all my own work and that I
have acknowledged all materials used from the published or
unpublished works of other people. All references have been
duly cited.
Student’s Signature:
Assignments will not be accepted without a signature here
Date:
Turnitin: Lecturer totick to indicate if an electronic version of
the assignment must be submitted to Turnitin. Note: the
Turnitin version is the primary submission and acts as a receipt
for the student. Both electronic and paper versions MUST be
submitted by the same deadline. No grades will be released
until both submissions are received. Late submission of either
the electronic or paper version will result in a late penalty
grade. Penalties for late submission: Up to one week late,
maximum grade of a PASS. Over one week late, Refer. Only
Year Tutors and the Programme Director may grant an
extension.
YES
/
NO
Learning Outcomes tested
(from module syllabus)
Assessment CriteriaTo achieve each outcome a student must
demonstrate the ability to:
1 Plan a project as part of a team and verbally present the
design and development concepts and implementation stages.
Plan a project as part of a team; verbally present information.
2 Document a design and development programme from initial

concept to final realisation, including references to the project
specification, research, implementation and achievements etc.
Document a design from concept to completion.
3 Implement the design and development, as part of a team, and
demonstrate its operation and also demonstrate an ability to
produce the design on time and within budget.
Implement design, demonstrate ability to complete
design on time.
· Please submit the assignment parts in a suitable report folder–
not in polypockets.
· This form (ALL PAGES) MUST be at the front of the paper
submission. Assignments will not be accepted without this
form as it is a requirement that you sign the disclosure
regarding referencing convention.
· DO NOT put this form into Turnitin or it will match many
similarities with other students’ submissions.
TASK DESCRIPTION
(Lecturer – please insert task(s) / questions / what the student
must do, here)
Assignment Requirements:
You are required, as part of a small team, to design a remote
controlled buggy that can be made to move forwards, backwards
and from side to side. The basic buggy and motors are provided.
Your task is to design a remote control transmitter, receiver and
motor drive circuitry that is to be used to control the buggy.
You will be required:
1. To present your initial work at an Interim viva. This will take
the form of a verbal presentation where each student will
contribute to a progress report introducing the project,

describing the overall project plan and assessing the progress of
the project. The assessment will be aimed at the visual and
verbal communication skills of the student. Also, a group mark
will be given for group cohesiveness and efficiency. NB: You
will be required to produce your own personal project plan
which is to be derived from the overall plan. THIS IS TO BE
SUBMITTED AT THE INTERIM VIVA.
A total of 30% of total marks will be given for this assessment.
20% will be given for individual contribution, 5% will be given
for the level of group cohesiveness and professionalism. NB: all
members of the group will get the same mark for this part of the
assessment. A further 5% will be allocated to the Project Plan.
2. To present an individual Project Reportfor assessment.40% of
the marks will be for an individual project report, submitted in
advance of the final viva and indicating your own personal
contribution to the project.
3. To attend a Final Viva: Final Viva where you will present, as
part of a group, your buggy and discuss its design and
development. Your buggy, if sufficiently complete, will then
attempt to traverse a pre-defined course to demonstrate its
overall ability. Extra credit will be given for buggies achieving
this stage.
25% will be allocated for individual’s personal contribution
(assessed at Viva).
5% will be allocated, as a common mark, for the completed
project.

GUIDANCE FOR Students IN THE COMPLETION OF TASKS
(Lecturer – please insert guidance for students here. Please link
the task(s) to the five common assessment criteria overleaf)
You will be required, as a group, to research the relevant
background theory to remote control and motor control. Each
student will be required to take an equal part in the research and
to disseminate that knowledge to the other members of the
group.
You will be required to present your project plan and progress
at an Interim viva, here your planning, presentation and
communications skills will be assessed. Your group working
qualities will also be assessed as part of the Interim viva.
You will be required to design and implement a suitable
solution to the problem and present your results within an
individual Project Report and a group presentation ( Final
Viva).
Further advice and guidance is given below:
The method of communication is for your team to decide. You
may use ultra sonic, radio or infra red to convey the signals;
each has its own advantages and disadvantages. For radio based
applications your circuitry must be exempt from government
legislation regarding radio/wireless transmission and use
acceptable channel frequencies.

The buggy will have to be sufficiently controllable such that it
can traverse the course shown below. Those buggies that are
completed by the end of the project will be entered into a race,
against the clock, where the fastest time to complete the course
will win.
Buggies that are not complete will not necessarily mean that the
student(s) will fail. This is a multi-faceted project and
significant marks are allocated to other criteria, as specified in
the assessment sheets provided.
In traversing the course the buggy must come to rest,
temporarily, within a pre-defined area indicated, by the
numbered squares shown. The course will allow for line-of-
sight communication between controller and buggy. You may
need to purchase some parts, however, you will be limited to
£20 per person

GRADING criteria and Student FEEDBACK
This section details the assessment criteria. The extent to which
these are demonstrated by you determines your grade. The
weightings available for each criterion are shown. Lecturers
will use the space provided to comment on the achievement of
the task(s), including those areas in which you have performed
well and areas that would benefit from
development/improvement.
Page 1 of 6
Common Assessment Criteria Applied
Percentage weighting
Grade
awarded
1. Research-informed Literature
Extent of research and/or own reading, selection of credible
sources, application of appropriate referencing conventions.
Background research, demonstrated within report
Planning, demonstrated within the Project Plan

5
5
2. Knowledge and Understanding of Subject
Extent of knowledge and understanding of concepts and
underlying principles associated with the discipline.
Assessed within sections 4 and 5 below
3. Analysis
Analysis, evaluation and synthesis; logic, argument and
judgement; analytical reflection; organisation of ideas and
evidence
Suitability of analysis used within the report, drawing
conclusions, presentation of results etc
5

4. Practical Application and Deployment
Deployment of methods, materials, tools and techniques;
application of concepts; formulation of innovative and creative
solutions to solve problems.
This assessment will include technical achievement,
demonstration of final product and project progression and
development,
45
5. Skills for Professional Practice
Attributes in professional practice: individual and collaborative
working; deployment of appropriate media; presentation and
organisation.
Verbal Communication skills, presentation skills and group
working skills.
These will be assessed at various parts of the project
assessment.
40
*Assignment Result (Assessment grades are subject to
ratification at the Exam Board. These comments and grades are
to give feedback on module work and are for guidance only

until they are confirmed. )
Late Submission Penalties (tick if appropriate)
Up to one-week late
Over one week late
COMMON ASSESSMENT AND GRADING CRITERIA
OUTRIGHT FAIL
UNSATISFACTORY
SATISFACTORY
GOOD
VERY GOOD
EXCELLENT
EXCEPTIONAL
Assessment Criteria
REFER (equivalent to 0-29%
REFER (equivalent to 30-39%*
PASS (equivalent to 40-49%)
PASS (equivalent to 50-59%)
MERIT (equivalent to 60-69%
DISTINCTION (equivalent to 70-79%
DISTINCTION (equivalent to 80-100%
Extent of research and/or own reading, selection of credible
sources, application of appropriate referencing conventions
Little or no evidence of reading.
Views and findings unsupported and non-authoritative.

Referencing conventions largely ignored.
Poor evidence of reading and/or of reliance on inappropriate
sources, and/or indiscriminate use of sources.
Referencing conventions used inconsistently.
References to a limited range of mostly relevant sources. Some
omissions and minor errors.
Referencing conventions evident though not always applied
consistently.
Inclusion of a range of research-informed literature, including
sources retrieved independently. Referencing conventions
mostly consistently applied.
Inclusion of a wide range of research-informed literature,
including sources retrieved independently.
Selection of relevant and credible sources. Very good use of
referencing conventions, consistently applied.
A comprehensive range of research informed literature
embedded in the work. Excellent selection of relevant and
credible sources. High-level referencing skills, consistently
applied.
Outstanding knowledge of research-informed literature
embedded in the work. Outstanding selection of relevant and
credible sources. High-level referencing skills consistently and
professionally applied.
Extent of knowledge and understanding of concepts and
underlying principles associated with the discipline.
Major gaps in knowledge and understanding of material at this
level. Substantial inaccuracies.
Gaps in knowledge, with only superficial understanding. Some
significant inaccuracies.
Evidence of basic knowledge and understanding of the relevant
concepts and underlying principles.
Knowledge is accurate with a good understanding of the field of
study.
Knowledge is extensive. Exhibits understanding of the breadth
and depth of established views.

Excellent knowledge and understanding of the main concepts
and key theories. Clear awareness of challenges to established
views and the limitations of the knowledge base.
Highly detailed knowledge and understanding of the main
theories/concepts, and a critical awareness of the ambiguities
and limitations of knowledge.
3. Analysis
Analysis, evaluation and synthesis; logic, argument and
judgement; analytical reflection; organisation of ideas and
evidence
Unsubstantiated generalisations, made without use of any
credible evidence. Lack of logic, leading to unsupportable/
missing conclusions. Lack of any attempt to analyse, synthesise
or evaluate.
Some evidence of analytical intellectual skills, but for the most
part descriptive. Ideas/findings sometimes illogical and
contradictory. Generalised statements made with scant evidence.
Conclusions lack relevance.
Evidence of some logical, analytical thinking and some attempts
to synthesise, albeit with some weaknesses.
Some evidence to support findings/ views, but evidence not
consistently interpreted.
Some relevant conclusions and recommendations, where
relevant
Evidence of some logical, analytical thinking and synthesis.
Can analyse new and/or abstract data and situations without
guidance.
An emerging awareness of different stances and ability to use
evidence to support the argument.
Valid conclusions and recommendations, where relevant
Sound, logical, analytical thinking; synthesis and evaluation.
Ability to devise and sustain persuasive arguments, and to
review the reliability, validity & significance of evidence.
Ability to communicate ideas and evidence accurately and
convincingly.
Sound, convincing conclusions / recommendations.

Thoroughly logical work, supported by evaluated evidence.
High quality analysis, developed independently or through
effective collaboration.
Ability to investigate contradictory information and identify
reasons for contradictions.
Strong, persuasive, conclusions, justifiable recommendations.
Exceptional work; judiciously selected and evaluated evidence.
Very high quality analysis, developed independently or through
effective collaboration.
Ability to investigate contradictory information and identify
reasons for contradictions.
Highly persuasive conclusions
Effective deployment of appropriate methods, materials, tools
and techniques; extent of skill demonstrated in the application
of concepts to a variety of processes and/or contexts;
formulation of innovative and creative solutions to solve
problems.
Limited or no use of methods, materials, tools and/or
techniques.
Little or no appreciation of the context of the application.
Rudimentary application of methods, materials, tools and/or
techniques but without consideration and competence. Flawed
appreciation of the context of the application.
An adequate awareness and mostly appropriate application of
well established methods, materials, tools and/or techniques.
Basic appreciation of the context of the application.
A good and appropriate application of standard methods,
materials, tools and/or techniques.
Good appreciation of the context of the application, with some
use of examples, where relevant.
A very good application of a range of methods, materials, tools

and/or techniques.
Very good consideration of the context of the application, with
perceptive use of examples, where relevant.
Evidence of some innovation and creativity.
An advanced application of a range of methods, materials, tools
and/or techniques.
The context of the application is well considered, with
extensive use of relevant examples.
Application and deployment extend beyond established
conventions. Innovation and creativity evident throughout.
Outstanding levels of application and deployment skills.
Assimilation and development of cutting edge processes and
techniques.
Demonstrates attributes expected in professional practice
including: individual initiative and collaborative working;
deployment of appropriate media to communicate (including
written and oral); clarity and effectiveness in presentation and
organisation.
Communication media is inappropriate or misapplied.
Little or no evidence of autonomy in the completion of tasks.
Work is poorly structured and/or largely incoherent.
Media is poorly designed and/or not suitable for the audience.
Poor independent or collaborative initiative.
Work lacks structure, organisation, and/or coherence
Can communicate in a suitable format but with some room for
improvement.
Can work as part of a team, but with limited involvement in
group activities.
Work lacks coherence in places and could be better structured.
Can communicate effectively in a suitable format, but may have
minor errors.
Can work effectively as part of a team, with clear contribution
to group activities.
Mostly coherent work and is in a suitable structure.
Can communicate well, confidently and consistently in a

suitable format.
Can work very well as part of a team, with very good
contribution to group activities.
Work is coherent and fluent and is well structured and
organised.
Can communicate professionally and, confidently in a suitable
format.
Can work professionally within a team, showing leadership
skills as appropriate, managing conflict and meeting
obligations.
Work is coherent, very fluent and is presented professionally.
Can communicate with an exceptionally high level of
professionalism.
Can work exceptionally well and professionally within a team,
showing advanced leadership skills.
Work is exceptionally coherent, very fluent and is presented
professionally.
Student Self Evaluation Form
Student name:
Student P number:
Programme:
Year of programme
Assignment Title:
This section repeats in brief the common assessment criteria
detailed on previous pages. The extent to which these are
demonstrated by you determines your grade. Using these
criteria, tick the box that best indicates the level of achievement
you feel you have achieved with regard to each of them.

of 6
Common Assessment Criteria Applied
Level of Achievement
REFER
PASS
MERIT
DISTINCTION
OUTRIGHT FAIL
UNSATISFACTORY
SATISFACTORY
GOOD
VERY GOOD
EXCELLENT
EXCEPTIONAL
0-29%
30-39%
40-49%
50-59%
60-69%
70-79%
80-100%

0-29%
30-39%
40-49%
50-59%
60-69%
70-79%
80-100%
3. Analysis
0-29%
30-39%
40-49%
50-59%
60-69%
70-79%
80-100%

0-29%
30-39%
40-49%
50-59%
60-69%
70-79%
80-100%
0-29%
30-39%
40-49%
50-59%
60-69%
70-79%
80-100%
PLEASE COMMENT ON AREAS IN WHICH YOU FEEL

THAT YOU HAVE PERFORMED WELL
PLEASE COMMENT ON AREAS you feel that you need TO
DEVELOP
Student’s Name
Date
Student’s Signature
Page 7 of 6

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