Week 5 WorksheetDirections For this assignment complete the work sh.docx

Week 5 WorksheetDirections: For this assignment complete the
work sheet below. Please type out your answers on a separate
Word document and then upload it . Don’t forget to number
your answers so they can be matched up to the correct question.
1. People were asked how many miles they lived from work.
The responses were
22, 20, 1, 25, 35, 23, 18, 5, 22, 22, 15, 7, 14, 21, 5, 9 and 13.
The national average distance from work is 20 miles. Find the
following:
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) Standard deviation
e) Z-Score
f) Range
d) What would be the most appropriate measure of central
tendency and why? Does this data represent a skewed
distribution? Why or Why not?
2. At a pet store, a survey was taken asking how many pets each
person had. The results were: 2, 5, 3, 1, 0, 4, 2, 7, 0, 2, 5, 1, 2,
6, 2, 10, 7, 3. The population average is 2. Find the following:
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
e) Z-Score
f) Range

3. A sample of eight students were randomly selected and asked,
"How many times did you check your email yesterday?" The
numbers were: 3, 0, 8, 7, 10, 2, 6, 12, 45, 82, 1, 23, 11, 4, 55, 0.
The average number of email checks in the population is 16.
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
e) Z-Score
f) Range
Running Head: ORGANZIATIONAL CULTURE AND
PRODUCTION 1
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND PRODUCTION 2
Organizational Culture and production
Name
Institutional Affiliation

Maamari, B., & Saheb, A. (2018). How organizational culture
and leadership style affect employees’ performance of genders.
International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 630–651.
Organization Culture and Production
Summary
The topic of the source is how organizational culture and
leadership affect employees’ performance of gender. The
authors sought to research on how the leaders’ choice and
corporate culture influence employees. The study aimed to
investigate if there is statistical evidence of the significant
effects of organizational culture on the performance of the
various genders and whether the leadership style in such an
organization has an impact on the relationships. The study used
observational method to conduct quantitative research and
observation to identify organizational behavior and regularities.
The study uses past literature on organizational culture,
leadership, and performance in validating and carrying out the
research (Maamari & Saheb, 2018). The authors concluded that
the leadership style chosen by the organization and the
organization culture has an effect on employee performance and
gender implication.
Analysis
The authors have clearly outlined the research question, which
was to identify the effects of leadership style and organization
culture on employee’s performance. They have followed this
strictly throughout the study by first covering on previous
studies that have cover areas such as leadership style,
organizational culture and performance thus their research adds
value to the previous research which did not cover on gender.
The theoretical framework of the study was not clearly captured
as the authors have briefly discussed it, and a reader cannot
identify it or understand it. The research methodology chosen
by the authors was appropriate for the study as they have
carried out an in-depth observation on organization set up. The
authors issued questionnaires to the respondents, which is an

effective method of obtaining information to the anonymous
nature of the results. The sample size was also efficient for the
study. In addition to the research questions, a survey was also
conducted in the course of the research, thus supplying extra
information to the researcher as well as validating information
obtained from the research group (Maamari & Saheb, 2018).
The authors have outlined the limitations of the study so clearly
so that future research on the same area can be carried out
efficiently.
Application
The research has provided reach knowledge in the field of
organization management as it has clearly shown how
leadership style and organization culture influences
performance. It has gone a notch higher in also explaining
the effects of leadership and culture on gender performance.
This information is very important in the business world today
as the issue of gender and performance has not been clearly
covered by previous researchers. It thus feels the gap in the
field of organizational performance as it offers new information
which has not been previously covered. The study is very
relevant to me as I can rely upon it when carrying out a project
related to organizational culture, leadership, or gender-related
performance (Maamari & Saheb, 2018). The article has a
universal application as in every organization, there is a chosen
leadership style an organization culture which influences
performance and gender hence, it can be applied in any
organization set up.
Running Head: INQURY-BASED STRESS REDUCTION 1
INQUIRY-BASED STRESS REDUCTION 3

Inquiry- Based Stress Reduction
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Lia, S., Inbal, M., Keren, Z., Zehavit, G., & Shahar, L. ( 2017).
Inquiry-Based Stress Reduction Meditation Technique for
Teacher Burnout: A Qualitative Study. Mind, Brain, and
Education , 75-82.
Inquiry- Based Stress Reduction
Summary
The source covers on the stress reduction on teachers using an
inquiry-based technique. The authors of the article realized that
there was a problem encountered by teachers as they carried out
their day to day duties which caused them to have burnouts as
well as affecting their mental wellness. They conducted
research on teachers to identify how effective Enquiry-based
stress reduction technique was on reducing these cases of
burnout and emotional, mental load. The authors identified a
gap in research where other researcher had carried out research
on teachers but the idea to investigate the effects on
mindfulness-stress based intervention. This created a gap in
research which necessitated the need for the research. The
participants of the study were teachers of a high school in
Israel, and the chosen research design was the
phenomenological analysis method (Lia, Inbal, Keren, Zehavit,
& Shahar, 2017). From the research, the authors concluded that
that Inquiry based stress reduction technique had an effect of
reducing burnout in teachers.
Analysis
Teachers sought to answer the question of whether an Inquiry-

based stress mediation technique can have a positive effect on
burnout. They used teachers as their research respondent.
Throughout the research study, the author stuck by the
questions as they tried to answer this research question, which
was clearly formulated. They contributed significantly to the
body of knowledge as previous researches have only studied
burnout in teacher using different techniques other than the
Inquiry-based technique. The authors chose a phenomenological
analysis method, which was appropriate for the research study.
They chose a sample size of 27 teachers from a high school in
Israel, which was appropriate for the study as it was manageable
(Lia, Inbal, Keren, Zehavit, & Shahar, 2017). The conclusions
made from the research study were justified by the chosen
results obtained from the study.
Application
The research study is very rich in knowledge as it has widely
covered the topic of stress and burnout among teacher. Previous
researches conducted in the area of stress were too shallow
hence, the study has filled the knowledge gap that was existing
in this important area. The article is very useful for my future
research in issues to do with stress and burnout as the literature
review applied in the study are rich in knowledge. The results
obtained from the study are also very relevant for any future
study in this area. The phenomenological analysis method
chosen for the study is also an efficient method for conducting
research, especially when dealing with individual experience
hence, it gave the best results for the study. I could use the
same method when conducting research relating to individual
experiences (Lia, Inbal, Keren, Zehavit, & Shahar, 2017). The
article is also universal since cases of burnouts are universal
among different professionals, not just in teachers. Therefore,
the techniques can also be applied in various professional
fields.

How organizational culture and
leadership style affect employees’
performance of genders
Bassem E. Maamari
Department of Management Studies, Lebanese American
University,
Beirut, Lebanon, and
Adel Saheb
Adnan Kassar School of Business, Lebanese American
University,
Beirut, Lebanon
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to highlight the importance of
organizational culture on the leader’s style and
the effect of the chosen leadership style on the team’s
performance. It surveys a strata of leaders from the
Middle East in the current turbulent environment.
Design/methodology/approach – A research paper based on a
quantitative data collection in the
service sector from a large number of stratified sampled firms
and respondents.
Findings – The cross-sectional data from 40 service companies
reveal some interesting results highlighting
the interrelationships between these three variables. The
findings suggest that managers need to build on this
concept finding in providing further training and development
of employees’ skills in addition to an
organizational culture of acceptance, adaptation and diversity.
Research limitations/implications – Electing to use a specific

set of criteria in sampling might have
resulted in eliminating a meaningful different direction in the
results. Moreover, the size of the survey tool
limited the number of variables to test with the study.
Practical implications – A number of implications are worthy of
mention. First, devising reward
programmes that are fairly attractive to both genders
independently of each other should be a managerial
priority, along with the creation and development of strong
organizational cultures.
Social implications – Finally, a coupled performance and
organizational culture of efficiency at the
workplace, if not paralleled with a proper leadership style that
fosters positive results, will only result in
partial improvements in the big organizational picture, resulting
in the persistence of the old prejudice and
discrimination along the gender and age lines.
Originality/value – The study examines a suggested model in a
new environment that is known to be
deeply rooted in old-fashioned paternalistic managerial
behaviour, and where change, if occurring, is
extremely slow to introduce.
Keywords Performance, Leadership style, Organizational
culture, Gender
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
The contemporary integration of female workers into the
Lebanese workplace has pulled the
attention of the organizations towards the need of amendment to
embrace this evolution.
Due to the importance of employees’ fit to their commitment
towards the organization
(Behery and Paton, 2008), organizational culture is established

from the inception phase in
the life of any organization. It develops over time to reach a
level of pervasiveness and
deployment, making it one of the most challenging factors to
change at a later point. With
IJOA
26,4
630
Received 10April 2017
Revised 11 September 2017
20 October 2017
Accepted 22 October 2017
International Journal of
Organizational Analysis
Vol. 26 No. 4, 2018
pp. 630-651
© EmeraldPublishingLimited
1934-8835
DOI 10.1108/IJOA-04-2017-1151
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/1934-8835.htm
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-04-2017-1151
the advent multi-fold increased influx of women in the
twentieth century to the workforce
(Igbaria and Baroudi, 1995), the importance of the culture lies
in its setting the framework
for a number of variables in the organization, including

performance standards, attitudes
(efficiency and/or effectiveness) and norms of behaviour. These
in turn limit the contribution
of the lower level leaders and managers that attempt to apply
randomly different styles of
leadership, whether transactional or transformational, to this
setting where the norms are
already pre-set. Therefore, this study is seeking to investigate
the existence of statistically
significant effect of organizational culture on performance of
both genders and whether
leadership style can or doesmediate this relationship.
The organizational culture presents by itself as both an
organizational strength as well
as a barrier to development. Its effect may vary between
improving efficiency and
performance and hindering the workflow processes. Whereas
leadership sets the rules of the
game of how employees relate to each other and to managers, its
outcomes provide value to
the firm in terms of commitment, loyalty and dedication of the
team members towards their
colleagues, respective teams and their leaders. In this
organizational setting, in a context
where research concerning consequence and significance of the
organizational culture and
leadership style on performance is extremely limited in
Lebanon, testing the proposed model
earns a higher interest in themanagerial circles.
This manuscript is organized into four sections, namely, a
review of the available
scholarly literature, followed by the methods used in the study,
then the results and their
analysis to draw somemanagerial implications and conclusions.

2. Literature review
Dwelling into the managerial world, and seeing the importance
that operational teams
dedicate to performance and the ensuing outcomes, clears the
picture for researchers. The
compression of operating costs in a globalized business
environment where the firm seeks to
satisfy an ever-changing demand within a highly competitive
market, forces the today’s
organizations to overlook certain factors. Among these are the
effects of organizational
culture and leadership style on performance. The following
presents a glance at the
scholarly literature on the topics at hand, beginning by
organizational culture, followed by
leadership style then performance and the relationship between
these factors.
2.1 Organizational culture
Organizational culture or corporate culture is the set of values,
beliefs and way of doing
things in an organization. It defines the ambiance in which an
employee is working and how
he/she should behave to achieve his/her duties (Mgbere, 2009),
and his/her awareness of
what is occurring in the organizational environment (Hofstede,
2011). It has also an impact
on decision-making, level of authority and agency theory in
organizations (Childe et al.,
2016). Therefore, this aspect of the organization has become
widely important and
interesting to measure its abilities to innovate and adapt to the
change of the cultures and
how it affects its performance (Mgbere, 2009). The national and
societal culture of the

country affects organizational culture (Hofstede, 2011).
According to Hofstede’s and
Trompeneaars’ Model, there are measurable dimensions for the
society’s culture that can
influence and shape individuals’ values and norms who are the
founders, employees and
customers of the organizations. Values represent the corner
stone and the supreme part of
organizational culture (Hogan and Coote, 2014). But at the
gender level, this performance is
reported to vary largely, despite the many attempts to provide
for equal opportunity. The
explanation could be referred to the discriminatory prevailing
attitude at the human capital
level (Glass and Cook, 2016; Sidani, 2016; Salloum et al., 2016;
Tlaiss and Kauser, 2011;
Employees’
performance of
genders
631
Gneezy et al., 2003). As a result, women still “face a ‘glass
ceiling’ that prevents them from
reaching top level management” (Salloum et al., 2016; Igbaria
and Baroudi, 1995, p. 109).
Women constitute a resource, which is not efficiently used in
organizations, and it is time to
decide how best to organize this human resource. As the
corporate culture constitutes a
boundary for both the employee and the manager that control
and limit their behaviours, the

performance of the employee or the manager is affected by the
extent to which they are
integrated, and to extent to which they fit within that
organization’s culture (Lysons, 2000).
The employees’ success within corporations is measured by
their capability to adjust their
behaviour to fit in the corporate culture and is becoming an
important determinant of the
employee’s satisfaction and productivity (Davis and Landa,
2000). Mgbere (2009) reports
that the relationship between the corporate culture and the
performance is positive. For one,
the performance of a company is highly related to the
company’s culture if it has a strong
culture that is well integrated and based on strong beliefs and
values (Deal and Kennedy,
1983; Denison, 1990; Kotter and Heskett, 1992), and for two,
employees’ job satisfaction is
related to their perception of the own fit with the organizational
culture (Behery and Paton,
2008). But when it comes to study the effect of corporate
culture on economic performance,
Mgbere (2009) cited Siehl and Martin (1990) who report a
modest positive relationship
between these two factors. Moreover, Behery and Paton (2008)
report a positive relation
between the organizational culture and the job satisfaction,
resulting in boosted employee
performance. Furthermore, their study took place in Dubai (non-
Westernized country) to
prove that this Westernized hypothesis is also valid in a non-
Westernized environment, thus
concluding that organizational culture affects organizational
and individual performance.
In addition, Bakar et al. (2008) concluded that there are four

types of corporate cultures.
They are competitive culture, entrepreneurial culture,
bureaucratic culture and consensual
culture. They argued that both the entrepreneurial culture and
the consensual culture
achieve the highest correlations between the other cultures.
However, only entrepreneurial
cultures show a statistical significance on the overall job
performance. Thus, an
organization that strives to improve its employee’s job
performance should inculcate
innovative culture that creates an exciting and dynamic
environment in which
entrepreneurial and ambitious people thrive in this environment.
Furthermore, Yiing and Bin Ahmad (2009) cited in their article
that the organizational
culture plays an important role in generating commitment and
enhancing performance
(Dubey et al., 2017; Lok and Crawford, 2001; Deal and
Kennedy, 1983; Peters et al., 1982), and
he posed some studies that show a strong positive relationship
between the supportive and
innovative cultures and the job satisfaction and commitment,
while the bureaucratic culture
had a negative relationship with the job satisfaction and
commitment (Silverthorne, 2004;
Abdul Rashid et al., 2003; Brewer and Clippard, 2002; Lok and
Crawford, 2001; London et al.,
1999; Krausz et al., 1995; Brewer and Weber, 1994; Brewer,
1993; Trice and Beyer, 1993;
Kratina, 1990; Wallach, 1983).
Pool (2000) argued how some work environments cause stress
for its employees.
Executives may form high levels of stress in carrying out

requirements. This is why they
must be considerate when distributing work assignments within
the prevalent organizational
culture. In addition, accelerating changes must fit the
organization’s culture to reach
successful business goals strategically. This, keeping in mind
that organizational culture is
affected by gender predisposition (Madsen et al., 2005; Goulet
and Singh, 2002; Kirchmeyer,
1995) and incompatible values or interests of individuals leads
to organizational conflict
ending up with the accommodation of the weakest party. Joiner
(2001) also discussed job-
related stress in her article. It is defined as an interactive
imbalance between the individual
and the individual’s work environment (French et al., 1974).
From this, we conclude the
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necessity of a top-down organizational evolutionary change
starting with a new
organizational culture that commits all members equally to its
body resulting in a win–win
strategy.
2.2 Leadership style
Leading is the art of communicating a clear vision and
empowering employees towards
organizational goals. Mgbere (2009) defines leadership as the
ability to work with a group

of people (employees) to achieve a goal (Northouse, 2015; Fry,
2003; Robbins and Coulter,
2001; Lussier, 1990). He also points to the fact that the
leadership style affects
performance (Sauer, 2011; Fry, 2003; Bycio et al., 1995; Bass
and Avolio, 1990). Although
“no gender differences in leadership style are found” (Engen et
al., 2001, p. 581), in today’s
environment where cultures are changing rapidly due to
globalization, leaders play a
definitive role in helping the corporate entity to adapt to this
new changing culture
(Fiedler, 1996; Hennessey, 1998). Culture is expressed either
implicitly through
communicating information or explicitly through rules and
regulations (Hofstede, 2011).
While there are reports that males score high on individualism
and masculinity, whereas
females score high on power distance and long-term orientation
(Alanezi and Alansari,
2016), evidence from Europe shows that women’s delineation
and critical thinking boosts
creativity and widens the panorama of decision-making
(Christiansen et al., 2016),
leaving a strong impact on female directors’ performance in
China (Liu et al., 2014).
According to Chen (2004), recent organizational crises have
emphasized the need for
leadership and personal commitment, which has become more
critical for organizational
success (Selznick, 2011), irrespective of gender stereotyping
(Engen et al., 2001), while the
leaders’ valuation is in itself highly gender stereotyped (Eagly
et al., 1992). In addition,
women are still underrepresented and less likely to be promoted

for top leadership positions
(Glass and Cook, 2016; Salloum et al., 2016).
Many models of leadership are incorporated in leadership
theories and even if males in
the MENA region have monopolized these models, a further
look among other developed
societies might anticipate in resizing the number of female
leaders in the Arab countries
(Sidani et al., 2015). Sidani (2016) sees that the change can
occur gradually whenever cultural
and institutional factors welcome this fair participation and
unprejudiced opportunities for
working women.
The study of leadership has been developed over the past 100
years (Bass, 2000). The
impact of leadership style on corporate culture and its
challenges to adapt to any new
culture highlights the importance of having a more dynamic
understanding for the role of
organizational leaders and culture in ensuring the organization’s
present and future success
(Ehrhart et al., 2013; Mgbere, 2009).
Furthermore, Cuong and Swierczek (2008) report that leadership
competencies consist of
eight skills, namely, peer, leadership, conflict resolution,
information processing,
unstructured decision-making, resource allocation,
entrepreneurial and introspection.
From the motivation-based leadership theories emerged
transformational leadership
(Liden et al., 2014; Yukl, 1997), transactional leadership
(Piccolo et al., 2012; Bass and Avolio,

1994), path-goal leadership (Fry, 2003; House, 1996; House and
Mitchell, 1974) and
charismatic leadership (Fry, 2003; Conger and Kanungo, 1998;
Shamir et al., 1993; House and
Howell, 1992; House, 1977). Transformational leadership on
one hand is defined in terms of
the leader’s effect on followers, where employees feel trust,
admiration, loyalty and respect
towards the leader (Liden et al., 2014; Yukl, 1997).
Transactional leadership, on the other
hand, emphasizes on the exchange or transaction that takes
place between colleagues and
leaders, and leaders and followers (Bass and Avolio, 1994;
Piccolo et al., 2012). Path goal
Employees’
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633
leadership motivates employees by selecting the appropriate
behaviour for each situation
(supportive, participative or achievement-oriented) and
providing all the employees needs
along their path towards the goal (Fry, 2003; House, 1996;
House andMitchell, 1974). Finally,
charismatic leadership requires certain talents such as the
ability to influence and inspire
others towards ideological goals and moral values where
followers are willing to mitigate
with these values and to go beyond their duties (Fry, 2003;
Conger and Kanungo, 1998;

Shamir et al., 1993; House and Howell, 1992; House, 1977).
Mgbere (2009) notes the complexity of the research on the
relationship between the
corporate culture, leadership style and corporate performance
due to the multiplicity of
cultures to which the organization’s members belong, and this
situation makes the role of
the leader harder and more difficult to define and to relate it
directly to the corporate
performance (Brown et al., 2013). Davis and Landa (2000-2001)
support the existence of a
relationship between the leadership style and performance, and
they refer in their article to
Duxbury and Higgins (1991) research that shows the impact of a
supervisor who follows the
controlling style which results in undermining the employees’
effectiveness, as opposed to
the impact of a supervisor who follows the supportive style and
which results in developing
more effective employees. To positively use the leader’s
position and its impact on
employees’ performance, the leader in the first place should fit
into the organization’s
culture, and his leading style should be adequate to the
circumstances of the organization as
well as to its culture. This combination will empower the
positive relationship between the
leadership style and the performance (Fullan, 2011; Lee, 2008;
Yiing and Bin Ahmad, 2009).
The gender inequality in the number of female upper-level
manager is thus attributed to
“gender connotations” (Cooper Jackson, 2001) and to the lack
of appropriate style of
leadership at the female leaders (Engen et al., 2001). Thereby,
“the more instrumental, task

oriented, autocratic styles are therefore often referred to as
masculine leadership styles and
the interpersonal-oriented, charismatic, and democratic styles as
feminine leadership styles”
(Engen et al., 2001, p. 582). But whether these affect
performance remains to investigate.
2.3 Performance
Employee performance can be defined as the activities that are
formally recognized as part
of the job and that contribute to the organization’s goals
(Borman and Motowidlo, 1997).
There are two dimensions of performance: an action dimension
known as the behavioural
aspect and an outcome dimension known as the performance
aspect (Roe, 1999; Campbell
et al., 1993; Campbell et al., 1990). In this paper, the
behavioural aspect of performance is
considered to be consistent with the work situation and job
specifications, which then turns
into the means of achieving organizational goals and objectives,
that is, the outcome
dimension or the performance aspect.
Employee performance is the building block of an organization,
as the progress of an
organization is a collective effort of all its members (Isaac
Mwita, 2000). The main purpose of
any organization is to maximize productivity, decrease
employee turnover and increase
employee retention (Mowday et al., 2013). Therefore, to reach
organization’s goals, managers
need to focus on factors that affect the performance of
employees at the workplace and hence
increase the productivity (McColl-Kennedy and Anderson,
2002). At the beginning of their

career, males and females show no remarkable disparity in the
level of their performance;
however, with time, gender differences become visible (Van
Den Besselaar and Sanström, 2016;
Tlaiss and Kauser, 2011) when uncontrolled situations such us
discrimination (Mills, 2017),
constricted collaboration, motherhood and cramped conditions
emerge (Larivière et al., 2011).
Yet, gender diversity increases the financial performance of
organizations (Christiansen et al.,
2016). Consequently, the factors that lay the foundation for high
performance must be analysed
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and addressed meticulously by the organizations to ensure
organizational success, including
bothmain factors; organizational culture and leadership style.
2.4 Effect of organizational culture on performance
Early researchers believed that there is a relationship between
organizational performance. Magee (2002) argues that as
organizational culture is inherently
connected to organizational practices (Rofcanin et al., 2017;
Zain et al., 2009), it is manifested
by the collaborative circumstances between the different units
of the organization (Hofstede,
2011). Therefore, organizational performance relies greatly on
organizational culture. The
fact that attitudes are part of the organizational culture and part

of the employees’
performance will straighten out the relation between
performance. The relation between belief, participation and
performance is associated by the
organizational culture (Debusscher et al., 2017; Dubey et al.,
2017). According to Tseng
(2010), an adhocracy culture has a greater effect than clan and
hierarchy culture on
corporate performance because it creates a comfortable
environment for creativity and
innovation.
According to Slocum and Hellriegel (2009), organizational
culture can boost performance
on a large scale, and the culture of an organization allows the
employees to be acquainted
with both the firm’s history and current methods of operation
(Awadh and Alyahya, 2013;
Zain et al., 2009). Moreover, Kozlowski and Klein (2000) report
that an organization is a
consciously coordinated system where characteristics of
individuals, groups and
organizations interact with each other, and where the effective
interaction among them
highly depends on organizational culture that shapes the
individual performance leading in
most of cases, that high performers are more appreciated and
promoted than low performers
(Cross et al., 2000). Furthermore, the mutual benefit
relationship between an organization
and its employees supports this idea, where we find that all
organizations are thriving to
recruit high performing individuals to meet the organizational
objectives and achieve
competitive advantages. Gender variance in performance result

either from gender quality
differences or gender bias (Van Den Besselaar and Sanström,
2016). Because most of higher
positions and those related to authority and power are still more
dedicated to men (Van Den
Besselaar and Sanström, 2016), rigorous comparison of gender
performance is not always
viable (Abramo et al., 2013). Therefore, employees need
supportive organizational cultures
to promote both genders with similar opportunities (Van Den
Brink et al., 2006) to help them
reach individual and cumulative departmental objectives.
Many researchers consider individual factors (i.e. ability and
effort) to be of great
importance to highlight the link between organizational culture
and employee
performance (Gardner and Schermerhorn, 2004; Schermerhorn
and Nyaw, 1990).
According to Furnham and Gunter (1993), organizational
culture is the internal
integration and coordination between a firm’s operations and its
employees. Internal
integration can be described as the societal interaction of new
members with the existing
ones, creating the boundaries of the organizational feelings of
identity among staff and
commitment to the organization. The shared system, which
forms the basis of
communication and mutual understanding in the organization, is
created and supported
by the culture, and if the organizational culture fails to fulfil
these functions at a
satisfactory level, the culture may have a significant negative
influence on the efficiency
of the employees (Awadh and Alyahya, 2013; Furnham and

Gunter, 1993).
A strong organizational culture supports adaptation and
develops the organization’s
employee performance by motivating employees towards a
shared goal and objective,
although some scholars report a neutral effect (Behery and
Paton, 2008). Nevertheless,
Employees’
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genders
635
coaching, equal opportunities, status, expectations (Kalhoff et
al., 2011) and pay policy based
on employee characteristics and performance, (Austen et al.,
2013) enhance employee
behaviour over the long run (Kalhoff et al., 2011). Finally,
shaping and channelling
employees’ behaviour to that specific direction should be at the
top of both operational and
functional strategies (Daft, 2010). Although organizational
culture has no direct impact on
the financial performance (Yesil and Kaya, 2013), but recently
evaluating the intangible
assets such as employees, systems and culture became part of
the balanced scorecard of
companies that seeks competitive advantage in a dynamic
environment (Awadh and
Alyahya, 2013; Kaplan and Norton, 1996). Starbucks coffee
company, with more than 2,500

worldwide stores, relates its success to employees’ performance
and believes that employees
work best with customers when they are better treated
(Flamholtz and Randle, 1998). A
firm’s mission reflects its ultimate long-term objective, which
is accomplished by conducting
integrated operational and behavioural activities. A firm’s
performance improves if it has a
clear sense of purpose and commitment towards its mission. A
successful and a well-
performing organization defines its organizational goals as the
report card of its
forthcoming (long-term) future (Hamel and Prahalad, 1994;
Mintzberg, 1987; Ohmae, 1982).
Chatman et al. (1998) postulate that organizational culture has a
considerable effect on work
processes and outcomes. Moreover, organizational culture
shapes the way employees
operate and interact with each other in an organization, and
affects their self-perceptions,
post-task assessment and performance (Beyer, 1990). The
cultural model comprises various
norms, beliefs, values, rituals and symbols that govern the
operating style of the people
within a company. The corporate culture holds the workforce
together and provides a
direction for the company. The world is changing, and culture
has to adjust accordingly
(Awadh and Alyahya, 2013; Hofstede, 2011). In times of
change, the biggest challenge for
any organization may be to change its culture, as the employees
are already accustomed to a
certain way of doing their routines (Chatman et al., 1998), and
this brings us to the
irreplaceable role of leadership along with the rehabilitation of
organizational culture

(Awadh and Alyahya, 2013). Thus, the need to study where the
relationship stands and
whether it is gender differentiated.
2.5 The effect of leadership on performance
Leadership is a process based on social influence in which the
leader strives for the
voluntary participation of subordinates to achieve
organizational goals. A leader is a
person who motivates others to act, so as to carry out specified
objectives. According to
Maslow’s theory, motivation depends on the hierarchy of needs
of individuals regardless
of their gender. Organizations need effective leaders, leaders
who understand the
convolutions of the rapidly changing global environment (Kim
and Yoon, 2015;
Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996). A structured task and a leader
with a good relationship
with the employees are the perfect combination to generate high
effectiveness on the part
of the employees (Boehm et al., 2015).
Leadership styles could be divided into four main types:
autocratic, democratic, laissez-
faire and human relations. An autocratic leader (dictator) is a
leader who has the notion of
controlling all decisions, often outlining the means of how to
achieve targets. Such a leader
uses fear and control to lead employees. Democratic leaders on
the other hand would involve
group members in decision-making activities. The laissez-faire
approach encourages
independence of followers and rarely contributes to the
processes that generate output.
Finally, a human relations leader emphasizes on people more

than he emphasizes on
performance (Skakon et al., 2010; Misumi and Peterson, 1985;
Gastil, 1994).
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Several studies examined the effect of the different leadership
styles on employee
performance. (Chen, 2004; Fry, (2003). Motivation enhances
performance (Fry, (2003).
Therefore, leader’s gender plays a significant role in fluctuating
performance, as their
capability of interaction and motivation differs (AlAnezi and
Alansari, 2016; Rice et al.,
1979). Moreover, Kaur (1993) reports that most Indian
managers prefer the autocratic
style, and that employees in the observed organizations are
highly committed to their
organizations and are highly satisfied with their jobs, and their
performance is high
(Kaur, 1993). A number of studies carried out in the Arab world
suggest that leadership
in the Arab cultures fosters consultative and participative
tendencies (Alnuaimi, 2013).
According to this study, the influence of Islamic and tribal
values and beliefs on
leadership cannot be denied, as both Islamic and tribal laws
underpin consultation in
all aspects of life (Boussif, 2010). Based on gender’s
performance in working and
conflicts conditions, leadership competencies such as relational

and interpersonal skills
are more likely related to the quality of female leaders, whereas
strategic planning and
decision-making are mainly male’s leadership skills (Almaki et
al., 2016). However, the
various positions held by outstanding female leaders (Irene
Rosenfeld, Indra K. Nooyi,
Drew Gilpin Faust, etc.) can change the equation and consider
culture the key reason
holding back women from leadership positions. Moreover,
scholars highlight the
relationship between leadership and employee job performance
within an organization.
While management by fear can create tensions that might
produce the desired result in
the short term, it is unlikely that success will be sustained,
whereas leaders who create
a trusting open environment where information is shared create
an organization that
can rise to any challenge (Jing and Avery, 2008).
A particular style of leadership may not always motivate good
performance. Varying the
leadership styles according to the different situations is
recommended, and each leader must
be able to know when to exhibit a particular approach and with
whom. No one-leadership
style is ideal for every situation; a leader may have knowledge
and skills to act effectively in
one situation but may not emerge as effective in another
(Goleman et al., 2013). Employees
consider transformational leadership style part of an innovative
culture that provides the
suitable climate for creativity (Kim and Yoon, 2015) and boosts
performance (Boehm et al.,
2015). From the employees’ perspective, what they see leader’s

behaviour builds their
perception of the person-leader, and on this perception, they
build their own feedback,
cooperation level and adjustment to the work environment and
its demands. The essence is
not whether one specific leadership style is better to be applied
than the others, but rather to
test whether the way the leader deals with the employees (style)
reflects in their performance
of their work tasks, taking into account the individual
preferences of leadership styles.
As a result of the above discussion of the reviewed literature, a
gap is identified in the
body of knowledge, where the relationship between
organizational culture and employees’
performance could be both direct and indirect (as mediated by
leadership style). Where most
of the reported studies report one relationship only between
employees’ performance, or on between leadership style and
performance, this paper
investigates both relationship simultaneously, as both direct,
and as mediated by leadership
style. To address this gap, the researchers are suggesting the
following hypotheses to test
(Figure 1):
H1. Organizational culture positively affects employees’
performance.
H2. Leadership style mediates the relationship between
employees’ performance.
Employees’

performance of
genders
637
3. Methodology
This study’s philosophy follows the positivist theory which
underlines observational
information and investigational work to identify noticeable
regularities. It follows the
deductive approach to research aiming at postulating hypotheses
and testing them for the
purpose of amending or modifying available theories. Moreover,
the study uses a survey as
a tool popular among business researchers and respondents as
well, to collect data about the
respondents a leadership style, and relies on data from the
operational records of the
companies surveyed in assessing employees’ performance. This
strategy allows for a faster
and cheaper data collection process than other strategies, while
permitting the selection of
the sample (random or other) to measure for a set number of
variables while controlling for
others. The researchers opted for the use of the survey
technique, choosing a quantitative
approach for their cross-sectional study. The collected data is
then analysed for the purpose
of identifying results, or trends in the observed sample
(Saunders et al., 2009).
For the purpose of this study, a questionnaire is prepared in four
sections. The first

comprises of four demographic questions aimed at capturing the
respondents’ gender, age,
education and tenure, where all the targeted sample is of
employees in the service sector. To
avoid the issue of predictive validity, the researchers used
scales that are already tested and
validated. The second part is composed of 12 measure items that
focus on organizational
culture, and borrowed from a commonly used survey and
adapted for the purpose of this
study (http://implementer.com/implementer/newtools/
orgcultquest.html). The third part of
the questionnaire is made up of six questions on performance
and used to compare results
with actual operational data, and the last part is composed of
ten questions taken from the
Humming Network’s questionnaire for performance assessment
(http://humming.net.au/
questionnaire.pdf). Moreover, and as the purpose of the study is
to assess the impact of
organizational culture (if any) on both leadership style and
performance, as well as the effect
of leadership style on performance, the leadership style
questionnaire targeted the
population of employees in the service sector, as applied in the
field of Lebanon using a
questionnaire developed by Palgrave
(www.palgrave.com/uploadedFiles/Leadership_Style.
pdf) and published by Northouse (2015).
The survey tool was piloted using a small hard copy of the
questionnaire on a group of 37
employees working in two different service firms to assert easy
of understanding, language
simplicity and clarity of job at hand. For the sampling process,
the researchers analysed the

population at hand. The total population is estimated to be
110,000 employees. The
researchers visited 72 firms in total and distributed a total of
550 questionnaires through
email lists received from a network of 40 medium-sized service
companies whose top
management accepted to participate in the study. Then the
researchers visited these firms
again, met with the Human Resources (HR) managers to put in
place the data collection
Figure 1.
Suggested model
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http://implementer.com/implementer/newtools/
http://humming.net.au/questionnaire.pdf
http://www.palgrave.com/uploadedFiles/Leadership_Style.pdf
process, allowing for confidentiality and anonymity of the data
collected, whereby the
respondents received an email directly from the researchers and
responded on-line. In
selecting the sample, the researchers put a number of criteria.
First, the respondent needed
to have a personal email at work. Second, the respondent should
have an adequate mastery
of the English language to be able to fill the questionnaire.
Finally, for privacy and adequacy

of data collection, the respondents needed to have access to the
internet from their own
private workstation. The respondents received an email directly
from the researchers and
responded anonymously online or through printing their
responses and depositing them in
unmarked envelops in the HR fromwhere the researchers
collected them in person.
The received 407 responses from the 40 firms in different
geographic locations span a
wide coverage of the country (3.7%, of total population). Out of
the received responses, a few
proved to bemissing data; thus, the final number of usable
responses was 400.
The researchers entered the data to SPSS 22 to facilitate data
entry and data cleaning.
Then, a number of statistical tests were run on the data. The
first test was the CFA test run
on the data of Parts 2, 3 and 4 of the questionnaire. The results
show that the questionnaire
is valid as is. Moreover, the KMO results were 0.911, 0.828 and
0.676, respectively, with
Sig = 0.000 for all. Finally, the scale reliability is analysed
through the Cronbach’s alpha test
whose results are 0.842 for OC, 0.546 for leadership style and
0.843 for performance. Second,
analysing the data, the researchers found that age group
distribution of the respondents
who voluntarily contributed to the study is mainly young. In
fact, the first age group (aged
18-25) represents 51.0 per cent of the total sample, whereas
32.0 per cent are 26 to 35 years
old, and 8.5 per cent from the group are 36 to 45 years old, 6.8
per cent are 46 to 55 years and

only 1.8 per cent are older. This is in line with the population
demographics in a country
where the demographic distribution pyramid is wide-based.
Second, the gender of the
respondents is 207 males (51.7 per cent) and 193 females (48.3
per cent), which is close to the
national gender distribution of 46.5 per cent males and 53.5 per
cent females. Third, as for
the educational level of the respondents, the sample is
composed of a majorly educated
group where 61.0 per cent hold a bachelor’s degree (BA/BS);
21.5 per cent hold a masters’
degree and 4.8 per cent hold higher level degrees, leaving only
5.3 per cent with high school
education or less and 7.5 per cent of sophomore, baccalaureate
or technical/vocational
degrees. Finally, the tenure of the respondents as highlighted by
the results received shows
that the majority have less than five years of work experience
with the current organization
(59.0 per cent), 13.8 per cent have 6 to 10 years, 10.8 have 11
to 15 years, 8.3 per cent each
have 16 to 20 and 21 years or more.
4. Results
For analysing the respondents’ replies, the data are used to run
a correlation analysis using
SPSS 22. The results reveal a number of interesting
relationships. First, gender is positively
weakly correlated with tenure, organizational culture and
performance. This means that for
females: tenure is longer (r = 0.258; Sig. = 0.000; p < 0.01);
organizational culture is more
important (r = 0.103; Sig. = 0.000; p< 0.05); and performance
of females is higher (r = 0.258;
Sig. = 0.000; p< 0.05). Second, age is negatively weakly

correlated with gender (r =�0.145;
Sig. = 0.000; p < 0.01) meaning that there are more young
female employees in these firms
than there are males. Moreover, age is positively but weakly
correlated with both
performance (r = 0.138; Sig. = 0.006; p < 0.01) and leadership
style (r = 0.119; Sig. = 0.017;
p< 0.05), which shows that the older employees are more
sensitive to the style of leadership
applied in the organization, and respond with increased
performance on the job. Third,
tenure is positively weakly correlated with organizational
culture (r = 0.133; Sig. = 0.008;
p < 0.01), performance (r = 0.176; Sig. = 0.000; p < 0.01) and
leadership style (r = 0.154;
Employees’
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639
Sig = 0.002; p < 0.01). Fourth, organizational culture is strongly
positively correlated to
performance (r = 0.736; Sig. = 0.000; p< 0.01) but very weakly
to leadership style (r = 0.086;
Sig. = 0.087; p < 0.05). Finally, performance is weakly
positively correlated to leadership
style (r= 0.206; Sig. = 0.000; p< 0.01).
Furthermore, a regression analysis was run to identify the
explanatory power of the
different variables of the suggested model. Using SPSS 22, the

postulated relationships are
tested independently (Figure 2), then using the “Enter”
function, the model was tested. The
results show that organizational culture does affect employees’
performance (R2 = 0.540;
Sig. = 0.000), allowing us to accept the H1. When leadership
style is “Entered” into the
regression, adjusted R2 increases slightly (2 per cent) (from R2
= 0.540 to 0.560, with Sig. =
0.000). This allows us to accept ourH2 in general. The formula
for the straight line equation
is as follows:
F Performanceð Þ ¼ 0:445ð ÞOrganizational Culture þ 0:157ð
ÞLeadership Style � 3:853
Regression analysis is also used, using the Process Macros
technique and Hayes, to
investigate the hypothesis that leadership style mediates the
effect of organizational culture
on employees’ performance (Appendix). Results indicate that
organizational culture is not a
significant predictor leadership style, b = 0.0483; SE = 0.0282;
p = 0.0871, and that
leadership style is a significant predictor of employees’
performance, b = 0.1571***; SE =
0.0364. These results do not fully support the mediation
hypothesis, as organizational
culture is still a significant predictor of employees’
performance after controlling for the
mediator leadership style, b = 0.4455***; SE = 0.0205.
Approximately, 2 per cent of
the variation in the dependent variable (employees’
performance) is accounted for by the
predictor (R2 = 0.0218). The indirect effect is tested using a
bootstrap estimation approach

with 400 samples. These results indicate the indirect coefficient
is not significant, b = 0.0759;
SE = 0.0058, 95 per cent CI = �0.0013 0.0219. Employees’
performance is associated with
approximately 0.168 points higher employees performance
scores as mediated by
Leadership Style.
Moreover, to analyse for gender-related variance in
performance, the researchers ran two
tests. First, a hierarchical multiple regression and, second, a
correlations and linear
regression analysis after performing a data split. First, the
hierarchical multiple regression
is used with the predictor independent variable (organizational
culture) as reported by
Behery and Paton (2008), Lok and Crawford (2001), Deal and
Kennedy (1983) and Peters
et al. (1982). Leadership is entered as a “Next” variable and
performance as a dependent.
Moreover, the demographic variable “Gender” is also entered as
a “Net” variable to test what
Madsen et al. (2005), Goulet and Singh (2002) and Kirchmeyer
(1995) report to be a
predisposition effect. The results of the show that gender’s
effect on the variability of the
Figure 2.
Regression analysis
results
R = 0.736
R2 = 0.541
R = 0.086
R2 = 0.007

Sig. = 0.087
Leadership style
Organiza�onal
culture R = 0.206
R2 = 0.400
Performance
Sig. = 0.000
Sig. = 0.000
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results is insignificant (R2 = 0.000; Sig. = 0.816); whereas
organizational culture explains
54.2 per cent (R2 = 0.542; Sig. = 0.000) and leadership style
improved variability of the
independent variable by 2 to 56.2 per cent (R2 = 0.562; Sig. =
0.000). Second, the results of the
correlations’ test clearly show the existence of gendered
variances in perceptions and
employees’ beliefs (Tables I and II). In addition to the
demographic variables’ correlation
relationships with the different factors under consideration, OC
is highly correlated to
performance for both genders at slightly different levels
(R2Male = 0.774; Sig. = 0.000; p <
0.01; R2Female = 0.700; Sig. = 0.000; p< 0.01), the same
applies to the correlation between OC

and leadership style (R2Male = 0.039; Sig. = 0.576; R
2
Female = 0.132; Sig. = 0.06); and
performance and leadership style (R2Male = 0.151; Sig. =
0.029; p < 0.01; R
2
Female = 0.257;
Sig. = 0.000; p< 0.01).
Moreover, the regression results of the testing of the model with
data split by gender
resulted in slight variations in the statistical outcome (Figures 3
and 4) and the following
two different formulas of the straight line.
Table I.
Correlation results by
gender
Correlation of variables
Male Female
R2 Significance R2 Significance
Age and tenure 0.646** 0.000 0.441** 0.000
Age and organizational citizenship 0.015 0.836 0.208** 0.004
Age and performance 0.040 0.572 0.287** 0.000
Age and leadership style 0.130 0.061 0.106 0.141
Education and tenure 0.177* 0.011 0.038 0.604
Education and performance �0.0 08 0.911 0.212** 0.003
Tenure and organizational citizenship 0.006 0.936 0.309**
0.000

Tenure and performance 0.055 0.435 0.335** 0.000
Tenure and leadership style 0.072 0.305 0.258** 0.000
Tenure and democratic leadership 0.058 0.407 0.152** 0.035
Tenure and autocratic leadership 0.049 0.480 0.252** 0.000
Organizational citizenship and performance 0.774** 0.000
0.700** 0.000
Organizational citizenship and leadership style 0.039 0.576
0.132 0.068
Performance and leadership style 0.151* 0.029 0.257** 0.000
Notes: *p< 0.05; **p< 0.01
Table II.
Regression results by
gender
Regression R R2 Significance SE F
Male
A OC and Perf 0.774 0.599 0.000 3.129 306.264
B OC and LS 0.039 0.002 0.576 4.523 0.314
C LS and Perf 0.151 0.023 0.029 4.884 4.814
C’ Mediation 0.783 0.614 0.000 3.078 162.078
Female
A OC and Perf 0.700 0.490 0.000 3.806 183.516
B OC and LS 0.132 0.017 0.068 4.837 3.379
C LS and Perf 0.257 0.066 0.000 5.151 13.462
C’ Mediation 0.719 0.517 0.000 3.712 101.883
Employees’
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641
FMale Performanceð Þ ¼ 0:466ð ÞOrganizational Culture
þ 0:133ð ÞLeadership Style � 3:774
FFemale Performanceð Þ ¼ 0:425ð ÞOrganizational Culture
þ 0:183ð ÞLeadership Style � 3:936
The results show that male respondents emphasize more on OC,
while their female
counterparts stress more on leadership style, which allows us to
accept H2, that the
relationship is gender affect.
5. Analysis
The results of the data analysis reveal some important factors
that should be further
highlighted. First, analysing the results for gender, the
relationship between gender and
tenure shows that the female employees have a higher tendency
to remain tenured on the
job. Adding the result that the respondents’ age is negatively
correlated with gender, i.e.
there are more men older in age than women on the job, while
also having more young
women than men. This shows that the job market is accepting
higher level of women in
entry level jobs, whereas the majority of those tenured are men.
Moreover, the relationship
of gender with organizational culture clearly shows that the
female employees embrace
organizational culture to a higher extent and also perform better
than their male
counterparts. The reasons behind this female adaptation to the

organizational culture might
be socially implied, in a majorly paternalistic society, the
manager is a male figure who
plays or fits in the role/figure, enjoying a team of subordinating
employees.
Second, the relationship between age and performance is
positively correlated. As a rule
of thumb, older employees should know the job better due to
their learning curve and work
Figure 4.
Regression analysis
results – female
respondents
R = 0.700
R2 = 0.490
Sig. = 0.000
Sig. = 0.068
Leadership style
Organiza�onal
culture R = 0.257
R2 = 0.066
Sig. = 0.000
Performance
R = 0.132
R2 = 0.017
Figure 3.
Regression analysis

results –male
respondents
R = 0.151
R2 = 0.023
Sig. = 0.029R = 0.774
R2 = 0.599
Sig. = 0.000
R = 0.039
R2 = 0.002
Sig. = 0.576
Leadership style
Organiza�onal
culture
Performance
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experience, and this is also confirmed by this field exercise.
However, what is an unexpected
result is that older employees are exerting behaviours affected
by the leadership style,
whereas with expectations of maturity and wisdom, one would
expect otherwise. Thus,
senior employees are showing more resistance rather than
adaptability to the leadership

style used their respective leaders. This pushes the researchers
to believe that managers
need to build on this conceptual finding in providing further
training and development of
employees’ skills in addition to an organizational culture of
acceptance, adaptation and
diversity. This unexpected result that older employees are more
affected by their superior’s
leadership style than younger ones raises a question concerning
work experience, social
intelligence andwork environment dynamics that need further
investigation.
Third, the relationship between tenure and organizational
culture traditionally follows
the logic of longer in the company, better adapted to its culture
and better serving as
ambassador for its dissemination. Moreover, the positive
correlation of tenure and
performance at work is no news in the academic field. However,
relating tenure to leadership
style is arguable as managerial practices are rarely cited as a
main or primary reason for
tenure. Despite this, it is to the advantage of the leader to work
with a more coherent and
motivated team, as compared to a group of people who
happened to be there. Managers
should take into consideration this fact when introducing new
leadership and provide the in-
coming leader with a glimpse of historic information on the
team for better readiness and
adaptability on the leader’s side too.
Fourth, a stronger organizational culture of efficiency and
accomplishments, where
management seeks to find reasons to reward pre-approved

standards, or behaviour leads to
better compliance and adaptation to the peer stream of thought
and behaviour. This allows
new-coming staff to blend in faster and giving management the
advantage of a homogeneous
workforce or team that allows for higher work outputs.
Moreover, the leadership style that
encourages a culture of efficiency and accomplishment finds
himself leading a more efficient
team that has a certain zeal towards challenging jobs, and that
naturally ends up providing a
higher performance level.
Fifth, a strong organizational culture typified by a specific
leadership style will affect the
performance of the many who do not champion this same style.
The results of such beliefs
may generate either a less motivated work behaviour with less
performance and zeal or with
employees reaching a plateau at which development and
performance are out of the frame.
Finally, analysing for the gendered effect, the results vary
slightly among the genders in
different dimensions. The differences are attributed to general
gender issues and
behavioural conducts. The introduction of the leadership style
for both males and females
increases fit of the model explaining the effect of OC on
performance by approximately 9
per cent for men and 5 per cent for women.
6. Implications, limitations and conclusions
This study is the result of a thorough scientific process and its
results span across both
academic and practical worlds. Therefore, in the following, we

present a number of
managerial implications, study limitations and suggestions for
future research.
Building on the field study results reported here-above, a
number of implications are
worthy of mention. First, managers should devise coaching and
reward programmes that
are fairly attractive to both genders independently of each other.
These programmes should
take into consideration the gender and age factors to entice
andmotivate younger employees
to perform better. Today’s young members of the work-teams
are better networked, more
informed and ambitious, probably have their different
respective agendas and goals, that
thereby need to be aligned with those of the organization using
tools that are more
Employees’
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genders
643
interactive, flexible and customized. Second, the human
resources function in an
organization, along with its upper management levels, should
put forth plans to strengthen
their organizational culture’s desirable norms, values and
beliefs, using different art-facts,
stories, rituals, routines, events, meetings, newsletter, web sites
or other means, while also

aligning the organizational culture with the company’s vision,
mission, values and long-
term strategic goals. To do so, plans must be carefully
developed and unfolded, using
different targeted diffusion media and support programmes that
can attain the specific
gender/age groups of employees and potential hires. The result
of a pervasive positive
culture is reported in the literature to improve performance and
tenure, and thus warrants
the efforts and costs of such a plan to disseminate the culture to
a higher pervasiveness
level. Third, creating a strong culture in the organization
through unified norms, values and
beliefs, improves both employees’ efficiency and effectiveness,
communication and mutual
understanding. Moreover, it helps mainstream those members of
the team who are either
accidental or from different cultural backgrounds, into a
workable middle-point at which
work-flow and processes improve. This step inherently means
on the other side of the coin,
that the organization may shed or that some employees may
elect to withdraw, creating an
excessive resource leakage beyond the normal attrition rate, and
that the human resources
department should take into account in their recruitment plans
and activities. Fourth,
initiating, building and enhancing a strong culture within an
organizational setting creates a
sense of belonging, a feeling of similarity and unity among
employees, in addition to the core
belief of organizational ownership. This ownership feeling by
itself generates a performance
efficiency as employees begin to associate themselves with their
organization, and their

well-being and future career plans with those of the
organization’s development and well-
being. Therefore, compensation plans with profit sharing or
similar tools may prove to be
efficient. Fifth, a strong organizational culture would also mean
a certain agreed-upon
leadership style, that is probably cascaded down through the
managerial ranks but also a
style that everybody is used to adapt-to and adopt. In the long
run, this will inhibit change,
diversity and independent thinking, thereby generating
managers who only think inside the
box. Sixth, a coupled performance and organizational culture of
efficiency at the workplace,
if not paralleled with a proper leadership style that fosters
positive results, will only result in
partial improvements in the big picture (not exceeding 20.6 per
cent as the study results
show). Therefore, the leader selection process should look into
different techniques and
multi-layers of assessment, including more modern tools, such
as psychometric tests, 360
degrees evaluation, in addition to better leadership preparation
stages in training and
skilling, in personality and role adaptability, decision-making
processes and tools, as well as
efficient communication techniques, all of which may help
facilitate the process and
determine effective roles of genders in the organization.
Seventh, the study’s implications on the academic environment
and body of knowledge
relate to the change in the environment. In fact, and as
witnessed in the literature, leadership
style has been looked at for the past few decades as a major
contributor in affecting

employees’ performance. However, revisiting the leadership
style with a new model and a
sampled new generation of dot.coms and stay-connected
employees, the results of this study
clearly show that this impact is out-grown by another trend that
we suggest to name “The
system trend”, among the new generation of white-collar
employees. Thus, further research is
suggested to investigate what factors do truly matter for this
generation of young adults,
leading to policy changes that are definitely warranted in light
of the above results. The effect
of this system acceptance on the performance of employees
takes us back to the discussion of
open and closed organizational systems and whether one is
better than the other.
IJOA
26,4
644
The study has a number of limitations. First, the sampling
process and sample selection
(convenience) took more effort from the researchers to avoid
falling into sampling bias. The
researchers surveyed employees of companies to which they
have access or contact with a
top manager authority figure or a managing partner, and as
many refused to collaborate or
take part in the study, this increased the cost in both time and
money. Second, electing to use
a specific set of criteria in sampling might have resulted in
eliminating a meaningful different

direction in the results, but it helped preserve the generalization
of the results. Third, the
study only covers the service sectors, which raises questions on
replicability of the study in
other sectors and generalizability of results. Finally, the number
of measure items in the
questionnaire was large; therefore, the researchers’ initial plan
to also assess the personality
trait of respective the respondent’s leader was not done. The
reason for not extending the
personality trait section is the researchers’ fear that respondents
might misunderstand the
survey as being initiated by uppermanagement to assess lower
level managers.
This study opened the door for future research on the
relationship between the ever
present debate on employees’ performance and leadership style,
adding a third dimension,
i.e. organizational culture, at a time when organizational culture
is becoming more unified as
a result of both globalization and standardization, and the
constant strive of organization to
improve efficiency and conflict resolution through managing
teams’ emotional intelligence.
The effect of social media, comments, sharing and venting,
along with a broad unified
education world-wide, is another stream of anticipated future
brick to add in the academic
literature, especially with a growing trend among the new
generation (the Dot Com
generation) of white-collar employees who have a different
perspective to life.
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Corresponding author
Bassem E. Maamari can be contacted at: [email protected]
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Employees’
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How organizational culture and leadership style affect
employees’ performance of genders1. Introduction2. Literature
review2.1 Organizational culture2.2 Leadership style2.3
Performance2.4 Effect of organizational culture on
performance2.5 The effect of leadership on performance3.

Methodology4. Results5. Analysis6. Implications, limitations
and conclusionsReferences
M I N D , B R A I N , A N D E D U C A T I O N
Inquiry-Based Stress Reduction
Meditation Technique for
Teacher Burnout:
A Qualitative Study
Lia Schnaider-Levi1, Inbal Mitnik1, Keren Zafrani2, Zehavit
Goldman3, and Shahar Lev-Ari1,4
ABSTRACT— An inquiry-based intervention has been
found to have a positive effect on burnout and mental
well-being parameters among teachers. The aim of the
current study was to qualitatively evaluate the effect of the
inquiry-based stress reduction (IBSR) meditation technique
on the participants. Semi-structured interviews were con-
ducted before and after the IBSR intervention and were
analyzed using the interpretative phenomenological analy-
sis method. Before the intervention, the teachers described
emotional overload caused by two main reasons: (1) multi-
ple stressful interactions with students, parents, colleagues,
and the educational system, and (2) the ideological load
of their profession—trying to fulfill high expectations of
performance and the manifesting educational values. Fol-
lowing the intervention, the teachers described a sense of
centeredness and a greater ability to accept reality. They
reported improvements in setting boundaries, thought
flexibility, and self-awareness. These improvements assisted
them in coping with the complex and dynamic nature of
their profession. These positive effects suggest that IBSR is
an effective technique in reducing teachers’ burnout and
promoting mental well-being.

1Department of Health Promotion, School of Public Health,
Sackler
Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University
2Begin High School
3Blich High School
4Center of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, Tel Aviv
Medical
Center
Address correspondence to Shahar Lev-Ari, Department of
Health
Promotion, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of
Medicine, Tel
Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel; e-mail:
[email protected]
Burnout is defined as a response to a chronic emotional
strain due to dealing extensively with other human beings,
particularly when having to deal with recurring problems as
well as reduced coping resources (Maslach, 2003; Maslach,
Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Its components are emotional
exhaustion, defined as a lack of mental resources due to an
emotional overload; depersonalization, defined as an alien-
ated and negative attitude toward the surroundings; and
decreased personal accomplishment, defined as reduced abil-
ity to accomplish desirable results due to lack of external or
internal resources (Awa, Plaumann, & Walter, 2010; Emery &
Vandenberg, 2010; Friedman, 1993; Maslach, 2003; Maslach
et al., 1996). Burnout has been researched intensively in the
field of education, and various studies have described its
prevalence among teachers (Brackenreed, 2011; De Heus &
Diekstra, 1999; Friedman, 2000; Honkonen et al., 2006; Luk,
Chan, Cheong, & Ko, 2009; Schaufeli & Buunk, 2002), as well
as its significant personal and social implications, such as low
level of performance, reduced commitment to teaching, high
turnover (Friedman, 1993; Gold & Roth, 1993; Melamed,

Shirom, Toker, Berliner, & Shapira, 2006; Sorek, Tal, & Paz,
2004), and physical morbidity (Ahola, Väänänen, Koskinen,
Kouvonen, & Shirom, 2010; Bauer et al., 2006; Honkonen
et al., 2006; Melamed et al., 2006; Shirom, Toker, Melamed,
Berliner, & Shapira, 2013).
Teachers need to maintain high levels of mental
well-being in order to fit social expectations, professional
expectations, and their own expectations (Awa et al., 2010;
Pillay, Goddard, & Wilss, 2005). The optimal state of mental
health, which is best described as “mental well-being,”
related to health, optimism, contentment, hope, and hap-
piness, is when an individual fulfills his/her capabilities
and functions well under standard pressures of life so that
he/she can be productive and effective and can contribute to
society (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; World Health
Volume 11—Number 2 © 2017 The Authors Journal
Compilation © 2017 International 75
Mind, Brain, and Education Society and Wiley Periodicals Inc.
IBSR Meditation for Burnout Among Teachers
Organization, 2004). Promoting psychological well-being
focuses on the individual’s positive and optimal functioning
(Bolier et al., 2013; Keyes, 2007). Theorists have defined
the nature of positive psychological functioning in a variety
of ways; however, there is consensus around six common
factors that need to be addressed in order to avoid mental
weariness, frustration, anxiety, nervousness, depression,
emotional exhaustion, and psychosomatic problems (Keyes,
2007; Ryff, 1989, 1995; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; Tylee &
Wallace, 2009; World Health Organization, 2004). These
are self-acceptance, positive and reciprocal relationships

with others, autonomy in thought and action (the ability to
resist social pressure and to regulate behavior and thoughts
according to personal standards), environmental mastery
and competence (the ability to manage complex external
surroundings, to choose or create contexts suitable to per-
sonal needs and values), purpose in life, and personal growth
and development.
The umbrella term of well-being promotion includes sev-
eral types of intervention, including approaches such as the
psycho-behavioral methods used in the corporate business
world (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy, coaching), posi-
tive psychology intervention (PPI) methods (e.g., practical
gratitude, art therapy, music therapy), and mindfulness tech-
niques (e.g., meditation, breathing practice; NCCAM, 2010;
Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; Tylee & Wallace, 2009).
Mindfulness-based interventions are designed to enhance
the mind’s capacity to be aware of the present moment and
to accept one’s current experiences without judgment or
elaboration (Bishop et al., 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 1994). With-
out compelling the suppression or alteration of emotions,
mindfulness enhancement enables the individual to have
greater control of thoughts and emotions while dismiss-
ing old habits and automatic reactions (Chambers, Gullone,
& Allen, 2009). Research has demonstrated that different
forms of meditation can enhance well-being across diverse
populations within (and beyond) the education sector. For
example, student educators were taught simple meditation
using sound as a focusing tool, and practiced it for 45 min
per session, four times. Questionnaires filled by the par-
ticipants who practiced this meditation have shown a sig-
nificant reduction in their stress symptoms in the posttest
measurements when compared to the control group in the
domains of emotional, gastronomic distress, and behavioral
manifestations (Elder, Nidich, Moriarty, & Nidich, 2014;

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