This review paper aims to provide a summary and overview of the influence of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) on education, language, and literacy from a multidimensional perspective. Vygotskyan perspective toward education in general and literacy, in particular, have been discussed immensely in the areas of language acquisition, child mental development, educational psychology, and social psychology. The current paper strives to provide an inclusive, but brief, vignette on the intersections and variations of implementation of Vygostkyan viewpoints in the above academic contexts. In addition, this paper present the main criticism directed at Vygotsky`s theoretical arguments accompanied with the alternative notions proposed
Australian home education_and_vygotskian_learning_theoryBasikal Tua
This document discusses Australian home education practices in light of Vygotskian learning theory. It finds that home education reflects many Vygotskian principles of learning through social interaction and mediation. Research shows homeschooled students are academically successful and socially engaged through community activities. Parents choose home education for reasons like stronger family relationships, flexible learning, and teaching values they find acceptable. Theories have been developed describing home education as a "community of practice" where parents guide children through authentic activities and conversation facilitates learning. Overall, Australian home education aligns well with Vygotskian perspectives on cognitive development through social and cultural means.
This article provides an overview of key concepts from sociocultural theory and how they can be applied to second language learning research. It discusses four main concepts:
1. Mediation - Learning is viewed as a socially mediated process where language and other tools mediate cognition. Interaction with more capable individuals also mediates learning.
2. Zone of proximal development - The ZPD represents what students can achieve with assistance that exceeds their independent abilities. Social interaction within the ZPD activates learning and development.
3. Scaffolding - Support provided within the ZPD, such as simplifying tasks or demonstrating solutions, allows students to accomplish tasks they cannot yet do independently. Peer scaffolding can also facilitate language development.
Can We Actually Assess Learner Autonomy? The Problematic Nature of Assessing Student Autonomy.
This paper explores, from a theoretical basis, the difficulty in defining and assessing learner
autonomy in higher education. Although the development of learner autonomy as a key aim of higher education, it is a vague and ill-defined term. As such, the assessment of learner autonomy within university programs of study is highly problematic. The author argues that the authentic assessment of genuine learner autonomy may not be possible within formal credit-bearing programs of higher education. The aim of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion so that university teaching staff may reflect and consider whether they can assess autonomy in the programs they are responsible for.
The document discusses how ICT can support collaborative creativity in modern schools. It makes three key points:
1. ICT tools like videoconferencing and web 2.0 applications allow students to collaboratively create, share, and build knowledge from remote locations in real time. This encourages a participatory culture of sharing ideas.
2. The ODYSSEUS program used ICT tools to have primary students from different schools collaboratively design and implement creative activities together remotely. Four stages of the process are outlined.
3. ICT supports collaborative creativity by enabling problem solving, sharing creative works, and social interaction between students. This helps students develop important skills for the knowledge society.
This document introduces a conceptual framework for a problem-based learning (PBL) model that incorporates 10 critical 21st century skills (10Cs) enabled by information and communication technologies, as well as the 6 pillars of 21st century learning. The 10Cs include critical thinking, communication, collaboration, creativity, connectivity, critical reflection, cross-cultural competence, co-responsibility, critical consciousness, and knowledge construction. The 6 learning pillars are learning to know, learning to be, learning to do, learning to live together, learning to transform oneself and society, and learning to give and share. The proposed PBL framework uses a set of interacting processes to facilitate curriculum design focused on generating solutions to sustainability problems through reflection and action
The collective construction of Knowledge - reportalicevborg
This study investigated how 7th grade students' mathematical understanding of probability developed through their participation in different social configurations within a computer-mediated classroom. The researcher examined how whole-class discussions and local investigations using a computer simulation collectively contributed to the students' probabilistic reasoning. Through two case studies, the researcher found that students' mathematical practices developed both for individual cognitive purposes and social communicative purposes of resolving disputes. The analysis showed how different social configurations built upon each other to shape individual learning and foster a shared understanding of probability within the classroom community.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Australian home education_and_vygotskian_learning_theoryBasikal Tua
This document discusses Australian home education practices in light of Vygotskian learning theory. It finds that home education reflects many Vygotskian principles of learning through social interaction and mediation. Research shows homeschooled students are academically successful and socially engaged through community activities. Parents choose home education for reasons like stronger family relationships, flexible learning, and teaching values they find acceptable. Theories have been developed describing home education as a "community of practice" where parents guide children through authentic activities and conversation facilitates learning. Overall, Australian home education aligns well with Vygotskian perspectives on cognitive development through social and cultural means.
This article provides an overview of key concepts from sociocultural theory and how they can be applied to second language learning research. It discusses four main concepts:
1. Mediation - Learning is viewed as a socially mediated process where language and other tools mediate cognition. Interaction with more capable individuals also mediates learning.
2. Zone of proximal development - The ZPD represents what students can achieve with assistance that exceeds their independent abilities. Social interaction within the ZPD activates learning and development.
3. Scaffolding - Support provided within the ZPD, such as simplifying tasks or demonstrating solutions, allows students to accomplish tasks they cannot yet do independently. Peer scaffolding can also facilitate language development.
Can We Actually Assess Learner Autonomy? The Problematic Nature of Assessing Student Autonomy.
This paper explores, from a theoretical basis, the difficulty in defining and assessing learner
autonomy in higher education. Although the development of learner autonomy as a key aim of higher education, it is a vague and ill-defined term. As such, the assessment of learner autonomy within university programs of study is highly problematic. The author argues that the authentic assessment of genuine learner autonomy may not be possible within formal credit-bearing programs of higher education. The aim of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion so that university teaching staff may reflect and consider whether they can assess autonomy in the programs they are responsible for.
The document discusses how ICT can support collaborative creativity in modern schools. It makes three key points:
1. ICT tools like videoconferencing and web 2.0 applications allow students to collaboratively create, share, and build knowledge from remote locations in real time. This encourages a participatory culture of sharing ideas.
2. The ODYSSEUS program used ICT tools to have primary students from different schools collaboratively design and implement creative activities together remotely. Four stages of the process are outlined.
3. ICT supports collaborative creativity by enabling problem solving, sharing creative works, and social interaction between students. This helps students develop important skills for the knowledge society.
This document introduces a conceptual framework for a problem-based learning (PBL) model that incorporates 10 critical 21st century skills (10Cs) enabled by information and communication technologies, as well as the 6 pillars of 21st century learning. The 10Cs include critical thinking, communication, collaboration, creativity, connectivity, critical reflection, cross-cultural competence, co-responsibility, critical consciousness, and knowledge construction. The 6 learning pillars are learning to know, learning to be, learning to do, learning to live together, learning to transform oneself and society, and learning to give and share. The proposed PBL framework uses a set of interacting processes to facilitate curriculum design focused on generating solutions to sustainability problems through reflection and action
The collective construction of Knowledge - reportalicevborg
This study investigated how 7th grade students' mathematical understanding of probability developed through their participation in different social configurations within a computer-mediated classroom. The researcher examined how whole-class discussions and local investigations using a computer simulation collectively contributed to the students' probabilistic reasoning. Through two case studies, the researcher found that students' mathematical practices developed both for individual cognitive purposes and social communicative purposes of resolving disputes. The analysis showed how different social configurations built upon each other to shape individual learning and foster a shared understanding of probability within the classroom community.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Vygotsky proposed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance and collaboration. Within the ZPD, learners can solve problems with assistance from a teacher or more capable peer. Scaffolding from a more knowledgeable person allows the learner to then internalize new skills and master tasks on their own. An example is provided of a tennis student struggling with her forehand grip but then improving with guidance from the instructor within her ZPD.
Constructivist Learning in University Undergraduate Programmes. Has Constructivism been Fully Embraced?
Is there Clear Evidence that Constructivist Principles have been
Applied to all Aspects of Contemporary University Undergraduate Study?
This conceptual paper provides an overview of constructivist education and the development and
use of constructivist principles in contemporary higher education, outlining constructivism and
some specific facets of student-centered learning. Drawing from first-hand experience and using two
examples of current university assessment practice, reflective learning, and learning outcomes, the
author argues that, despite claims constructivist pedagogical approaches have become normative
practice when it comes to assessment processes, constructivism has not been fully embraced. The question ‘is there clear evidence that constructivist principles have been applied to all aspects of university undergraduate study?’ is considered. This is important and significant and should be of concern to all educators who espouse constructivist principles in higher education.
The document outlines the agenda and topics covered in a class about narrative inquiry. The class discussed John Dewey's views on experience and education. It also covered Connelly and Clandinin's three commonplaces of narrative inquiry - temporality, sociality, and place. The class involved activities applying these concepts to classroom experiences and discussed the importance of continuity of experience. Students were assigned to keep a timeline of experiences and give an oral presentation the following week.
This document discusses scaffolding children's language learning in foreign language classrooms. It defines scaffolding as temporary support provided by teachers to help students complete tasks they cannot do independently. The document outlines Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, where learning occurs with guidance. It also discusses how teachers can scaffold students through the three layers of global goals, lesson activities, and moment-to-moment interactions. An example shows a teacher scaffolding 4-year-old Spanish students to describe the weather in English through visual aids, questions and building on their responses over time.
The document discusses Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural learning theory, including concepts like mediated learning, zone of proximal development (ZPD), scaffolding, and the role of language and psychological tools in development. Mediated learning involves more capable peers or teachers helping learners develop skills within their ZPD through scaffolding and modeling strategies. Vygotsky believed cognitive development depends on social interactions and appropriating cultural tools like language and symbols.
Examining constructivism through an online instructional design model when d...carthyf
1) The document discusses constructivism as a learning theory where learners actively construct their own understanding through experiences rather than knowledge being passively transmitted.
2) It links constructivism to Knowles' theory of andragogy which focuses on adult learners being self-directed with a wealth of prior experiences to draw from.
3) The document evaluates how one stage ("Reflect") of an online instructional design model ("IPSARRET") used by the company could incorporate constructivist learning principles for postgraduate adult learners.
Critical literacy is an approach to teaching literacy that encourages students to question and analyze texts. It teaches students to consider issues of power and perspective in what they read. Students learn to examine how texts influence readers and are shaped by the views of their authors. Teachers can foster critical literacy by having students analyze multiple perspectives on topics, consider alternative interpretations, and reflect on how language and messaging in texts position readers. While there is no single method, effective strategies include comparing different texts on the same topic, examining implied values, and teaching students to pose critical questions about issues of power, language, and worldviews presented in texts. The goal is to help students become active questioners who can evaluate reliability and consider social implications.
This document summarizes research on how students' level of interest and enjoyment in a topic impacts their approach to learning. The research found that students were more likely to adopt a deep approach, actively trying to understand the material, when they had a high level of interest and enjoyment in the topic. Conversely, students tended to take a surface approach, focusing only on memorization, when they had little interest or enjoyment. While previous research established that assessment requirements influence a student's approach, this study suggests interest and enjoyment are also important factors that can determine whether a student utilizes a deep or surface learning approach. The findings highlight the need for educators to consider how to engage student interest in order to encourage deep learning.
The document discusses constructivist design theory. It notes that constructivism has two main orientations: individual constructivism which emphasizes individual meaning-making, and social constructivism which highlights the role of social interactions in knowledge development. The most effective learning occurs when people actively derive meaning from their experiences and context. Constructivist design focuses on interactive and collaborative learning, scaffolding, problem-based learning, authentic learning activities, and learner control.
Pot Powerpoint Presntation Assignment #2 (Philosophy Statement)Scott Berry
The document discusses concepts related to education and learning. It argues that learning is a progressive mastery of more complex information, with each new concept building on previous understandings. It also notes that current education systems are typically designed this way, with students advancing in comprehension levels over time. However, it questions whether this linear model of education adequately prepares students for the unknown future.
The document discusses recent issues in second language acquisition (SLA). There are currently two major approaches to SLA: the cognitive/psycholinguistic approach and the sociocultural approach. The cognitive approach focuses on internal mental processes, while the sociocultural approach emphasizes social and cultural influences. Several alternative approaches have also been developed from sociocultural theory, including neo-Vygotskian, complexity theory, sociocognitive, and identity approaches. Scholars hold differing views on whether multiple approaches can co-exist or if one is superior.
11.a study of home environment and reasoning ability among secondary scho...Alexander Decker
The document is a study that examines the relationship between home environment and reasoning ability among secondary school students. It finds that:
1) Students from high home environments have higher reasoning ability scores than those from low home environments.
2) Private school students have higher reasoning ability scores than government school students.
3) There is a significant interaction between home environment and type of school on reasoning ability scores.
A study of home environment and reasoning ability among secondary school ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between home environment and reasoning ability among secondary school students. The study used tests to measure 250 students' reasoning abilities and home environments. It found that students from homes with high-quality environments had higher reasoning abilities than those from low-quality homes. It also found that private school students had higher reasoning abilities than government school students. Previous research discussed in the document suggests that aspects of the home environment like parent involvement, intellectual stimulation, and encouragement can positively impact children's academic achievement and development.
Problems With Assessing Student Autonomy in Higher Education, an Alternative Perspective and a Role For Mentoring.
https://www.edupij.com/files/1/articles/article_123/EDUPIJ_123_article_5a91aa7fe0490.pdf
Narratives of systemic barriers & accessibility summary of article 1Beth Carey
The document discusses narratives from educators on systemic barriers faced by vulnerable students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Key findings include: 1) The pandemic highlighted longstanding issues like lack of access to technology and inflexible scheduling; 2) Relationships between teachers and students are important for resilience but undermined by streaming and biases; 3) Students and educators called for reforming streaming practices and increasing student voice in academic pathways. Recommendations focus on enhancing teacher training, building a culture of care, and developing community partnerships.
Presentation at the annual conference of the Higher Education Learning and Teaching Association (HELTASA) in Bloemfontein, South Africa, 20 November, 2014
This document introduces the theory of connectivism as a new learning theory for the digital age. It summarizes that previous learning theories like behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism were developed before technology significantly impacted learning. Connectivism incorporates principles of networking, complexity theory, chaos theory, and self-organization and sees learning as a process that occurs within shifting environments, not under individual control. It proposes that the ability to recognize connections between fields and ideas is a core skill and that maintaining connections is needed for continual learning.
This document discusses the constructivist learning theory. It defines constructivism as a theory that explains how adult learners construct knowledge from their experiences. Constructivism synthesizes behavioral and cognitive learning theories. According to constructivism, learning occurs as learners create meaning through experiences and interactions, building on prior knowledge. Factors like realistic settings, relevant tasks, and interactions between learners and their environments influence learning. Memory is a cumulative history constructed from varied sources to understand situations. For transfer to occur, learning experiences must be authentic and meaningful contexts. Constructivism best explains advanced learning in complex domains through effective learning environments.
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed a sociocultural theory of cognitive development arguing that social interaction and cultural tools shape cognitive development. He believed social learning precedes development, where children internalize knowledge and strategies from more skilled partners within their zone of proximal development. Vygotsky's theory differs from Piaget in emphasizing the role of culture and social interaction over universal stages of development. His work influences modern educational practices like scaffolding and reciprocal teaching that use social learning strategies.
Lev Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Elizabeth M. Riddle.docxcroysierkathey
Lev Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Elizabeth M. Riddle
Lev Vygotsky, born in the U.S.S.R. in 1896, is responsible for the social development theory of
learning. He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive development.
Central to Vygotsky's theory is his belief that biological and cultural development do not occur
in isolation (Driscoll, 1994).
Vygotsky approached development differently from Piaget. Piaget believed that cognitive
development consists of four main periods of cognitive growth: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operations, and formal operations (Saettler, 331). Piaget's theory suggests that
development has an endpoint in goal. Vygotsky, in contrast, believed that development is a
process that should be analyzed, instead of a product to be obtained. According to Vygotsky, the
development process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex to to be
defined by stages (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather,1996).
Vygotsky believed that this life long process of development was dependent on social interaction
and that social learning actually leads to cognitive development. This phenomena is called the
Zone of Proximal Development . Vygotsky describes it as "the distance between the actual
development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978). In other words, a student can perform a task under
adult guidance or with peer collaboration that could not be achieved alone. The Zone of Proximal
Development bridges that gap between what is known and what can be known. Vygotsky
claimed that learning occurred in this zone.
Therefore, Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the cultural context in
which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky,
humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social
environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to
communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher
thinking skills. When Piaget observed young children participating in egocentric speech in their
preoperational stage, he believed it was a phase that disappeared once the child reached the stage
of concrete operations. In contrast, Vygotsky viewed this egocentric speech as a transition from
social speech to internalized thoughts (Driscoll, 1994). Thus, Vygotsky believed that thought and
language could not exist without each other.
Application of the Social Development Theory to Instructional Design
Traditionally, schools have not promoted environments in which the students play an active role
in their own education as well as their peers'. Vygotsky's theory, however, requires the teacher
and students to play ...
Vygotsky proposed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance and collaboration. Within the ZPD, learners can solve problems with assistance from a teacher or more capable peer. Scaffolding from a more knowledgeable person allows the learner to then internalize new skills and master tasks on their own. An example is provided of a tennis student struggling with her forehand grip but then improving with guidance from the instructor within her ZPD.
Constructivist Learning in University Undergraduate Programmes. Has Constructivism been Fully Embraced?
Is there Clear Evidence that Constructivist Principles have been
Applied to all Aspects of Contemporary University Undergraduate Study?
This conceptual paper provides an overview of constructivist education and the development and
use of constructivist principles in contemporary higher education, outlining constructivism and
some specific facets of student-centered learning. Drawing from first-hand experience and using two
examples of current university assessment practice, reflective learning, and learning outcomes, the
author argues that, despite claims constructivist pedagogical approaches have become normative
practice when it comes to assessment processes, constructivism has not been fully embraced. The question ‘is there clear evidence that constructivist principles have been applied to all aspects of university undergraduate study?’ is considered. This is important and significant and should be of concern to all educators who espouse constructivist principles in higher education.
The document outlines the agenda and topics covered in a class about narrative inquiry. The class discussed John Dewey's views on experience and education. It also covered Connelly and Clandinin's three commonplaces of narrative inquiry - temporality, sociality, and place. The class involved activities applying these concepts to classroom experiences and discussed the importance of continuity of experience. Students were assigned to keep a timeline of experiences and give an oral presentation the following week.
This document discusses scaffolding children's language learning in foreign language classrooms. It defines scaffolding as temporary support provided by teachers to help students complete tasks they cannot do independently. The document outlines Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, where learning occurs with guidance. It also discusses how teachers can scaffold students through the three layers of global goals, lesson activities, and moment-to-moment interactions. An example shows a teacher scaffolding 4-year-old Spanish students to describe the weather in English through visual aids, questions and building on their responses over time.
The document discusses Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural learning theory, including concepts like mediated learning, zone of proximal development (ZPD), scaffolding, and the role of language and psychological tools in development. Mediated learning involves more capable peers or teachers helping learners develop skills within their ZPD through scaffolding and modeling strategies. Vygotsky believed cognitive development depends on social interactions and appropriating cultural tools like language and symbols.
Examining constructivism through an online instructional design model when d...carthyf
1) The document discusses constructivism as a learning theory where learners actively construct their own understanding through experiences rather than knowledge being passively transmitted.
2) It links constructivism to Knowles' theory of andragogy which focuses on adult learners being self-directed with a wealth of prior experiences to draw from.
3) The document evaluates how one stage ("Reflect") of an online instructional design model ("IPSARRET") used by the company could incorporate constructivist learning principles for postgraduate adult learners.
Critical literacy is an approach to teaching literacy that encourages students to question and analyze texts. It teaches students to consider issues of power and perspective in what they read. Students learn to examine how texts influence readers and are shaped by the views of their authors. Teachers can foster critical literacy by having students analyze multiple perspectives on topics, consider alternative interpretations, and reflect on how language and messaging in texts position readers. While there is no single method, effective strategies include comparing different texts on the same topic, examining implied values, and teaching students to pose critical questions about issues of power, language, and worldviews presented in texts. The goal is to help students become active questioners who can evaluate reliability and consider social implications.
This document summarizes research on how students' level of interest and enjoyment in a topic impacts their approach to learning. The research found that students were more likely to adopt a deep approach, actively trying to understand the material, when they had a high level of interest and enjoyment in the topic. Conversely, students tended to take a surface approach, focusing only on memorization, when they had little interest or enjoyment. While previous research established that assessment requirements influence a student's approach, this study suggests interest and enjoyment are also important factors that can determine whether a student utilizes a deep or surface learning approach. The findings highlight the need for educators to consider how to engage student interest in order to encourage deep learning.
The document discusses constructivist design theory. It notes that constructivism has two main orientations: individual constructivism which emphasizes individual meaning-making, and social constructivism which highlights the role of social interactions in knowledge development. The most effective learning occurs when people actively derive meaning from their experiences and context. Constructivist design focuses on interactive and collaborative learning, scaffolding, problem-based learning, authentic learning activities, and learner control.
Pot Powerpoint Presntation Assignment #2 (Philosophy Statement)Scott Berry
The document discusses concepts related to education and learning. It argues that learning is a progressive mastery of more complex information, with each new concept building on previous understandings. It also notes that current education systems are typically designed this way, with students advancing in comprehension levels over time. However, it questions whether this linear model of education adequately prepares students for the unknown future.
The document discusses recent issues in second language acquisition (SLA). There are currently two major approaches to SLA: the cognitive/psycholinguistic approach and the sociocultural approach. The cognitive approach focuses on internal mental processes, while the sociocultural approach emphasizes social and cultural influences. Several alternative approaches have also been developed from sociocultural theory, including neo-Vygotskian, complexity theory, sociocognitive, and identity approaches. Scholars hold differing views on whether multiple approaches can co-exist or if one is superior.
11.a study of home environment and reasoning ability among secondary scho...Alexander Decker
The document is a study that examines the relationship between home environment and reasoning ability among secondary school students. It finds that:
1) Students from high home environments have higher reasoning ability scores than those from low home environments.
2) Private school students have higher reasoning ability scores than government school students.
3) There is a significant interaction between home environment and type of school on reasoning ability scores.
A study of home environment and reasoning ability among secondary school ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between home environment and reasoning ability among secondary school students. The study used tests to measure 250 students' reasoning abilities and home environments. It found that students from homes with high-quality environments had higher reasoning abilities than those from low-quality homes. It also found that private school students had higher reasoning abilities than government school students. Previous research discussed in the document suggests that aspects of the home environment like parent involvement, intellectual stimulation, and encouragement can positively impact children's academic achievement and development.
Problems With Assessing Student Autonomy in Higher Education, an Alternative Perspective and a Role For Mentoring.
https://www.edupij.com/files/1/articles/article_123/EDUPIJ_123_article_5a91aa7fe0490.pdf
Narratives of systemic barriers & accessibility summary of article 1Beth Carey
The document discusses narratives from educators on systemic barriers faced by vulnerable students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Key findings include: 1) The pandemic highlighted longstanding issues like lack of access to technology and inflexible scheduling; 2) Relationships between teachers and students are important for resilience but undermined by streaming and biases; 3) Students and educators called for reforming streaming practices and increasing student voice in academic pathways. Recommendations focus on enhancing teacher training, building a culture of care, and developing community partnerships.
Presentation at the annual conference of the Higher Education Learning and Teaching Association (HELTASA) in Bloemfontein, South Africa, 20 November, 2014
This document introduces the theory of connectivism as a new learning theory for the digital age. It summarizes that previous learning theories like behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism were developed before technology significantly impacted learning. Connectivism incorporates principles of networking, complexity theory, chaos theory, and self-organization and sees learning as a process that occurs within shifting environments, not under individual control. It proposes that the ability to recognize connections between fields and ideas is a core skill and that maintaining connections is needed for continual learning.
This document discusses the constructivist learning theory. It defines constructivism as a theory that explains how adult learners construct knowledge from their experiences. Constructivism synthesizes behavioral and cognitive learning theories. According to constructivism, learning occurs as learners create meaning through experiences and interactions, building on prior knowledge. Factors like realistic settings, relevant tasks, and interactions between learners and their environments influence learning. Memory is a cumulative history constructed from varied sources to understand situations. For transfer to occur, learning experiences must be authentic and meaningful contexts. Constructivism best explains advanced learning in complex domains through effective learning environments.
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed a sociocultural theory of cognitive development arguing that social interaction and cultural tools shape cognitive development. He believed social learning precedes development, where children internalize knowledge and strategies from more skilled partners within their zone of proximal development. Vygotsky's theory differs from Piaget in emphasizing the role of culture and social interaction over universal stages of development. His work influences modern educational practices like scaffolding and reciprocal teaching that use social learning strategies.
Lev Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Elizabeth M. Riddle.docxcroysierkathey
Lev Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Elizabeth M. Riddle
Lev Vygotsky, born in the U.S.S.R. in 1896, is responsible for the social development theory of
learning. He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive development.
Central to Vygotsky's theory is his belief that biological and cultural development do not occur
in isolation (Driscoll, 1994).
Vygotsky approached development differently from Piaget. Piaget believed that cognitive
development consists of four main periods of cognitive growth: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operations, and formal operations (Saettler, 331). Piaget's theory suggests that
development has an endpoint in goal. Vygotsky, in contrast, believed that development is a
process that should be analyzed, instead of a product to be obtained. According to Vygotsky, the
development process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex to to be
defined by stages (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather,1996).
Vygotsky believed that this life long process of development was dependent on social interaction
and that social learning actually leads to cognitive development. This phenomena is called the
Zone of Proximal Development . Vygotsky describes it as "the distance between the actual
development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978). In other words, a student can perform a task under
adult guidance or with peer collaboration that could not be achieved alone. The Zone of Proximal
Development bridges that gap between what is known and what can be known. Vygotsky
claimed that learning occurred in this zone.
Therefore, Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the cultural context in
which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky,
humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social
environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to
communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher
thinking skills. When Piaget observed young children participating in egocentric speech in their
preoperational stage, he believed it was a phase that disappeared once the child reached the stage
of concrete operations. In contrast, Vygotsky viewed this egocentric speech as a transition from
social speech to internalized thoughts (Driscoll, 1994). Thus, Vygotsky believed that thought and
language could not exist without each other.
Application of the Social Development Theory to Instructional Design
Traditionally, schools have not promoted environments in which the students play an active role
in their own education as well as their peers'. Vygotsky's theory, however, requires the teacher
and students to play ...
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS VYGOTSKY S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND MONTESSORI S THEORYAllison Koehn
This document compares the theories of Vygotsky and Montessori on child development and learning. Both theorists saw social interaction and environment as influencing development, though they differed in some ways. Vygotsky viewed learning as directing development, while Montessori focused on normalizing development so that learning could occur. Their classroom approaches also varied, with Vygotsky seeing it as a social setting and Montessori emphasizing student autonomy and individualized curricula. Overall, both theorists recognized the importance of social and environmental factors for optimal learning and growth.
Vygotsky's social development theory stresses that social interaction plays a fundamental role in cognitive development. Children can achieve more when supported by social interaction such as collaboration with peers or guidance from adults. Vygotsky defined the "zone of proximal development" as the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with help. Within this zone, scaffolding from social interaction allows children to develop skills and internalize higher-level thinking.
Running head CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY .docxhealdkathaleen
Running head: CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY 1
Classroom Applications of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Your Name Here
Austin Peay State University
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY 2
Classroom Applications of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Introduction
Cognitive development in children and its impact on classroom learning have been
explained from diverse of points of view by a number of theories. The main constructs of
sociocultural theory rest on social experiences and interaction set in the framework of culture, as
they influence learning and, therefore, cognitive development. Lev Vygotsky, the father of
sociocultural theory, based these ideas on his experiences and observations as a classroom
teacher further extending his theory with research studies that included observation as well as
testing (Mooney, 2000). However, Vygotsky died at the young age of 38 before many of his
theories were fully developed. Still, his thoughts on cognitive development and learning continue
to be a major influence in education today and are the foundation for many teaching strategies
(Mooney, 2000; Ormrod, 2014; Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992).
Summary of Theory
Sociocultural theory provides a multifaceted view of learning and cognitive development.
Vygotsky’s analysis of the interdependence of cognitive development and learning is central to
sociocultural theory. According to Vygotsky (1978), “although learning is directly related to the
course of child development, the two are never accomplished in equal measure or in parallel” (p.
35). While cognitive development and learning occur concurrently, building on each other, they
do not always occur at the same rate. This led to the discovery of a key aspect of Vygotsky’s
theory, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
The ZPD is a range of an individual’s ability to complete tasks starting with actual
development, as measured by tasks completed independently, through potential development, as
measured by tasks completed successfully with some assistance (Mooney, 2000; Ormrod, 2014;
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY 3
Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky (1978) discovered this by observing that children of the same age
could complete similarly complex tasks independently placing them at the same level of actual
development. Though, the same students differed in the level of complexity of tasks that could
be completed with some adult assistance (Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, children with similar levels of
actual development can have greatly varied levels of potential development.
This space in between actual development and the upper limit of potential development is
where learning happens and cognitive growth is stimulated. Working in the ZPD is important
because ...
Running head CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY .docxtodd271
Running head: CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY 1
Classroom Applications of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Your Name Here
Austin Peay State University
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY 2
Classroom Applications of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Introduction
Cognitive development in children and its impact on classroom learning have been
explained from diverse of points of view by a number of theories. The main constructs of
sociocultural theory rest on social experiences and interaction set in the framework of culture, as
they influence learning and, therefore, cognitive development. Lev Vygotsky, the father of
sociocultural theory, based these ideas on his experiences and observations as a classroom
teacher further extending his theory with research studies that included observation as well as
testing (Mooney, 2000). However, Vygotsky died at the young age of 38 before many of his
theories were fully developed. Still, his thoughts on cognitive development and learning continue
to be a major influence in education today and are the foundation for many teaching strategies
(Mooney, 2000; Ormrod, 2014; Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992).
Summary of Theory
Sociocultural theory provides a multifaceted view of learning and cognitive development.
Vygotsky’s analysis of the interdependence of cognitive development and learning is central to
sociocultural theory. According to Vygotsky (1978), “although learning is directly related to the
course of child development, the two are never accomplished in equal measure or in parallel” (p.
35). While cognitive development and learning occur concurrently, building on each other, they
do not always occur at the same rate. This led to the discovery of a key aspect of Vygotsky’s
theory, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
The ZPD is a range of an individual’s ability to complete tasks starting with actual
development, as measured by tasks completed independently, through potential development, as
measured by tasks completed successfully with some assistance (Mooney, 2000; Ormrod, 2014;
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY 3
Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky (1978) discovered this by observing that children of the same age
could complete similarly complex tasks independently placing them at the same level of actual
development. Though, the same students differed in the level of complexity of tasks that could
be completed with some adult assistance (Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, children with similar levels of
actual development can have greatly varied levels of potential development.
This space in between actual development and the upper limit of potential development is
where learning happens and cognitive growth is stimulated. Working in the ZPD is important
because.
Lev Vygotsky developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development that emphasized the role of social interaction and culture. He believed that social learning precedes development, unlike Piaget who argued that development must precede learning. Vygotsky's theories stress that community plays a central role in how children develop cognition and make meaning. He introduced concepts like the Zone of Proximal Development and more knowledgeable other to describe how guided learning from social interactions helps children develop skills and strategies they can later use independently. Vygotsky argued that language and thought merge around age three and that internalizing language through private and inner speech drives cognitive development.
This document discusses socio-cultural perspectives on development as proposed by Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky believed that individual development originates from social interactions and is mediated through culturally provided tools and language. He introduced concepts like the Zone of Proximal Development to describe how learning occurs through guided participation between novices and experts. According to socio-cultural views, cognitive development depends on social and cultural practices that scaffold children's learning as they appropriate skills and knowledge from their community.
1. The document discusses social constructivist approaches to learning and development, comparing the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. Vygotsky emphasized social contexts and mutual construction of knowledge, whereas Piaget focused more on individual cognitive development.
2. A key difference is that Vygotsky saw cognitive development as socially mediated, with learning occurring through interaction before development. In contrast, Piaget believed development must precede learning.
3. The concept of the Zone of Proximal Development describes what a learner can do with guidance compared to independently. Scaffolding refers to how teachers guide learning through focused questions and interactions.
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development, which emphasizes how social interaction and culture impact cognitive development. He is known for concepts like the zone of proximal development and scaffolding. Vygotsky believed that social learning precedes development and that communication with more capable peers or adults helps children challenge themselves cognitively. His work influenced the fields of education and psychology and highlighted the role of social and cultural factors in learning.
1. Lev Vygotsky developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development which emphasizes that social interaction and cultural factors strongly influence cognitive development, unlike Piaget's theory which saw development as more universal.
2. According to Vygotsky, social learning occurs before and influences cognitive development, with knowledge constructed through social interactions and guidance from adults and peers, especially within the zone of proximal development.
3. Vygotsky also argued that language and thought originally develop separately, merging at around age 3 to produce verbal thought, and that cognitive development results from internalizing language from culture.
1. Lev Vygotsky developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development, which emphasizes that social interaction and cultural factors strongly influence cognitive development more than Piaget's view of universal stages.
2. According to Vygotsky, social learning through guided instruction and interactions within the zone of proximal development is essential for cognitive development, rather than Piaget's view of independent learning and exploration.
3. Vygotsky also believed that language and thought develop separately at first and then merge around age 3 to produce verbal thought, in contrast to Piaget's view that thought comes before language.
reading Phillips & Soltis Chapter 6Wenger A Social .docxsedgar5
reading
Phillips & Soltis: Chapter 6
Wenger: A Social Theory of Learning
McLeod: Vygotsky (Links to an external site.)
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Schunk: Chapter 6 (Read Only the Following Pages/Sections)
240 (Vygotsky S.C. Theory) - 248
250 (Socially Mediated Learning) - 233
269 (Peer Assisted) - 271
274 (Summary) - 277
Commentonat least 3 Classmates’Posts (approximately 150 -300 words each)§
- comment must address the R2R prompt and your classmate’s response substantively; if you agree or disagree, provide reasoning and rational evidence from the readings to support your position
- build on the ideas of what your classmate has written and dig deeper into the ideas
- support your views through research you have read or through your personal and/or professional experiences§demonstrate a logical progression of ideas
- comments need to be thoughtful and substantive; not gratuitous comments like “this was a good post” or simply that “you agree”. Simply congratulating the writer on their astute insights is insufficient.
- cite the readings in your response by using proper APA Style format and conventions.
classmate 1
Hello everyone!
Social learning theory is described as being a “theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others.” Learning is a social experience in a lot of different ways. Social interactions are critical in learning. We learn so much from interacting with others and our environment. The fundamental principles of social learning states that “learning occurs when observing other's behaviors and the resulting outcomes of those behaviors.” Observation and mimicking are the first forms of learning as a child. Peer collaboration, reciprocal teaching, apprenticeships, and scaffolding are all examples of learning using the social model. In other words, we learn from everything around us. We learn from our interactions as it stimulates developmental processes and fosters cognitive growth, the information that is “learned” is transformed into knowledge.
Lev Vygotsky is a constructivist theorist; he placed more emphasis on the social environment being a factor in learning. Vygotsky’s theory stresses that “the interaction of interpersonal (social), cultural-historical, and individual factors as the key to human development. Vygotsky considered the social environment critical for learning and thought that social interactions form learning experiences” (Schunk, page 242). One of the fundamental concepts presented by Lev Vygotsky is that a person’s interactions with the environment aid in their learning. Social interactions are necessary for learning to take place, and that knowledge is gained when two or more people interact with one another. Another concept would be self-regulation, which involves “the coordination of mental processes such as planning, synthesizing, and forming concepts” (Schunk, page 252)..
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views cognitive development as a process that occurs through social interactions. According to Vygotsky, children acquire thinking skills and cultural values through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society, such as parents and teachers. Two key concepts in Vygotsky's theory are the zone of proximal development, which is the distance between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance and collaboration, and scaffolding, which describes how a more skilled partner supports a child's learning. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes how culture and social context play a central role in children's cognitive development.
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development. He believed that social interaction and cultural factors strongly influence cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, children can develop skills and strategies through interactions with more knowledgeable others within their zone of proximal development, which is the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance and encouragement from others. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes how language and social learning contribute to cognitive development.
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the social development theory. He believed that social interaction and language play a fundamental role in cognitive development. A core concept is the zone of proximal development, which refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance and collaboration. Within the zone, a more knowledgeable other, such as a teacher, helps scaffold a learner's skills and understanding to promote development. Vygotsky's theories emphasize how social learning precedes development and lays the foundation for independent problem solving.
Social constructivism is a theory of learning proposed by Lev Vygotsky that views learning as a social process where children construct knowledge through interaction with others in shared experiences and language. According to Vygotsky, learning occurs in the Zone of Proximal Development with assistance from teachers or more capable peers. Within the ZPD, scaffolding aids can help students solve problems they cannot yet solve independently. Language plays a central role in learning as it allows children to internalize knowledge from their social and cultural environment.
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development, which emphasizes how social interaction and culture impact cognitive development. He believed that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning." A key concept is the Zone of Proximal Development, which is a child's potential development when aided by a more knowledgeable other such as a teacher or peer. According to Vygotsky, learning occurs in this zone through scaffolding assistance from others.
Presentation1 final.pptx of fwhgvsxyxwegjhwvxggwefdyvjbibashdhami26
Lev Vygotsky was a pioneering Soviet psychologist born in 1896 in Russia who made significant contributions to developmental psychology, education, and cognitive science before his death in 1934. Vygotsky's work focused on how social interaction and cultural tools influence cognitive development. He introduced concepts like the Zone of Proximal Development and emphasized that learning occurs through guided collaboration within a learner's ZPD. Vygotsky's theories stressed the role of social and cultural factors in learning, in contrast to some views of individual development. His ideas have greatly impacted education practices that promote collaborative and scaffolded learning.
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(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
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- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
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1. Running head: VYGOTSKY AND LITERACY 1
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy
Masoud Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki
Middle Tennessee State University
2. 2
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
Abstract
This review paper aims to provide a summary and overview of the influence of Lev Vygotsky
(1896-1934) on education, language, and literacy from a multidimensional perspective.
Vygotskyan perspective toward education in general and literacy, in particular, have been
discussed immensely in the areas of language acquisition, child mental development, educational
psychology, and social psychology. The current paper strives to provide an inclusive, but brief,
vignette on the intersections and variations of implementation of Vygostkyan viewpoints in the
above academic contexts. In addition, this paper present the main criticism directed at
Vygotsky`s theoretical arguments accompanied with the alternative notions proposed.
Keywords: Vygotsky, education, literacy, review, summary, language, overview
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy.
Unpublished manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State
University.
3. 3
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
Vygotsky and Literacy
Vygotsky has been referred to differentially in the literature as a social constructivist,
cultural psychologists, social constructionist, sociocognitivist, and sociohistorical psychologist
(McLeod, 2018; Smagorinsky, 2012). Vygotsky views functional, desirable an observable
behavior the ultimate goal of any educational paradigm (Tsui, Lopez-Real & Edwards, 2008;
Vygotsky, 1980). Accordingly, learning occurs through the tangible manifestation of skills and
knowledge. While he did not reject the role of internal cognitive factors, which are not directly
observable, he considered the only way we can gauge and evaluate learning is through
observation of required and desired behavior (Holme, 2004; McLeod, 2012). These claims are
aligned with the doctrine proposed by behaviorists according to which observable behavior is the
primary goal of education because it gives us an objective stance toward the development of
curriculum, syllabus design, classroom activities, program assessment and teaching strategies
(Boghossian, 2006).
Vygotsky (as cited in Vygotsky, Rieber, & Wollock, 1997) asserts that, “we want to
know [is] the content and not the language in which it is expressed. In physics, we have freed
ourselves from language in order to study the content. We must do the same in psychology” (p.
327). As noted above, Vygotsky does not refute the influence of innate cognitive factors
(memory, brain and mind) in language development. Yet, he believes psychological and
behavioral changes “must be explained not on the basis of internal organic connections
(regulation), but in external terms, on the basis of the fact that man controls the activity of his
brain from without through stimuli.” (Vygotsky, as cited in Smagorinsky, 2012). It can be
understood that the majority of theories and research concerning communicative speech acts
agree on the fact that the produced speech is the rooted in the cognition in order to serve a
4. 4
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
communicative function (Bucciarelli, Colle & Bara, 2003). Vygotsky (1971) contends that idea
produces the speech and the produced speech are regulated and adjusted by the culture. This
notion is remarkable in that how observable behavior is a pillar of Vygotskyan perspective
toward literacy (Smagorinsky, 2012).
Additionally, the Vygotskyan perspective considers “thought” a structured, analytical and
layered unit. Vygotsky (as cited in Vygotsky, Rieber, & Wollock, 1997) explains, “thought
undergoes many changes as it turns into speech. . . It moves, grows and develops, fulfills a
function, solves a problem” (p. 218). Consequently, “the structure of speech does not simply
mirror the structure of thought; that is why words cannot be put on by a thought like a ready-
made garment” (as cited in Vygotsky, Rieber, & Wollock, 1997, p. 219). The role external
factors in speech acts are also noted by Vygotsky as he affirms that thought “is not begotten by
thought; it is engendered by motivation, i.e., by our desires and needs, our interests and
emotions” (as cited in Vygotsky, Rieber, & Wollock, 1997, p. 252). For Vygotsky, teachers and
parents play key roles in the literacy development of children (Tamis-LeMonda & Rodriguez,
2019). Connecting this notion to the above discussion about the roles of thought and speech, it
can be inferred Vygotsky believes that the maturation of adults` thought is required for providing
a responsive environment within which children learn how to use language in order to be able the
succeed in communicative and functional speech acts (McLeod, 2018; Vygotsky, 1986).
Correspondingly, the mediation between abstract and tangible (thought and speech) occurs
through the environmental and ecological criteria established by the adults in the milieu.
Finally, the produced speech is a reflection of the inner speech (in this sense, inner
speech is the reflection of inner thought). Inner speech means “the cognitive processes that
follow from the appropriation of both social speech and its ideological framework such that one
5. 5
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
adopts cultural means of mediation (particularly that provided by speech) for self-regulation,
ideas, and other means of acting in the world in accordance with social standards and practices”
(Smagorinsky, 2012, p. 14). According to Smagorinsky (2012), Vygotsky delineated linguistic
output as a three-phase process starting from inner speech or verbal thought (which is abstract),
mediation through environmental and cultural settings and mandates, and speech act as a
manifestation of the first two constituents (Smagorinsky, 2012; McLeod, 2018: Vygotsky, 1986).
Vygotskyan Perspective in Educational Practice
Vygotsky viewed school classrooms the most significant setting for literacy instruction
(van Rijk et al., 2017). As heeded by Glassman (2001), an epistemological and critical analysis
of the Vygotskyan theories indicates the existence of a systematic congruence between
Vygotskyan views and John Dewy`s progressive theories of education (Sawyer, 2014). They
both supported the implementation of a constructionist approach toward schooling systems
within which students should be equipped with useful knowledge (and skills) in order to be able
to practically implement that knowledge in real life situations. In addition, they both maintain
that the learning process should include the consistent involvement of pupils and the
instructional material should be authentic (Kaufman, 2003). Furthermore, the source of
dissemination of literacy knowledge should be adults (parents and teachers) due to their
familiarity and experience with the real world (Smagorinsky, 2012). Yet, there are some
noteworthy distinctions between the stances of these two theoreticians on education.
Vygotsky discusses his observation that some children can learn the language with the
limited and targeted aid of parents whereas many children require higher levels and more intense
support to acquire linguistic skills (Vygotsky, Rieber, & Wollock, 1997). Vygotsky observed that
children’ cognitive development and knowledge accumulation were not induced merely by
6. 6
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
genetic and natural (innate) factors and surrounding environment has a vital role for any type of
learning to happen (Verenikina, 2010). The learning process is continuously shaped and reshaped
as a result of children`s interactions with their parents, peers, siblings, and teachers within the
environment (McLeod, 2012; Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky (1978) affirms that "every function in the child's cultural development appears
twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people and then
inside the child. This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and the formation
of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals" (p.
57). He rejected the idea of categorizing children as non-intelligent and intelligent (Montealegre,
2016). Instead, he suggested that every child has the potential to flourish with the help of others.
Yet, the nature and intensity of these assistive mechanisms might differ as a result of contextual
and ecological variabilities.
The most salient construct introduced by Vygotsky is the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD). The Zone of Proximal Development is defined as “the distance between the actual
development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers." (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).Vygotsky recommended that teacher should
always be alert for any mismatch between the requirement of a task and ability of the child to
finish that task. In other words, teachers should be aware of the current level of understanding a
child has and the difficulty level of the upcoming task (McLeod, 2012).
While Dewy and Vygotsky shared similar views on many aspects, the most crucial
distinction between their ideologies is the foci of emphasis. Vygotsky views teacher involvement
the primary factor in the successful transfer of knowledge while Dewy considered teachers,
7. 7
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
peers, and parents are equally responsible for providing a productive learning environment
(Shabani, 2016; McLeod, 2018). For Vygotsky, however, teachers make a bridge between what
information and skills the students already know and are capable of and what they need to know
and perform (Board, 2013).
Vygotsky contends that children can view their parents and teachers as role models and
this can lead them to be constantly in search of learning new materials and add further
information to their repertoire of knowledge (Akbiyik, 2017; Tekin, 2011; McLeod, 2012). This
process is very similar to the ideas of connectionism theory (Ellis, 1998; Smagorinsky, 2012).
Yet, for Vygotsky agency lies in the mediator (teacher and parents) whereas in connectionist
perspective the agency is situated the people`s thought as well as cognition (Olson, 2015). For
Vygotsky, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally
organized, specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90).
Vygotsky stressed the establishment of a collaborative conversation between literacy
teachers and students. He defines a collaborative conversation as the continuous interactions
between teachers and students during which teachers help children in acquiring new knowledge
(Luz, 2015). The assistive process teachers engage in are called scaffolding which is defined as
the level of assistance that helps children complete tasks they cannot complete on their own
(independently and without help) (Kauchak & Eggen, 2010; McLeod, 2012; Vygotsky, Rieber,
& Wollock, 1997 ).
Dyson (1990) refutes use of scaffolding a proper term for signifying the process of
learning through ZPD. He notes that scaffolding connotes the agency lies in the instructor while
weaving can be a more representative description since the process of learning is the product of
the amalgamation of interactions of knowledge between teachers and students and the agency
8. 8
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
lies in both teachers and students. It appears that weaving is more representative and logical
notion of ZPD since teachers are also reciprocally reliant upon the knowledge their students
impart in order to systematize and establish the process of ZPD. Similarly, sociocultural
theorists Moll and Whitmore (1993) call a collective zone of proximal development as the leading
social cognitive domain within which learning occurs in the classroom. While studying ZPD, it
should be recognized that every student carries specific schema and prior emotions and this
carryover of various individual variables requires incremental attention the particular needs of
every student.
Probably the principal ramification of Vygotskyan perspective within the walls of
classrooms is that children`s cognitive development can be immensely directed toward specific
objectives decided and mandated by the environmental factors. These factors also include their
parents and teachers; however, the potentials for cognitive growth exist in all children, and they
are able to learn knowledge through countless ways and styles if being instructed in a fertile
ecology. Vygotskyan view stresses that higher-level mental processes are more susceptible to
changes in the environment (Vygotsky, 1980). Examples of the higher mental capacities are self-
regulating, critical thinking and inferencing (Star, 2005). Then, children are more independent in
acquiring axiomatic pieces of knowledge referred to as descriptive knowledge contrasted with
procedural knowledge.
Vygotsky and Literacy Development
During the beginning years of literacy development, according to Vygotsky, two
elements of thought and language become two autonomous systems, and he called the new
systems verbal though and representational speech (Schütz, 2016). From a psycholinguistic and
semiotic perspective, Vygotsky sees literacy development highly reliant upon the language sign
9. 9
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
systems that adults use. For Vygotsky, language is not developed as a unitary concept only
through conditioning and habit formation. He considered literacy and language comprised of
different pieces and levels and children must go through consecutive stages in order to be able to
absorb and digest the information provided in the upcoming stage (Au, 1998). Vygotsky (1962)
argues that
Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech - it is a
function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., thought connected
with words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in
words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought.
Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings. (p.
149).
In short, I may summarize the Vygotskyan perspective towards language and literacy
development. First, language is a primitive tool children use to gain and construct knowledge.
Second, the relationship between language and knowledge is mutually constitutive. Third,
language reflects the thought of children. Fourth, language paves the way for self-reflection and
problem-solving.
Currently, two prominent concepts of scaffolding and reciprocal teaching are widely in use in the
educational settings of the Western countries (Riddle, 2005; Van de Pol, Volman, & Beishuizen,
2010). Reciprocal teaching is implemented to enhance reading comprehension skills as a result
of collaborative conversations between teachers and learners (Clark and Graves, 2005). Based on
the notions of reciprocal teaching, teachers` role in helping children learn reading comprehension
should decrease as time passes. In today`s literacy classroom four types of strategies aligned with
10. 10
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
reciprocal teaching are implemented. The four strategies are questioning, clarifying,
summarizing and predicting (Jennings, Caldwell & Lerner, 2014; Oczkus, 2018). The effects of
the ZPD paradigm are noticeable in today`s literacy classrooms wherein teachers provide direct
and explicit instruction alternating with independent tasks (including discovery learning), critical
thinking and peer (pair) activities (Goodman, 2003). Scaffolding strategies and techniques are
widely utilized in classroom activities such as think-aloud, question and answers, puzzle-solving,
inferencing and outlining.
Vygotsky's theories have also influenced the popularity of collaborative learning
techniques requiring advanced learners to help the other less advanced learners through
consistent social interaction (Hufakker, 2005). In sum, Vygotskyian perspective toward literacy
practice has had an immense effect on literacy education and development mainly through
teaching techniques of reciprocal teaching and scaffolding. Plus, home literacy learning and
collaborative learning methodology have borrowed from the Vygotskyan ideology.
The significance of home literacy activities is another example of the influence of
Vygotsky`s ideology in the educational systems. According to Vygotsky, a rich literacy home
environment is essential for triggering and solidifying the literacy development of children as
parents can help children through reciprocal teaching and scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1981).
Research evidence has corroborated this perspective as children raised in families with higher
socioeconomic status where the environment is linguistically more stimulant. On the other side,
children raised in family environments devoid of consistent linguistic verbal interactions have
slower literacy development (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002; Perkins, Finegood, & Swain; 2013).
11. 11
To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
Conclusion
It goes without saying that in spite of having a short-lived professional endeavor,
Vygotsky’s ideas still prevail in different fields of studies including psychology, sociology,
linguistics, and education. I believe there are three main reasons why Vygotskyian perspective
has been less powerful than other prominent pioneers such as Piaget and Dewy. First,
Vygotsky`s work was done in the Soviet Union during a period when communist propaganda
infiltrated every aspect of Soviet citizens. We know for sure that political climate and orientation
can have a profound influence on public views toward a concept or a person. As Smagorinsky
(2012) rightly noted, many parts of the Western academia viewed Vygotsky`s work aligned with
the Soviet ideologies.
Second, there have been numerous translation inconsistencies in the literature as some
authors may have interpreted the semantics and pragmatics of Vygotsky`s writings. Third,
Vygotsky’s educational views have been considered very general and holistic without provision
of concrete guidelines for curriculum development, assessment, teacher training, and program
evaluation (Cherry, 2018). Maybe if he had lived longer, he would have discussed these issues in
more significant details.
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To cite: Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, M. (2019). Vygotsky, Education, and Literacy. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Literacy Studies, Middle Tennessee State University.
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