This document summarizes a research paper about violent traditional gender practices in Nigeria and their implications for nation building. Some key practices discussed include purdah (locking women in the home), almajiri (street begging by boys), poor girls' education, early/forced marriage, and pushing boys into business at a young age. The paper argues that these practices promote gender-based violence and negatively impact national development. It calls for increased education for both genders and government policies to promote gender re-orientation through community programs, laws, and discussions to achieve sustainable development.
Development through Gender Equity and Women EmpowermentIJAEMSJORNAL
This document summarizes a journal article on gender equity, women's empowerment, and development. It discusses how gender roles are socially determined and how promoting gender equity and equality is important for development. Women have often faced discrimination and been denied equal rights and opportunities. Empowering women through education and equal participation can allow them to contribute fully and unlock their potential to aid development. The document advocates for closing gender gaps and discrepancies to utilize women's talents and capabilities for national advancement.
This document discusses gender and social development, covering several key topics:
1) It provides an overview of the Millennium Development Goals and achievements in promoting gender equality.
2) It examines theoretical perspectives on gender and development such as WID, GAD, and post-colonial feminist approaches.
3) Case studies are presented on achievements and ongoing challenges regarding gender equality in Latin America, Brazil, and other regions.
4) Programs promoting women's empowerment, such as Brazil's Bolsa Familia conditional cash transfer, are also analyzed.
Fertility behaviour and women's empowerment in oyo stateAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article that examines the relationship between women's empowerment and fertility behavior in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study found that 51% of respondents were not using family planning methods, though most had at least a primary school education. It also found that discussing the number of children to have significantly affects women's fertility. The study concludes that increasing education for both men and women, and encouraging family planning use, can help empower women and reduce fertility rates.
A Feast of Difference: "Gender Issues" and "Sexuality in Continuity and Change"Gregorio III Caliguia
A Feast of Difference: "Gender Issues" and "Sexuality in Continuity and Change"
A presentation by
Gregorio R. Caliguia III
MA in Philippine Studies*
(Society and Culture)
Prof. Rolando Talampas
(PS 202: Theories and Perspectives)
Asian Center
University of the Philippines - Diliman
9 September 2014
This document discusses gender and migration. It begins with defining gender and sex, and explaining how gender studies have evolved from initially only examining male migrants to also considering female migrants' experiences. It then explores concepts like intersectionality, geographical scales, social locations, and power geometries as frameworks for examining gender in migration. Specific topics covered include the feminization of migration in Asia, common female-dominated and male-dominated labor markets, issues like "de-skilling" and transnational parenting, and how gender relations shape immigration patterns and settlement experiences for both women and men. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of rights and examining policies in both sending and receiving countries to address gender inequality in migration.
Intro to gender revised by dr. anyidohoTorres Addo
This 3-week course introduces students to gender concepts and analyses gender relations and inequalities in African societies. It aims to help students understand how African societies are gendered and examine the impacts of gender inequalities on development. The course also examines state and civil society responses to addressing gender issues, including policies, laws, and grassroots efforts. Progress has been made, but gender inequalities and stereotypes remain challenges.
This document discusses how globalization has impacted concepts of gender, sexuality, and migration. It summarizes various perspectives on how international organizations like the World Bank have approached gender issues, and feminist critiques of those approaches. The document also examines how globalization has influenced understandings of sexuality, including the spread of LGBTQ identities and practices worldwide as well as the globalization of sex work and sex tourism. Further, it explores how globalization has facilitated the spread of HIV/AIDS while also enabling advocacy efforts. The document analyzes the experiences of migrant queer communities and the challenges of negotiating identity abroad while facing discrimination.
Impact of age, gender and discipline on undergraduates’ perception of causes ...Alexander Decker
- The study investigated the impact of age, gender, and discipline on undergraduates' perceptions of the causes of youth unrest in Delta State, Nigeria.
- A questionnaire was administered to 275 undergraduate students from Delta State University across various faculties and levels.
- The results showed that gender and age had no significant impact on perceptions, but discipline did - students from the Education faculty perceived the causes of unrest differently than those from the Science faculty.
Development through Gender Equity and Women EmpowermentIJAEMSJORNAL
This document summarizes a journal article on gender equity, women's empowerment, and development. It discusses how gender roles are socially determined and how promoting gender equity and equality is important for development. Women have often faced discrimination and been denied equal rights and opportunities. Empowering women through education and equal participation can allow them to contribute fully and unlock their potential to aid development. The document advocates for closing gender gaps and discrepancies to utilize women's talents and capabilities for national advancement.
This document discusses gender and social development, covering several key topics:
1) It provides an overview of the Millennium Development Goals and achievements in promoting gender equality.
2) It examines theoretical perspectives on gender and development such as WID, GAD, and post-colonial feminist approaches.
3) Case studies are presented on achievements and ongoing challenges regarding gender equality in Latin America, Brazil, and other regions.
4) Programs promoting women's empowerment, such as Brazil's Bolsa Familia conditional cash transfer, are also analyzed.
Fertility behaviour and women's empowerment in oyo stateAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article that examines the relationship between women's empowerment and fertility behavior in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study found that 51% of respondents were not using family planning methods, though most had at least a primary school education. It also found that discussing the number of children to have significantly affects women's fertility. The study concludes that increasing education for both men and women, and encouraging family planning use, can help empower women and reduce fertility rates.
A Feast of Difference: "Gender Issues" and "Sexuality in Continuity and Change"Gregorio III Caliguia
A Feast of Difference: "Gender Issues" and "Sexuality in Continuity and Change"
A presentation by
Gregorio R. Caliguia III
MA in Philippine Studies*
(Society and Culture)
Prof. Rolando Talampas
(PS 202: Theories and Perspectives)
Asian Center
University of the Philippines - Diliman
9 September 2014
This document discusses gender and migration. It begins with defining gender and sex, and explaining how gender studies have evolved from initially only examining male migrants to also considering female migrants' experiences. It then explores concepts like intersectionality, geographical scales, social locations, and power geometries as frameworks for examining gender in migration. Specific topics covered include the feminization of migration in Asia, common female-dominated and male-dominated labor markets, issues like "de-skilling" and transnational parenting, and how gender relations shape immigration patterns and settlement experiences for both women and men. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of rights and examining policies in both sending and receiving countries to address gender inequality in migration.
Intro to gender revised by dr. anyidohoTorres Addo
This 3-week course introduces students to gender concepts and analyses gender relations and inequalities in African societies. It aims to help students understand how African societies are gendered and examine the impacts of gender inequalities on development. The course also examines state and civil society responses to addressing gender issues, including policies, laws, and grassroots efforts. Progress has been made, but gender inequalities and stereotypes remain challenges.
This document discusses how globalization has impacted concepts of gender, sexuality, and migration. It summarizes various perspectives on how international organizations like the World Bank have approached gender issues, and feminist critiques of those approaches. The document also examines how globalization has influenced understandings of sexuality, including the spread of LGBTQ identities and practices worldwide as well as the globalization of sex work and sex tourism. Further, it explores how globalization has facilitated the spread of HIV/AIDS while also enabling advocacy efforts. The document analyzes the experiences of migrant queer communities and the challenges of negotiating identity abroad while facing discrimination.
Impact of age, gender and discipline on undergraduates’ perception of causes ...Alexander Decker
- The study investigated the impact of age, gender, and discipline on undergraduates' perceptions of the causes of youth unrest in Delta State, Nigeria.
- A questionnaire was administered to 275 undergraduate students from Delta State University across various faculties and levels.
- The results showed that gender and age had no significant impact on perceptions, but discipline did - students from the Education faculty perceived the causes of unrest differently than those from the Science faculty.
The document discusses gender issues and how they arise from gender gaps caused by socially determined roles of women and men. It defines sex as the biological differences between males and females, while gender refers to the economic, social and cultural roles, opportunities, and expectations associated with being male or female in a society.
The document discusses the concepts of sex and gender, explaining that sex refers to biological differences between males and females while gender refers to social and cultural roles and expectations of behavior. It explores topics such as sex and gender roles as well as sex role stereotypes, providing examples of behaviors and roles that are considered masculine or feminine. The document aims to increase understanding of how gender is socially constructed rather than determined by biological sex.
This document discusses gender issues and equality. It states that gender equality means that access to rights and opportunities is unaffected by gender, and that men and women should receive equal treatment and not be discriminated against based on gender. The World Bank is committed to making gender equality central to fighting poverty. Research shows that gender equality is important for reducing poverty. The Bank also believes that helping women and men become equal partners in development and giving them equal access to resources are important development objectives.
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, responsibilities, identities, and expectations assigned to men and women by society, as opposed to sex which refers to biological and physiological differences. Gender is influenced by social and cultural factors rather than biology alone. Sociological perspectives on gender include functionalism, which views traditional gender roles as serving important social functions, and feminism, which argues that patriarchal societies promote gender inequality that benefits men over women. Evidence from different cultures demonstrates that gender roles vary significantly across societies and over time, supporting the view that gender is socially constructed rather than innate.
Women and democratic stability in rivers state, nigeriaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the role of women in democratic stability in Rivers State, Nigeria. It discusses how women have faced discrimination but are increasingly seen as important for development. The study hypothesized that there is a relationship between women's political activities and democratic stability in Rivers State, and between women's contributions to politics and their political empowerment. It reviewed literature supporting the importance of women's participation in politics and discussed efforts to expand women's political opportunities in Nigeria.
This document summarizes a study on perceptions of gender equality in Mangaluru, India. The study utilized primary and secondary data from a sample of 100 people in Mangaluru. Key findings include that the majority of respondents feel women and men are not treated equally and women are not safe or given equal opportunities. Most women reported facing exploitation in the forms of sexual harassment, dowry, illiteracy, and unequal pay and promotions. While laws support equality, social barriers remain. The conclusion calls for continued efforts to protect women's interests and end exploitation through education, legal reforms, and increasing women's participation in the economy.
This presentation discusses gender as a development issue. It aims to understand gender and development, gender discriminations and inequalities, and the importance of addressing gender issues and achieving the Millennium Development Goals. It provides data on global educational, health, economic, and political inequalities faced by women. While Bangladesh has made progress in some development indicators, it still faces challenges like lower female education rates, labor participation, and political representation. Existing policy gaps and recommendations to promote gender equality and women's empowerment are discussed to foster more inclusive development.
The document discusses several topics related to gender issues and homosexuality, including:
- Definitions of homosexuality and how it has been viewed historically in different cultures and religions.
- Key people and events in the study and understanding of homosexuality in the late 19th/early 20th centuries.
- Issues still contested today around legal and social acceptance of homosexuality.
- Transgender topics like prominent transgender figures Chris Crocker and Alexis Arquette.
- Gender issues around the world like barriers facing women and efforts of organizations like the World Bank and UNIFEM to promote gender equality.
The document summarizes the work of UN Women's Fund for Gender Equality in providing grants from 2009-2011 to empower women economically and politically. Some key results include over 7,000 Dalit women in India gaining employment, the passage of a gender equality law in El Salvador, and the mainstreaming of gender in agricultural policies in Uganda and Zimbabwe. The Fund supports initiatives to increase women's political participation, representation, and leadership through training. It also aims to increase women's access to economic resources and assets. By 2014, over 13.6 million women were expected to strengthen their leadership skills and influence policies through grantee programs.
Effect of self management strategy on discriminatory behaviour against the gi...Alexander Decker
This document discusses research on the discriminatory behavior against girl-children. It describes a study that examined the effects of a self-management strategy on reducing discrimination. The study used a quasi-experimental design with 80 participants from Nigeria. It found that the self-management strategy significantly reduced discriminatory behavior in the experimental group compared to the control group. It concluded that self-management strategies can effectively change discriminatory attitudes against girl-children.
11.redefining gender equality from the context of cultureAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study that analyzes gender equality from a cultural context in the Philippines. The researchers challenge the notion that equal rates of gender economic participation equate to true gender equality. Through an intersectional analysis of culture and statistics on employment, education, migration, and health, the researchers find that women in the Philippines still face disadvantages and discrimination despite measures of participation. They argue measurement indexes of gender equality should be based on cultural realities, not just participation rates. The researchers propose redefining gender equality in a way that is culturally contextual and considers fairness and dignity rather than just economic factors.
Gender Issues: Creating a Safe Environment for All StudentsChristina Gagnier
This document discusses gender issues in schools and policies to promote inclusion. It defines key terms like gender identity, transgender, and gender expression. It outlines California and federal laws requiring schools to allow students to participate in activities based on gender identity, not assigned sex. The document also discusses cyberbullying based on gender and recommends schools implement gender policies, provide resources for victims, educate parents on technology, and address gender bullying promptly.
From the Ground Up: Women's Roles in local Peacebuilding in Afghanistan and S...Dr Lendy Spires
This document summarizes a study on the roles of women in local peacebuilding efforts in 5 countries: Afghanistan, Liberia, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sierra Leone. The study found that while contexts differed between communities and countries, women across places face common barriers to participation in peacebuilding like restrictive social norms, violence, poverty, lack of education, and lack of support. However, women are building peace in their families by mediating conflicts and educating children, and collectively through organizations to address women's issues and give them a voice. The research demonstrates the important but overlooked contributions women make to peacebuilding at the local level.
The document discusses various concepts related to gender including:
- Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and behaviors of men and women, as opposed to sex which refers to biological differences.
- Patriarchy involves the control of women's productive labor, reproduction, sexuality, and property by men in society.
- Gender roles are expectations of how men and women should behave and the types of work they do in a society.
- Gender equality means equal status and opportunities for men and women, while gender equity recognizes different needs and may require different treatment.
- Women's empowerment involves increasing women's power and control over their lives through awareness, self-confidence, access to resources, and transforming discriminatory structures.
This document discusses gender sensitivity training and concepts of sex and gender. It defines sex as the biological traits that distinguish males and females, while gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors and attributes ascribed to each sex in a given society. The training aims to promote understanding of gender equality and equity by recognizing the different experiences of both women and men and ensuring equal rights, treatment and sharing of opportunities and resources regardless of sex.
Critical analysis of Globalisation, Gender and Inequality and Sexuality.Zara Jovıčıč
The document discusses how globalization impacts Australia through outsourcing of jobs overseas, rising costs of living, and budget cuts that disproportionately impact students and lower-income groups. It argues that Australia has become increasingly reliant on larger foreign economies like China and the US. Unless the government invests more in education, healthcare, and local job opportunities, inequality will rise and Australia will become divided between the wealthy and poor.
Perception Paper to Australian Public health Journal (1)UYI OSADOLOR
This document summarizes a study that investigated perceptions of being an aged person in Southwestern Nigeria. 594 aged persons were interviewed in Lagos and Oyo states through questionnaires. The findings were that there is a low perception of being aged in the region. Factors like location, age category, livelihood, and rural residence significantly influenced perceptions. The paper recommends that aged persons in Lagos aged 50-79 see themselves as elderly, and that salary earners and rural dwellers in Lagos assume elder roles in families and society.
The document discusses gender issues related to sustainable development. It defines key terms like sex, gender, gender awareness and sensitivity. It notes that while women make up half the world's population, they earn only 10% of income and own less than 1% of property, and highlights gender gaps in areas like education, employment and political participation. The document also examines how environmental problems disproportionately impact women and outlines various global initiatives and good practices to promote sustainable gender development and address gender concerns.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Peer group influence and family standard of living as correlates of prostitut...Alexander Decker
This study investigated the relationship between peer group influence, family standard of living, and prostitution tendencies among university undergraduates in southeast Nigeria. The study utilized a survey research design and questionnaire to collect data from 1,983 undergraduates across five universities. The findings showed a positive correlation between peer group influence and prostitution tendencies. Additionally, undergraduates from families with a low standard of living exhibited higher tendencies toward prostitution compared to those from families with a high standard of living. The study recommended introducing sex education in university curriculums to address this issue.
The document discusses gender issues and how they arise from gender gaps caused by socially determined roles of women and men. It defines sex as the biological differences between males and females, while gender refers to the economic, social and cultural roles, opportunities, and expectations associated with being male or female in a society.
The document discusses the concepts of sex and gender, explaining that sex refers to biological differences between males and females while gender refers to social and cultural roles and expectations of behavior. It explores topics such as sex and gender roles as well as sex role stereotypes, providing examples of behaviors and roles that are considered masculine or feminine. The document aims to increase understanding of how gender is socially constructed rather than determined by biological sex.
This document discusses gender issues and equality. It states that gender equality means that access to rights and opportunities is unaffected by gender, and that men and women should receive equal treatment and not be discriminated against based on gender. The World Bank is committed to making gender equality central to fighting poverty. Research shows that gender equality is important for reducing poverty. The Bank also believes that helping women and men become equal partners in development and giving them equal access to resources are important development objectives.
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, responsibilities, identities, and expectations assigned to men and women by society, as opposed to sex which refers to biological and physiological differences. Gender is influenced by social and cultural factors rather than biology alone. Sociological perspectives on gender include functionalism, which views traditional gender roles as serving important social functions, and feminism, which argues that patriarchal societies promote gender inequality that benefits men over women. Evidence from different cultures demonstrates that gender roles vary significantly across societies and over time, supporting the view that gender is socially constructed rather than innate.
Women and democratic stability in rivers state, nigeriaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the role of women in democratic stability in Rivers State, Nigeria. It discusses how women have faced discrimination but are increasingly seen as important for development. The study hypothesized that there is a relationship between women's political activities and democratic stability in Rivers State, and between women's contributions to politics and their political empowerment. It reviewed literature supporting the importance of women's participation in politics and discussed efforts to expand women's political opportunities in Nigeria.
This document summarizes a study on perceptions of gender equality in Mangaluru, India. The study utilized primary and secondary data from a sample of 100 people in Mangaluru. Key findings include that the majority of respondents feel women and men are not treated equally and women are not safe or given equal opportunities. Most women reported facing exploitation in the forms of sexual harassment, dowry, illiteracy, and unequal pay and promotions. While laws support equality, social barriers remain. The conclusion calls for continued efforts to protect women's interests and end exploitation through education, legal reforms, and increasing women's participation in the economy.
This presentation discusses gender as a development issue. It aims to understand gender and development, gender discriminations and inequalities, and the importance of addressing gender issues and achieving the Millennium Development Goals. It provides data on global educational, health, economic, and political inequalities faced by women. While Bangladesh has made progress in some development indicators, it still faces challenges like lower female education rates, labor participation, and political representation. Existing policy gaps and recommendations to promote gender equality and women's empowerment are discussed to foster more inclusive development.
The document discusses several topics related to gender issues and homosexuality, including:
- Definitions of homosexuality and how it has been viewed historically in different cultures and religions.
- Key people and events in the study and understanding of homosexuality in the late 19th/early 20th centuries.
- Issues still contested today around legal and social acceptance of homosexuality.
- Transgender topics like prominent transgender figures Chris Crocker and Alexis Arquette.
- Gender issues around the world like barriers facing women and efforts of organizations like the World Bank and UNIFEM to promote gender equality.
The document summarizes the work of UN Women's Fund for Gender Equality in providing grants from 2009-2011 to empower women economically and politically. Some key results include over 7,000 Dalit women in India gaining employment, the passage of a gender equality law in El Salvador, and the mainstreaming of gender in agricultural policies in Uganda and Zimbabwe. The Fund supports initiatives to increase women's political participation, representation, and leadership through training. It also aims to increase women's access to economic resources and assets. By 2014, over 13.6 million women were expected to strengthen their leadership skills and influence policies through grantee programs.
Effect of self management strategy on discriminatory behaviour against the gi...Alexander Decker
This document discusses research on the discriminatory behavior against girl-children. It describes a study that examined the effects of a self-management strategy on reducing discrimination. The study used a quasi-experimental design with 80 participants from Nigeria. It found that the self-management strategy significantly reduced discriminatory behavior in the experimental group compared to the control group. It concluded that self-management strategies can effectively change discriminatory attitudes against girl-children.
11.redefining gender equality from the context of cultureAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study that analyzes gender equality from a cultural context in the Philippines. The researchers challenge the notion that equal rates of gender economic participation equate to true gender equality. Through an intersectional analysis of culture and statistics on employment, education, migration, and health, the researchers find that women in the Philippines still face disadvantages and discrimination despite measures of participation. They argue measurement indexes of gender equality should be based on cultural realities, not just participation rates. The researchers propose redefining gender equality in a way that is culturally contextual and considers fairness and dignity rather than just economic factors.
Gender Issues: Creating a Safe Environment for All StudentsChristina Gagnier
This document discusses gender issues in schools and policies to promote inclusion. It defines key terms like gender identity, transgender, and gender expression. It outlines California and federal laws requiring schools to allow students to participate in activities based on gender identity, not assigned sex. The document also discusses cyberbullying based on gender and recommends schools implement gender policies, provide resources for victims, educate parents on technology, and address gender bullying promptly.
From the Ground Up: Women's Roles in local Peacebuilding in Afghanistan and S...Dr Lendy Spires
This document summarizes a study on the roles of women in local peacebuilding efforts in 5 countries: Afghanistan, Liberia, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sierra Leone. The study found that while contexts differed between communities and countries, women across places face common barriers to participation in peacebuilding like restrictive social norms, violence, poverty, lack of education, and lack of support. However, women are building peace in their families by mediating conflicts and educating children, and collectively through organizations to address women's issues and give them a voice. The research demonstrates the important but overlooked contributions women make to peacebuilding at the local level.
The document discusses various concepts related to gender including:
- Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and behaviors of men and women, as opposed to sex which refers to biological differences.
- Patriarchy involves the control of women's productive labor, reproduction, sexuality, and property by men in society.
- Gender roles are expectations of how men and women should behave and the types of work they do in a society.
- Gender equality means equal status and opportunities for men and women, while gender equity recognizes different needs and may require different treatment.
- Women's empowerment involves increasing women's power and control over their lives through awareness, self-confidence, access to resources, and transforming discriminatory structures.
This document discusses gender sensitivity training and concepts of sex and gender. It defines sex as the biological traits that distinguish males and females, while gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors and attributes ascribed to each sex in a given society. The training aims to promote understanding of gender equality and equity by recognizing the different experiences of both women and men and ensuring equal rights, treatment and sharing of opportunities and resources regardless of sex.
Critical analysis of Globalisation, Gender and Inequality and Sexuality.Zara Jovıčıč
The document discusses how globalization impacts Australia through outsourcing of jobs overseas, rising costs of living, and budget cuts that disproportionately impact students and lower-income groups. It argues that Australia has become increasingly reliant on larger foreign economies like China and the US. Unless the government invests more in education, healthcare, and local job opportunities, inequality will rise and Australia will become divided between the wealthy and poor.
Perception Paper to Australian Public health Journal (1)UYI OSADOLOR
This document summarizes a study that investigated perceptions of being an aged person in Southwestern Nigeria. 594 aged persons were interviewed in Lagos and Oyo states through questionnaires. The findings were that there is a low perception of being aged in the region. Factors like location, age category, livelihood, and rural residence significantly influenced perceptions. The paper recommends that aged persons in Lagos aged 50-79 see themselves as elderly, and that salary earners and rural dwellers in Lagos assume elder roles in families and society.
The document discusses gender issues related to sustainable development. It defines key terms like sex, gender, gender awareness and sensitivity. It notes that while women make up half the world's population, they earn only 10% of income and own less than 1% of property, and highlights gender gaps in areas like education, employment and political participation. The document also examines how environmental problems disproportionately impact women and outlines various global initiatives and good practices to promote sustainable gender development and address gender concerns.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Peer group influence and family standard of living as correlates of prostitut...Alexander Decker
This study investigated the relationship between peer group influence, family standard of living, and prostitution tendencies among university undergraduates in southeast Nigeria. The study utilized a survey research design and questionnaire to collect data from 1,983 undergraduates across five universities. The findings showed a positive correlation between peer group influence and prostitution tendencies. Additionally, undergraduates from families with a low standard of living exhibited higher tendencies toward prostitution compared to those from families with a high standard of living. The study recommended introducing sex education in university curriculums to address this issue.
gender issues in human resource managementKedar Bhandari
This document summarizes a research paper on gender issues in human resource management in the Nigerian public service. It finds that despite efforts to promote equal opportunity, women remain marginalized and underrepresented, especially in senior leadership positions. While women make up about 60% of the Nigerian population, they occupy mostly junior roles in public service. The document reviews literature showing discrimination and barriers that limit women's participation and advancement. It suggests public institutions must ensure equal opportunities to promote women's meaningful contributions to national development.
Adolescents Attitude Towards Premarital Sex.pdfTracy Morgan
This document summarizes a study on adolescents' attitudes towards premarital sex. It begins by providing background on changes in social and cultural attitudes towards sex. It then states the problems being addressed, including high rates of teenage pregnancy and STDs. The document reviews literature showing increasingly permissive attitudes among adolescents globally, as well as factors influencing these attitudes, such as peer influence, media exposure, lack of religious guidance, and changing social norms. It presents the research questions and hypotheses guiding the study on adolescents' attitudes in Awka North and South, Nigeria.
This document summarizes a research paper on gender equality and development. The paper examines the concept of gender and how gender inequality formed due to changes brought by industrialization. It discusses Marxist and materialist theories that view gender inequality as an outcome of women's roles in domestic labor and men's control over resources in the public sphere under capitalism. The paper argues that the logic and nature of capitalism, with its need to extract wealth and reinvest profits, encouraged the release of women into the labor market to boost consumption and provide cheaper labor, contributing to gender discrimination.
This document provides an overview of a presentation titled "Gender Studies in Cultural Studies" presented by Upasna Goswami. It includes definitions of key terms like gender studies and discusses topics like the history of gender studies, how gender is constructed and represented in different cultures, differences between sex and gender, gender equality, gender-based violence, gender stereotypes, and current issues related to gender. The document concludes that gender studies within cultural studies has significantly improved understanding of the complex relationship between gender, power dynamics, and cultural practices.
The promotion of universal women's rights in nigeria]ogbaji udochukwu
This document discusses the promotion of universal women's rights in Nigeria by women's non-governmental organizations (NGOs). It examines three major women's NGOs in Nigeria - FIDA, NAWOJ, and WIN - and their role in enhancing women's international and domestic human rights. The study finds that women's NGOs have played a significant role in promoting women's rights through advocacy, changing discriminatory laws and policies, and empowering women. However, it also notes that more training and resources are still needed for NGO members to further their important work.
Deterents To Women’s Empowerment In Africa: Analysis Of Some Socio-Cultural P...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Socio cultural context of violence against women in pakistanAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the socio-cultural context of violence against women in Pakistan. The study interviewed 813 married couples across 4 districts. It found that deeply rooted cultural and traditional practices perpetuate violence against women in Pakistan. Gender roles expect women to be subservient and deny them rights. Violence is often considered normal and justified. Common forms of violence include sexual violence, domestic violence, acid attacks, dowry crimes, honor killings, and forced marriages. The study recommends social reforms to address how cultural practices and gender norms contribute to women's vulnerability to violence in Pakistan.
The document summarizes a capacity building fellowship program hosted by the South Asian Network to Address Masculinities (SANAM) in Nepal from February 1-18, 2011. It discusses the 33 fellows from 7 South Asian countries who participated in sessions on topics related to masculinity, gender, development, media and institutions. The program aimed to provide an orientation to broadening traditional views of gender issues to include an understanding of masculinities. It also discussed the history of women's movements in South Asia and how studies of masculinity can contribute to gender equality by involving men.
This document discusses women, management, and globalization in the Middle East. It provides insights into how globalization has both positively and negatively impacted women's social status and economic opportunities in the region. While globalization has created some jobs for women, gender inequalities persist in the labor market and women face barriers to advancement. Cultural and institutional factors like patriarchal social norms and lack of policies against domestic violence also limit women's empowerment. The document presents a framework to evaluate progress on women's leadership that considers governmental, organizational, and individual strategies, and calls for more research integrating gender, management, and Middle East studies.
The document discusses cultural pluralism as a challenge for universities in Nigeria to foster dialogue and understanding. It notes that Nigeria has over 400 ethnic groups and two major religions, creating cultural complexity that is sometimes exploited and causes social conflicts. These conflicts negatively impact the university system by intensifying competition between ethnic groups for control over university resources and management. However, the Nigerian constitution and policies aim to promote equity and national unity in higher education through principles like federal character. The document argues that Nigerian universities still manage to contribute to dialogue despite challenges, through policies governing admission diversity and equitable resource allocation.
This document discusses cultural pluralism as a challenge for universities in Nigeria to foster dialogue and understanding. It notes that Nigeria has over 400 ethnic groups and two major religions, creating cultural complexity. This diversity has been politicized by elites and fueled conflicts over resources. The university system is intensely contested by ethnic groups seeking control and benefits. Appointing vice chancellors is especially controversial. However, the document argues that Nigerian universities still contribute to promoting dialogue despite these challenges, and that higher education has an important role to play in managing diversity through open communication across groups.
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
Parent child communication and adolescent sexual behaviour among the yoruba e...Alexander Decker
This document discusses parent-child communication about sexual matters among the Yoruba ethnic group in Nigeria. It finds that communication on sexual topics was traditionally considered taboo and discussed indirectly or through euphemisms. As a result, many parents provide little guidance to adolescents on sexuality. The study surveyed 588 adolescents and found that males were more likely to report their first sexual experience was by choice, while females often felt forced. It concludes that improving open communication between parents and children on sexuality could help promote healthier decisions by adolescents.
Parent child communication and adolescent sexual behaviour among the yoruba e...Alexander Decker
This document discusses parent-child communication about sexual matters among the Yoruba ethnic group in Nigeria. It finds that communication on sexual topics was traditionally considered taboo and discussed indirectly or through euphemisms. As a result, many parents provide little guidance to adolescents on sexuality. The study surveyed 588 adolescents and found that males were more likely to report their first sexual experience was by choice, while females often felt forced. It concludes that improving open communication between parents and children on sexuality could help promote healthier decisions by adolescents.
Parent child communication and adolescent sexual behaviour among the yoruba e...Alexander Decker
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Violent traditional gender practices and implications for nation building process in nigeria
1. Historical Research Letter www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3178 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0964 (Online)
Vol 4, 2012
VIOLENT TRADITIONAL GENDER PRACTICES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR NATION BUILDING
PROCESS IN NIGERIA
*Ani, Kelechi Johnmary
* Department of History and Strategic Studies, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P. M. B. 1010,
Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. (johnezekaycee@yahoo.com, +2348061552284)
Abstract
The traditional Nigerian society has being characterized by multiple forms of gender-based violence. These
violence ranges from the desperate quest for a male child, sending of the male child to beg for arms on the
street, placing married women in pudah, educational placement based on gender, denial of widowhood rights,
sexual assault, denial of entrepreneurial rights on gender basis etc. This paper is conceptualized on sex-role
theory as a factor that conditions and reinforces masculine violence against the feminine gender as well as
feminine violence against their masculine counterparts. The work showed that the contemporary Nigerian
society has continually struggled to conquer the consistent re-appearance of these violent gender-based
behaviours in many aspects of the Nigerian national life. It therefore called for gender re-orientation for
national development through private-public partnership in promoting gender-based laws, seminars, rallies,
meetings, teachings, symposia, debates etc
Introduction
The length and breadth of the Nigerian State records one form of traditional gender practice or another
which manifests in the day to day craft of societal building. This traditional gender practices have being
sustained over the years as men and women in the different ethno-linguistic groups of Nigeria, manipulate their
culture to promote or downplay a given gender practice. However, these violent gender practices promote either
positive or negative peace (Galtung, 1996). Historically, many of these traditional practices have created both
violent mind-sets, structural violence as well as have unleashed unimaginable mayhem on individuals of
different ages, class, ideology and gender. The implication is that, the nation building process of the Nigerian
State has been affected directly and indirectly.
Consequently, this paper centres on violent traditional gender practises and their implications for
sustainable nation building process in Nigeria. It shows that the Purdah (locking women up in the home)
culture, Alamajiri (Wandering Street Boys in Northern Nigeria), poor girl-child education, early/ forced
marriages, as well as increasing push of the male-child into business, and other gender-based violence like rape,
female genital mutilation, dehumanizing widowhood practices etc are amongst the violent traditional gender
practices that have pronounced negative implications for the nation building process in Nigeria. The paper
therefore calls for increased sound education of both genders as well as recommends geometric government
policies towards community driven gender-based re-orientation of the masses for sustainable national
development.
Conceptual Framework
This work is conceptualized on sex-role theory. The theory suggests that childhood socialization is a major
influence of human behaviour in the later years in life. Risman (2002:330) wrote that “sex-role theory suggests
that early childhood socialization is an influential determinant of later behaviour and research has focused on
how societies create feminine women and masculine men”. Such sex-based role on a particular gender was
influenced in traditional Nigerian setting by many years of sex-based reinforcement. Weitzman (1979), Michel
(1966) as well as Bandura and Walters (1963) have shown that reinforcement is a vital process of introducing,
strengthening and sustaining sex-role over the years. It is this reinforcement that promotes the rise of self-
character and self identity (Cerulo, 1997). This is the major explanation of why men and women behave
traditionally in Nigeria according to societal oriented roles based on gender differences. It should be noted here
that this theory that have sustained gender gap and gender differences as well as violent gender behaviour in
traditional Nigerian setting is weak in contemporary reality as women socialized for nurturance are capable of
competitive and aggressive behaviour, and men raised without any expectation of taking on primary
responsibility can “mother” when they need to (Bielby and Bielby, 1984; Gerson, 1985 & 1993; Risman, 1987
& 2002).
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Gender and Gender Difference
“Gender is a broad analytical concept. It is linked to social behaviours, which is deemed to be
appropriate to masculine and feminine roles in the society. It draws out women’s roles and responsibilities in
relation to those of men. It is not synonymous with sex, which is a biologically determined characteristic of men
and women. Generally, gender is defined as socially constructed roles, relationships and learned behaviours of
male or female” (Mu’Azu & Uzoechi, 2010:122). Gender refers to the social dynamics that characterize the
way men and women relate to each other on a given historical timeframe and through socially engineered
identities, power and production relations (Fall, 1990). These socially or culturally constructed characteristics,
roles and qualities which different societies ascribe to males and females, varying from one society to another
and at different times in history (Madunagu, 2005; Ajaero, 2003; Oakley,1996; Nwagbara, 1998; Okeke, 2000;
& World Bank Report 1994). It is unfortunate that many scholars perceive gender to be primarily a female issue
but the reality is that gender studies is centred on the pull and push effect created by gender relations between
the masculine and feminine being in a given society at a given time. Gender is a multilevel system of relations
that is influenced by interactional level, cultural believe and distribution of resources (Ridgeway, 1997;
Holmquist and Sundin, 2002).
Gender difference in traditional Nigerian setting, especially in entrepreneurial field seems to exist and
research has shown that women entrepreneurs are less in number compared to thier male counterparts and
women own less than 10% of the business firms in Kenya (Cutura, 2006) as well as Nigeria (Onuigbo, 2011:2.
See also Mooris, Nola, Craig & Coombes, 2006). Okafor and Amalu (2010) noted that the female gender suffer
from economic manipulation, sexual exploitation, political marginalization and economic inequality, especially
in Nigeria, due mainly “to inhibitions posed by traditions, customs, values and laws” (Onuigbo, 2011). Roomi
and Parrott (2008) added that deep rooted socio-cultural prejudices and values affect the female gender. Agu
(2010) as well as Bardasi, Blackden & Guzman (2008) have shown that girls and women are placed at
disadvantaged position educationally and in entrepreneurship. Unfortunately many researches, policies and
programmes in Nigeria tends to be ‘men streamed” without considering the specific needs of women (Correll,
2001). The gender demand side in entrepreneurship could be explained by the conditions of gender inequality,
political and institutional framework, family policy and the market forces determinants (Van-der-Lippe and
Van-Dijk, 2002); while the gender supply dimension is influenced by human capital (Becker, 1964), norms
(Dimaggio, 1997) and family-related factors (Lin, 1999; Loscocco & Leicht, 1993). Occupational segregation
equally affects gender gap (Cotter, DeFiore, Hermsen & Marsteller, 1997). The worst case scenario is that
women are much less probable to be promoted than their male counterparts (Smith, 2002).
Images of Gender Studies in Nigerian History
“Until the 1980s African historiography did not adopt women or gender as categories of historical
analysis… A perusal of African historiography depicts the lack of a gendered perspective to historical study.
Hence, African history is still written as if women were not a part of it” (Ikpe, 2007:356-357). It was the
declaration of the Decade for Women by the United Nations between 1975 and 1985 that gave fillip and
consciousness to the studies on women and gender issues. New facts might document the existence of women in
the past, but they do not necessarily change the importance attributed to women’s activities. Indeed, the separate
treatment of women could serve to confirm their marginal and particularized relationships to those subjects
(male-folk), already established as dominant and universal (Jaja, 1996:65).
Again, until recently, gendered studies in Nigerian and African history have faced the historic
challenge of methodology and perspective (Uya, 1974:21). The rise of methodological-based studies of gender
issues in Nigeria is a product of the increasing wave of gender consciousness and feminism in Nigeria. Mba
(1982) has revealed that from 1900-1965; Southern Nigerian women were mobilized for political activities. This
is antithetical to the position of the northern women. The contemporary intellectual gender consciousness in
Nigeria has its root in the outstanding historic nation building activities of Queen Amina of Zaria, Omu Okwei
of Osommari, Inikpi of Igbalaland, Emotan of Benin, Moremi of Ife, Morontodun, Madam Tinubu of Lagos etc.
Bolanle Awe described these women in societal building as the “saviours of their societies” (Awe, 1992).
Ogbomo (2005:52) showed that some of the ‘saviours of their societies’ like the Queen mothers in Benin posses
almost kingly powers. It was exceptional in the history of Benin Empire that Iyoba Idia, the mother of Oba
Esigie went down in Benin history and in the folklore of the people as a woman who went to war against the
tradition of the society, which did not permit a woman to go to war (Ikpe, 1997:252). In the Mgbowo people’s
historiography of Awgu, Enugu State, it was equally a popular knowledge that Udema Mgbogo went to war and
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brought home male heads. In Nigeria, apart from a few privileged women whose political and social activities
have come to limelight, the lives and contributions of many women to nationalism and the march to
independence at the national levels have been forgotten (Ikpe, 1997:366). The most disheartening is that in
many communities, where many contemporary women champion societal development, their societal building
crafts are easily forgotten by the larger society and they are neither largely celebrated nor immortalized.
Paradoxically, some feministic scholars promotes gender studies in the Nigerian State, opponents reads
such works with reservations, while others quickly declares all feminist activities as a potential failure before its
birth. Others do not see the need for what they perceive as an ‘intellectual noise’ on feminism and/ or gender
issues. That was why Oyewumi (1977) stated that the “Yoruba do not do gender”, an opposite to the writings of
Alaba (2004:40-55) as well as Oyekanmi (2004 & 2005), which shows the powers of patriarchy in Yoruba land
as well as the prevalence of gender roles and discrimination in that society, which is equally obtainable in all
Nigerian societies. Furthermore, Ajikobi (1999) in his work has asked what does an African ‘new woman’
want? Ajikobi’s rhetorical question is answered by the realities of everyday life, which do not only expose
increased number of female needs for existential survival but also shows the importance of the female gender in
the process of mainstreaming societal craft and societal sustenance.
It is the high-level importance of the female gender to societal building that have been mythologized
and shown to be powerful in the historic representations of some female deities. To intensify this argument, a
series of goddesses that were worshiped in traditional African societies were feminine goddess and were shown
to be very powerful (Diop, 1990). Ironically, raising women to the status of goddess does not in any way
transform the reality of their perceived second class position in Nigeria and many parts of the world. This is
because the attempt to use the mythological fallacies to promote the position of women in a male dominated
society with widespread patriarchy ends up contributing to the oppression of women than their liberation
(Bamberger 1974). Patriarchy as the root cause of oppression was strengthened by dependency theories in which
African women were/ are presented as groups and individuals perpetually dependent for their existence on men
as a group and as individuals (Badru, 2004). It is better to note that it is of great virtue and to the interest of
societal peace and development for Nigerian women to promote sound dependence with their husbands, which
naturally, traps the husband into the dependence circle for progressive family and societal growth.
Violent Traditional Gender Practices in Nigeria
Gender relations should be placed in the best form to allow for the emergence of the best
brains in Nigeria to man the entrepreneurial sector of the economy. Ironically, in many
societies of the world, men have occupied stronger positions in different areas of life.
However, gender is often misconstrued to mean women due to the fact that the gender
relations in many sovereign states have left women, girls and children heavily
disadvantaged. It has equally being traditionally construed that men are the ‘divinely-
ordained’ drivers of societal and national developments across nations. Such historic
prejudice and negligence of the role played by women in societal craft has reinforced the
sustenance of negative traditional practices against women in the Nigerian State (Ani,
2011:8).
Traditionally, women were generally regarded as home makers and children-rearers in Nigeria. They were
practically restrained from active participation in many fields of societal life through taboos, religious belief,
fear of excessive emancipation and domination by their male counterparts. The typical male attitude towards
women’s participation in non-domestic roles asserted that there is a vague assumption that, only men know how
to manage most of the problems existing in the country and that women should be let alone to solve their home
social problems with their husbands and parents as well as men to solve the public problems with the
government.
The Nigerian societies have witnessed all forms of gender-based violence. In the course of the multiple
forms of conflicts that have swallowed up the country in the past, men constitute the largest percentage of
deaths. Similarly, many of the direct mayhem are unleashed mainly by men upon their fellow male counterparts.
From the Nigerian civil war to the inter-communal conflicts as well as recurrent ethno-religious conflicts in
different parts of Nigeria, the male gender remains the main architects and direct recipients of the greater
proportion of the mayhem and death that follows their violent action. The implication is the increment in the
millions of widows found across the country. Ironically, Ikpe (2003:131-132) has shown that Nigerian women
are linked to the image of illiteracy, sexual abuse, powerlessness, exploitation in all spheres, poverty-stricken
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and marginalized, especially from the political sphere. The general pattern shows that many of this gender-based
violence have been carried out specifically by the male folk against their female counter-parts and children.
The common form of everyday violence against the female gender is sexual assault. Sexual assault here
could be in form of individual-rape, gang-rape, unwanted fondling of feminine body, verbal assault, gender-
based discrimination etc. It is worthy of note that these forms of violence against women takes place both in
peace and conflict times and is often witnessed more during the era of conflict as irresponsible members of the
male folk, hides under the canopy of lawlessness, which is promoted during conflict to commit these gender-
based violence. It is a widely known fact that the weakening or total destruction of societal structures and
institutions that enhances peace, at the outbreak of crisis promotes the geometric rise in gender-based violence.
Again, the fact that the violent act committed within the period of conflict-climax, is often seen more as an irate
mob action, which goes unpunished and thus enhances the future practice of these crimes as a societal norm.
The different sides in a conflict are known to use violence against women
from the other side as a tool to communicate hostility to the other side, as in
cases where women are raped in front of their husbands. Rape requires the
dehumanisation of the victim and is such time aimed at humiliating and
subjugating not only the woman but the society. It is often argued that
because women are the centre of culture and family reproduction, women
are made a target to eradicate a people (Mutunga, 2007:371).
When rape is committed on a massive scale, the social fabric of family and community unravels exponentially,
weakening a people’s capacity to resist. It is this ability to destroy a community that makes rape such a powerful
weapon of war (Yifat, 1997). Rape is punishable by life imprisonment in Nigeria, but there are no sanctions in
the Penal Code against spousal rape (SIGI, 2011). Similarly, during conflict, many male young ladies and
women, voluntarily turns themselves into ‘sex objects’ in order to attain the basic necessities of food, shelter and
protection, which are heavily sorted for by many people ravaged by crisis. Many young girls, ladies and in worst
case scenarios, married women have given-in to the dehumanizing sexual bids of combatants, terrorists and foot
soldiers (during inter-communal conflicts) who in turn assures them of absolute protection from the brutality of
their enemies. Some ladies during the Nigerian civil war were persuaded by both the males and their female
counterparts to exchange their bodies for such favours, which they believe would benefit larger number of the
populace. It would be stated here that rape, which leaves a permanent scare on the female gender is the tool
manipulated more often than other traditional violence during war.
Ironically, in many parts of Northern Nigeria, the Alamajiri (Wandering Street Boys that have being
subjected to perpetual life of begging by their parents) is the cultural order of the day. These teenage boys are
gathered together in their hundreds at unholy honours by their parent and transported to geographical locations
that are completely strange to them, where they would be deported and abandoned. Sequel to their inability to
trace their nativity, they would start begging in order to survive. Unfortunately, the massive lack of food, shelter
and other social security turns them into ‘living wandering urchins’, who eats all forms of debris as well as
soured food. They find themselves as easy recruits by the sponsors of violence in Northern Nigeria and at any
given violent situation, they would ensure that the society, which they believe had rejected them at childhood
would receive massive violence, an experience that they have being perpetually committed to. There is equally
the growing trend in which some of the male child in Igbo land is forced into trading as against his wish simply
because of the widespread perception that male children who go into business, begins to deliver huge financial
returns to the family and could speedily assume the status of a financial giant, especially in Anambra State. This
sometimes leads to massive forcing of many Igbo male child into inhuman treatments in the hands of their
business masters, whom they serve in their years of apprenticeship. The situation is worsened by the fact that
many graduates in the country remained largely unemployed, hence giving fillip to the belief by the illiterate
villagers that those who go to school are just wasting their existential time. Today, we need to be thinking and
emphasizing on male-child education too in some parts of Igbo land as against the tradition promotion of girl-
child education. This has recently received government attention when the Minister of Education launched the
‘bring back the book’ campaign with special target on the male child in Igbo land. The scenario is worrisome as
the society through their massive monetization of the Igbo worldview has sold most of the population to a
money-oriented slavery where life begins and ends with the amount of money you have and what money can
buy.
“Muslim women in Nigeria have long been among victims of the general ignorance of Islam among the
population and of the refusal of all but a few Islamic scholars and leaders to speak out about the true role and
status of the Muslim woman” (Yusuf, 1993: 282). She went on to re-iterate that in northern Nigeria, it was
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“considered unnecessary and wrong” to educate girls in any system, Islamic or Western, since “they were
destined for domestic duties which, it was considered, did not require education. Thus, the mothers of the
younger generations could play no role in supervising their children’s education; on the contrary, they remained
repositories of ignorance and superstition” (Yusuf, 1993:282). The practice of purdah, whereby women are
secluded from public observation, prevails within the Muslim community in some northern areas. Women in
purdah cannot leave their homes without permission from their husbands and must be accompanied by a man at
all times when in public. Purdah also restricts women’s freedom of dress; in that Muslim women must be veiled
in public. Widows in these regions face the greatest degree of discrimination: they are confined to the home and
must keep their heads shaven and wear mourning dress (SIGI, 2011).
In some regions, customary law allows girls to marry from the age of only nine years; such marriages
are banned in some states, but remain common in Northern Nigeria. The incidence of early marriage is high in
Nigeria. A 2004 United Nations Report estimated that 28 per cent of girls between 15 and 19 years of age were
married, divorced or widowed (SIGI, 2011). Abdullahi and Buba (2009:60) documented that girls aged 12-14
years are given out in marriage while boys have to attain the age of 18-20 before marriage. In these early
marriages of girls, it is often without consent and they experience motherhood at 11 or 12 years. Usman (1997)
explained that such girls usually come under both physical and psychological trauma and most cases they
become victims of Vesico-Vaginal Fistula (VVF).
Only few Nigerian States have laws in place to address violence against women, and the country’s
Penal Code grants husbands permission to beat their wives, provided the violence does not result in serious
injury. Domestic violence is common, particularly in polygamous families, and affects one-fifth of couples.
According to a 2003 Demographic and Health Survey, 64.5 per cent of Nigerian women consider it normal to be
beaten by their husbands – even for infractions as minor as burning a meal or failing to have dinner ready on
time (SIGI, 2011).
Ikpe (2007:369) has argued that the projection of African women as victims has grown in recent times.
The presentation of these women as victimized images has been portrayed more in the issue of female genital
circumcision (Ajikobi, 2000). The contemporary baptism of female genital circumcision as Female Genital
Mutilation (FGM) is aimed at capturing the imagined victimhood of the girl-child and women to the practice
(Lightfoot-Klein, 1989). Female genital mutilation (FGM) is prohibited in several Nigerian states, but such laws
are difficult to enforce. On a national scale, FGM is widely practised: one-fifth of women aged between 15 and
49 years have been subjected to it. The incidence of FGM differs considerably by region and is twice as
common in rural communities as in urban areas. The older a women is, the more likely she is to have been
subjected to FGM; this suggests that the practice has less support among the younger generation (SIGI, 2011).
Again, the combined link between the older women and the younger ladies has sustained the culture of
women trafficking to Italy, France, Belgium, Netherland, Germany and Britain to engage in prostitution
(Loconto, 2002). This is because women in entrepreneurship have been largely neglected in the society (Hisrich,
1999), while Duchenaut (1997) argued that they choose to engage in other fields. The voluntary and non-
voluntary sustenance of this dysfunctional international trafficking and action of prostitution by an insignificant
number of ladies that are tarnishing Nigerian image abroad has given fillip to the unconfirmed notion of Ikpe
that Nigerian woman is a sexual superwoman with whom any sexual fantasy can be realized (see Ikpe, 2007:374
& Ikpe, 2004:30-31). Abdullahi and Buba (2009:61-62) agreed with Ikpe when they wrote that “most
communities argue that FGM is important because some women are naturally sexy (sexpotists) and a man alone
cannot satisfy her sexually, but if she is circumcised through excision of the clitoris, her sexual promiscuity will
be curbed”. But Lightfoot (1983) have earlier pointed out that such practice is motivated by men’s desire to gain
control over women’s sexual life.
Abduction during conflict has remained a norm in Nigeria. Outside the innumerable abductions that
took place in the country during the Nigerian civil war, there has been the resurgence of abduction by the Boko
Haram sect. During their 2009 onslaught on the machinery of state security in many states in northern Nigeria,
the sect abducted thousands of people and sent them to their national headquarters in Maiduguri (Ani, 2010:1-
10& Nwanaju, 2010:67). The abduction and killing of hundreds of people, mainly women and children in Jos,
during the March 2010 multi-dimensional conflict brings to mind the horror and terror that women, girls and
children passes through during conflict as they can’t easily escape the terrorist hands of their enemies. Saliba
and Ani (2010:1-12) showed that the Boko Haram sect kidnapped about four hundred Nigerians, mainly women
and children during the reign of their threat on the state. They were extremists who “are not at all serious about
discussing the nature of extremism that the Holy Prophet made so many references to and warned against
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(Gimba & Mele, 2007:178)”. Many of the abducted ladies were forced to sow and wash the uniform of the
militant arm of the Boko Haram sect.
Implications for Nation Building in Nigeria
During violent conflicts, women are forced to take up roles they have
otherwise not known. With the men out in active combat, and others killed
during the war, the need for survival forces the women to take up the roles
that traditionally belong to men. Without much notice or training or
experience, they become the breadwinner and decision-maker not only in
the family but also in the society. This is a somewhat difficult adjustment at
the beginning because most African societies are patriarchal and in many
cases, although women have been responsible for feeding their families,
their authority rarely extends to decision-making in their homes and less so
in society (Mutunga 2007:372).
Smith (2000) documented that many women that get children through rape during war often choose not to
identify the children as product of rape but are left bearing the pain and scar internally and alone. Babies, who
are product of rape, often pay the price as they lose the needed fatherly love and sometimes lack the best of
attention from their mothers, who sometimes live in self and emotional problems.
Recently, Nigeria has witnessed an outrageous wave in kidnapping for money making, in which some
ladies are taken hostage for mere sexual satisfaction. The mental devastation, which rape causes on the victims,
their family image and well wishers reduces the rate of their social sexual productivity within the post-rape
period. In some cases it forces young girls and women to bring-up children, and live with the neurosis of not
knowing the father of their child. The girls and young women, caught up in different parts of the country during
inter-communal conflicts, if lucky and were not killed, are turned into sex slaves by the combatants. The
implication is the massive contact of all manners of sexual transmitted infections as well as HIV/AIDS in most
cases.
The massive spread of HIV/AIDS is often witnessed as a product of violent gender practice in Nigeria.
It is a popular knowledge that HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, which are spreading like
whirl wind, are geometrically transmitted during conflict times. The UN-inspired World Aids Day, instituted
since 1988, has kept us reminded of the ravaging pandemic just as the frightening figures on its prevalence have
continued to engross us both as a health and social problem with devastating consequences for humanity….An
account in 1999 has it that “although President Ibrahim Babangida had committed N20 million annually,
beginning in 1991 and had required each of the then 30 states and 665 local authorities to spend N1 million and
N500, 000 on AIDS programmes each year respectively, not one of these commitments has been fulfilled’’
(www.dawodu.com, 2011).
Female genital mutilation is a traditional African culture that has remained largely practiced across
Africa. Traditionally, it was used in some cultures to ‘define’ and ‘celebrate’ how the female gender perceive
themselves. Ahmadu (2000) showed that it is a cultural act that shows the traditional rite and wrongs of how
Africa experience womanhood. The ‘mutilation’ of the ‘real’ body of the Nigerian woman has been perceived as
the height of physical violence on a girl-child, which is seen as a conspiracy of the patriarchy to deprive the
African woman of the control of her body and sexual enjoyment. The immediate and pre and post-mutilation
era, denies the female gender the needed emotional stability, strength and composure to contribute to nation
building process. Some people in the villages are exposed to diseases and other forms of health breakdown that
becomes a minor or major threat to nation building. It could lead to medical complications at the short run or
even the problem of poor safe-delivery ability during child birth. To make matters worse, international
consensus has shown that the practice should be done away with because of its real and imagined health
implications (WHO, 2000). While the culture of female genital mutilation (FGM) has been continuously
reduced because of national and international critique against the practice, there is another side of the coin that
must not be left out in any scholarly research. It is the group of people who argue that they enjoy the act of
FGM. There is need for more objective study of those who willingly carry-out female circumcision in order to
achieve what they call pleasurable sexuality (Leonard, 2000:212-228 & El Guindu, 2006). This is because
“sexual rights are a fundamental aspect of human rights. It includes the right to experience a pleasurable
sexuality, which is an important means of communication and love between people” (Adebayo, 2007:46). In
practice, women can obtain access to land solely through marriage or family. As a result, women represent a
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tiny portion of landowners in the country and little is known about how much authority they have to administer
their land holdings (SIGI, 2011).
The impact of the Alamajiri culture on human capital development cannot be over emphasized. It is a
popular knowledge that the greater percentage of these wandering street boys lack any form of formal education.
Some of them who try to join the formal system have many of them pulling-out because of the social
stigmatization from other members of the school plant (Ogundipe-Leslie, 1994). The forcing of children into
street hawking as well as the increasing accusation of children as witches and wizards as well as the traditional
believe and maltreatment of the female gender as witches calls for urgent national attention. The recent
development in the South-South of the country records regular dehumanization of children, who have been
accused as child witches and wizards. Many female teenagers who hawk on the streets has being turned into
teenage mothers, with multiple negative consequences on the State.
Conclusion
The traditional attitude that women are not important has led to their being variously
described as “the forgotten fifty percent of the world’s population or the neglected human resources for
development or the forgotten factor in economic development” (Egunyomi: 120). A scholarly counsel came
from Ogundipe-Leslie (1994: 9) where he showed that we need to re-create women for societal transformation.
This would happen if there is improved re-orientation of the male gender to be conscious of the rights and the
plights of the female folk within their environment. The paper therefore calls for increased sound education of
both genders. It equally recommends geometric government policies towards community driven gender-based
re-orientation of the masses for sustainable national development. Consequently, UNICEF has called on the
Federal Ministry of Information and Communication as well as Nigerian Guild of Editors (NGE) to call on
states to engage in full implementation of the Child Right Act in the states that have already passed the law.
UNICEF called for the mainstreaming of Child Right Reporting in the curriculum content of General Studies of
Nigerian tertiary institutions and in other disciplines (Umah, 2007:7).
Furthermore, for Nigerian women to effectively join their male counterparts in the effective process of
contributing towards nation building process, the modern socio-economic, political, cultural and developmental
factors must guarantee the tendency of womenfolk to improve their social status in their different societies as
well as gain sound social recognition and be fully involved in the affairs of community, local, state and national
development. There is equally the need to promote massive education of the female gender, through girl-child
education and other gender-based education policies. This would help to produce a pool of massively educated
ladies, with minimal supporters of men in the quest to sustain the above negative traditional violent behaviour. It
is a known fact that many women champion the cause of inflicting violent pains on their fellow gender, in
alliance with some male folk. Mass female adult education would help to deliver many women from ignorance,
illiteracy and lack of faith in oneself, while promoting self –confidence, increased creativity as well as social
recognition in the different knocks and crannies of the Nigerian State. Education would help the male and
female gender to know where their rights began and end in existential relations. It would help the ladies to
compete more favourably with the male in the ever-competitive productive sectors of the Nigerian national
economy.
There is need for private-public partnership in promoting gender-based seminars, rallies, meetings,
teachings, symposia, debates etc. The location, time and content of these educational programmes should be
such that would be designed to unfold male and especially female issues, in which the female should be able to
express their views unhindered. The women in the villages should promote idea-sharing alliances with
formidable gender-based associations, women that occupy the higher echelon of the society and has both
integrity and sound intellectual capability. There is the need to train ladies to be experts in the positive
manipulation of their God-given soft power to relate tactically with their male counterparts.
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Ani, Kelechi Johnmary is a lecturer in the Department of History and Strategic Studies, Federal University
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10
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