The document discusses integrated inverter/converter circuits and dual mode control techniques for electric vehicle and hybrid electric vehicle applications. It describes how the proposed integrated circuit can operate as both an inverter and a boost converter to drive motors and boost voltages. The circuit allows motors to operate in motor mode or act as boost inductors for the converter. It can significantly reduce system volume and weight. The document also discusses using motor windings as boost inductors and proposes a new interleaved control technique to increase efficiency, especially under heavy loads. Finally, it provides background on DC-DC converters, their applications in power generation systems, and control challenges.
IRJET- Design and Implementation of Converters using MPPT in an Eco VehicleIRJET Journal
1) The document describes the design and implementation of converters using maximum power point tracking (MPPT) in a solar electric vehicle. A SEPIC converter is used to regulate the nonlinear output from the photovoltaic panels and MPPT with perturb and observe algorithm is used to track maximum power.
2) Fuzzy logic control is applied to control the SEPIC converter. The obtained voltage from the photovoltaic system is stored in a 48V battery. This improves the overall efficiency and performance of the solar electric vehicle.
3) The SEPIC converter regulates the fluctuating DC output from the solar panels into a stiff DC output. Fuzzy logic control provides pulse width modulated signals to the SEPIC converter to control
Implementation of Buck-Boost Converter as Low Voltage Stabilizer at 15 VIJECEIAES
This paper presents the implementation of the buck-boost converter design which is a power electronics applications that can stabilize voltage, even though the input voltage changes. Regulator to stabilize the voltage using PWM pulse that triger pin 2 on XL6009. In this design of buck-boost converter is implemented using the XL6009, LM7815 and TIP2955. LM7815 as output voltage regulator at 15V with 1A output current, while TIP2955 is able to overcome output current up to 5A. When the LM7815 and TIP2955 are connected in parallel, the converter can increase the output current to 6A.. Testing is done using varied voltage sources that can be set. The results obtained from this design can be applied to PV (Photovoltaic) and WP (Wind Power), with changes in input voltage between 3-21V dc can produce output voltage 15V.
IRJET- Implementation of Multilevel Inverter using Solar PV Array for Renewab...IRJET Journal
This document discusses the implementation of a multi-level inverter using a solar PV array for renewable energy applications. Specifically, it proposes a system that uses a MPPT controller with a dc/dc converter and a nine-level inverter. It describes the design and components of the proposed prototype, including the solar PV array, modified SEPIC converter for high voltage gain, multi-level H-bridge inverter topology, and MPPT controller. A PIC microcontroller is used to implement the MPPT algorithm and control the system. Finally, an isolated MOSFET driver circuit is discussed to safely and efficiently drive the MOSFETs in the system.
“MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF DC-DC CONVERTER FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM” Final...8381801685
This project portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System. The electrolysis method which increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. The converter operates in lagging PF mode for a very wide change in load and supply voltage variations, thus ensuring ZVS for all the primary switches. The peak current through the switches decreases with load current.This paper portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System . The simulation and experimental results show that the power gain obtained by this method clearly increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. Theoretical predictions of the selected configuration have been compared with the MATLAB simulation results. The simulation and experimental results indicate that the output of the inverter is nearly sinusoidal. The output of rectifier is pure DC due to the presence of LC filter at the output. It can be seen that the efficiency of DC-DC converter with transformer is 15% higher than the converter without transformer.
IRJET- Design of Power Factor Correction Controller using Buck-Boost Converte...IRJET Journal
This document describes a power factor correction controller circuit designed for a wireless charging system for electric vehicles. The controller uses a buck-boost converter topology to maintain a power factor close to unity. It operates in continuous conduction mode using a proportional-integral current controller. The goal is to efficiently charge the vehicle battery while minimizing grid interference through power factor correction. The system is modeled in MATLAB Simulink to analyze the closed-loop control operation of the designed power factor correction controller for wireless electric vehicle charging.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
Design & Implementation of Controller Based Buck-Boost Converter for Small Wi...iosrjce
This paper propose to design a controller based buck boost converter for the effective utilization of
the wind machine. By implementing a controller based Buck-Boost converter, the voltage produced at the lower
wind speeds can also be utilized effectively by boosting it to the rated charging voltage of the battery. Also if the
wind speed is high, the DC output voltage will increase then the converter bucks this high voltage to the
nominal battery charging voltage (48V), thereby protecting the battery from over charging voltage. Thus the
effective utilization of the wind machine has been achieved by the use of the proposed controller based buck
boost converter.
IRJET- Design and Implementation of Converters using MPPT in an Eco VehicleIRJET Journal
1) The document describes the design and implementation of converters using maximum power point tracking (MPPT) in a solar electric vehicle. A SEPIC converter is used to regulate the nonlinear output from the photovoltaic panels and MPPT with perturb and observe algorithm is used to track maximum power.
2) Fuzzy logic control is applied to control the SEPIC converter. The obtained voltage from the photovoltaic system is stored in a 48V battery. This improves the overall efficiency and performance of the solar electric vehicle.
3) The SEPIC converter regulates the fluctuating DC output from the solar panels into a stiff DC output. Fuzzy logic control provides pulse width modulated signals to the SEPIC converter to control
Implementation of Buck-Boost Converter as Low Voltage Stabilizer at 15 VIJECEIAES
This paper presents the implementation of the buck-boost converter design which is a power electronics applications that can stabilize voltage, even though the input voltage changes. Regulator to stabilize the voltage using PWM pulse that triger pin 2 on XL6009. In this design of buck-boost converter is implemented using the XL6009, LM7815 and TIP2955. LM7815 as output voltage regulator at 15V with 1A output current, while TIP2955 is able to overcome output current up to 5A. When the LM7815 and TIP2955 are connected in parallel, the converter can increase the output current to 6A.. Testing is done using varied voltage sources that can be set. The results obtained from this design can be applied to PV (Photovoltaic) and WP (Wind Power), with changes in input voltage between 3-21V dc can produce output voltage 15V.
IRJET- Implementation of Multilevel Inverter using Solar PV Array for Renewab...IRJET Journal
This document discusses the implementation of a multi-level inverter using a solar PV array for renewable energy applications. Specifically, it proposes a system that uses a MPPT controller with a dc/dc converter and a nine-level inverter. It describes the design and components of the proposed prototype, including the solar PV array, modified SEPIC converter for high voltage gain, multi-level H-bridge inverter topology, and MPPT controller. A PIC microcontroller is used to implement the MPPT algorithm and control the system. Finally, an isolated MOSFET driver circuit is discussed to safely and efficiently drive the MOSFETs in the system.
“MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF DC-DC CONVERTER FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM” Final...8381801685
This project portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System. The electrolysis method which increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. The converter operates in lagging PF mode for a very wide change in load and supply voltage variations, thus ensuring ZVS for all the primary switches. The peak current through the switches decreases with load current.This paper portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System . The simulation and experimental results show that the power gain obtained by this method clearly increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. Theoretical predictions of the selected configuration have been compared with the MATLAB simulation results. The simulation and experimental results indicate that the output of the inverter is nearly sinusoidal. The output of rectifier is pure DC due to the presence of LC filter at the output. It can be seen that the efficiency of DC-DC converter with transformer is 15% higher than the converter without transformer.
IRJET- Design of Power Factor Correction Controller using Buck-Boost Converte...IRJET Journal
This document describes a power factor correction controller circuit designed for a wireless charging system for electric vehicles. The controller uses a buck-boost converter topology to maintain a power factor close to unity. It operates in continuous conduction mode using a proportional-integral current controller. The goal is to efficiently charge the vehicle battery while minimizing grid interference through power factor correction. The system is modeled in MATLAB Simulink to analyze the closed-loop control operation of the designed power factor correction controller for wireless electric vehicle charging.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
Design & Implementation of Controller Based Buck-Boost Converter for Small Wi...iosrjce
This paper propose to design a controller based buck boost converter for the effective utilization of
the wind machine. By implementing a controller based Buck-Boost converter, the voltage produced at the lower
wind speeds can also be utilized effectively by boosting it to the rated charging voltage of the battery. Also if the
wind speed is high, the DC output voltage will increase then the converter bucks this high voltage to the
nominal battery charging voltage (48V), thereby protecting the battery from over charging voltage. Thus the
effective utilization of the wind machine has been achieved by the use of the proposed controller based buck
boost converter.
The intention of this paper is to identify a suitable controller for closed loop multi converter system for multiple input sources and to improve time response of high-gain-step up-converter. Closed-loop Multi Converter System (MCS) is utilized to regulate load-voltage. This effort recommends suitable-controller for closed-two loop-controlled-SEPIC-REBOOST Converter fed DC motor. The estimation of the yield in open-two loop and closed- two-loop-circuit has been done using MATLAB or Simulink. Closed-two loop-control of Multi Converter System with Propotional+Integral (PI)- Propotional+Integral (PI) and Proportional+Resonant (PR) - Proportional+Resonant (PR) Controllers are investigated and their responses are evaluated in conditions of rise time, peak time, settling time and steady state error. It is seen that current-mode PR-PR controlled MCS gives better time domain response in terms of motor speed. A Prototype of MCS has been fabricated in the laboratory and the experimental-results are authenticated with the simulation-results.
This document presents a simulation study of a photovoltaic (PV) system that uses a cascade three-level inverter topology. The PV system consists of a PV array, boost converter, and inverter. A cascade three-level inverter is formed by connecting two two-level inverters in series. Space vector PWM control is used to generate switching pulses. MATLAB/Simulink studies are performed to analyze the total harmonic distortion in the output voltage and current waveforms when supplying an inductive load. The simulation results demonstrate the operation of the proposed PV system with the cascade three-level inverter.
DESIGN OF A MULTIFUNCTIONAL FLYBACK DC-DC CONVERTER WITH CURRENT CONTROLIAEME Publication
This paper proposes a set of design techniques to build a DC-DC converter for the interconnection of different sources of renewable energy with storage elements and flexible load profiles. This type of multifunctional DC-DC converter is essential to provide the dispatch of energy generation to storage connected to the DC bus or allow energy exchange with the AC network, with different decision modes as a function of the state of charge of batteries, with the forecast of the consumption of a house with renewable production. This work emphasizes the application of a method to design switched mode flyback converters with current control capabilities on the output side.
Ieee 2015 2014 power electronics project titlespowerprojects
We offer IEEE 2014 power electronics projects, IEEE 2015 power electronics projects for B.E, M.E, B.Tech, M.Tech final year students in engineering colleges. We provide all project support with project training.
Ecway Technologies provides IEEE projects and software development services for power electronics. It has offices in multiple cities in India. The document then lists over 100 project titles from 2013 in areas like boost converters, buck converters, inverters, motor drives, renewable energy, resonant converters, and more. Contact information is provided at the end.
This document contains a list of 2013 IEEE power electronics project titles organized by topic areas including boost converter, boost rectifier, buck converter, dc-dc converter, induction heating, inverter, LED drive, motor drives, multilevel inverter, power factor correction, renewable energy, resonant converter, SEPIC converter, STATCOM, uninterruptible power supply, wind energy, Z source inverter, and battery charger. The project titles focus on analysis, design, control, and optimization of power electronic converters and systems across various applications.
6.[36 45]seven level modified cascaded inverter for induction motor drive app...Alexander Decker
1) The document presents a modified cascaded multilevel inverter topology for induction motor drive applications that reduces the number of switches compared to conventional designs.
2) The proposed topology uses 7 switches and 3 diodes to generate 7 voltage levels, whereas conventional designs require 12 switches. This reduces switching losses, cost, and complexity.
3) Simulation and experimental results show the proposed design can generate 7 voltage levels to drive an induction motor. FFT analysis shows lower total harmonic distortion compared to conventional designs.
A High Gain Boost Converter for PV Power System ApplicationsIRJET Journal
This document presents a high gain DC/DC boost converter for photovoltaic power system applications. The proposed converter consists of a power switch, a coupled inductor, and four diodes and capacitors. It is based on the conventional SEPIC converter topology but uses a voltage multiplier cell to achieve high voltage gain. In simulation results using MATLAB/Simulink, the converter was able to boost a 20V input to a 240V output with high efficiency by reducing voltage stresses on components and recovering the leakage current of the coupled inductor. The converter is suitable for PV applications where each module can be connected independently with a dedicated converter.
Performance and Analysis of Hybrid Multilevel Inverter fed Induction Motor Drivernvsubbarao koppineni
This paper presents the Five level inverter with single DC source which is used to generate a five level output with two bridges and six switches and performance of three phase induction motor is analyzed when connected to PV array For this two identical dc sources of 50V each for two bridges in five levels using Multi level inverter and five level output is obtained by using a single DC source of 100V with six switches. A virtual DC source (charged capacitor acts as virtual DC source) is used for getting the output. The same technique is implemented for three-phase circuit i.e. by using single DC source. An asynchronous motor (three-phase) is connected as load and its performance characteristics are analyzed. And further the DC source is replaced by a renewable resource such as solar panels, fuel cell etc. and DC voltage is obtained. Performance characteristics of three-phase asynchronous motor are analyzed with PV array connected. The method can be easily extended to an m-level inverter.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Analysis and design of grid connected photovoltaic systems Karthik Dm
This paper proposes a new architecture for grid-connected photovoltaic systems called multiple-integrated converter modules sharing an unfolding full-bridge inverter with a pseudo dc link (MIPs). The proposed MIPs configuration can improve power conversion efficiency, reduce control circuit complexity, and lower costs. It consists of distributed flyback DC-DC converters and an unfolding full-bridge inverter with an AC filter. Experimental results validate the performance of the proposed design and confirm over 99% maximum power point tracking efficiency.
This document provides a list of 57 technical papers published between 2010-2013 related to electrical engineering topics like power electronics, renewable energy, and control systems. It includes the paper titles and their respective years of publication. Contact information is also provided to inquire about further details.
IRJET-Solar Power Generation with Capacitor Based Seven Level Inverter SystemIRJET Journal
The document proposes a solar power generation system using a seven-level inverter to improve efficiency. The system includes a DC/DC converter to boost the solar panel output voltage and charge capacitors, and a seven-level inverter built with a capacitor selection circuit and full-bridge converter to produce a seven-level output voltage using only six switches. The seven-level inverter is controlled using PWM signals from fuzzy logic controllers to regulate the output current and synchronize it with the grid voltage.
Switched Inductor based Quadratic Following Boost ConverterIRJET Journal
This document describes a switched inductor based quadratic following boost converter for applications requiring high voltage gain such as renewable energy. The converter consists of two switches, five diodes, three inductors, and three capacitors. It operates in two modes: 1) the input voltage charges the inductors while capacitors discharge and 2) the capacitors charge while inductors discharge to charge the output capacitor and supply the load. Simulation results show the converter boosting an input of 42V to an output of 251.8V at 90% efficiency for resistive loads and 80% efficiency for resistive-inductive loads. Analysis indicates this converter provides higher voltage gain than a conventional quadratic boost converter at the same duty cycle with lower output
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering
A Review on Modeling and Analysis of Multi Stage with Multi Phase DC DC Boost...YogeshIJTSRD
A new version of the new Hybrid Boost DC DC ready to draw power from two different DC sources for standard DC bus feeds is presented in this paper. An important feature of the proposed converter is that both sources provide simultaneous power to a lower load than the reduced current rate. This feature is very attractive for DC grid applications. With the analysis of the time zone, steady state performance is established and the transformational power correction parameters are obtained. In this paper, a powerful converter is introduced, with its operating principles based on charging pumps and converters of reinforcement series. In addition, although three switches are used, no separate gate driver is required instead of one bridge gate driver and one gate driver on the lower side. As such, the proposed converter is easy to analyze and easy to operate. In addition, additional test results are provided to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed converter. Mukesh Kuma | Manoj Kumar Dewangan | Maheedhar Dubey "A Review on Modeling and Analysis of Multi Stage with Multi Phase DC-DC Boost Converter" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd39985.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/39985/a-review-on-modeling-and-analysis-of-multi-stage-with-multi-phase-dcdc-boost-converter/mukesh-kuma
A ZVS Interleaved Boost AC/DC Converter Using Super Capacitor Power for Hybri...IJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
IRJET - Design and Analysis of a SEPIC Integrated Boost (SIB) Converter using...IRJET Journal
- The document presents the design of a SEPIC integrated Boost (SIB) converter using a coupled inductor. The proposed converter has advantages like lower voltage stress on switches, non-inverting output voltage, high efficiency, and high voltage gain.
- The proposed converter consists of two switches, three inductors (including a coupled inductor), two diodes, and three capacitors. It can be easily controlled in continuous conduction mode by giving the two switches the same gate pulses.
- Simulation results show that the proposed converter achieves a high output voltage gain and verifies its performance for both open-loop and closed-loop topologies.
Design of Half Bridge LLC Resonant Converter for Low Voltage Dc ApplicationsIOSRJEEE
An advanced hybrid LLC series resonant converter with united flying-capacitor cell is proposed in this paper to permit the high step-down conversion in the high input voltage applications. The in-built flyingcapacitor branch in the primary side can efficiently share out the primary switch voltage stress related with the half-bridge LLC converters. And the input voltage can be shared correspondingly and automatically between the two series half-bridge components lacking additional balance circuit or control strategies owing to the built-in flying- capacitor cell. Likewise, the inherent soft switching performance in extensive load range that exists in the LLC converters is still kept to decrease the switching losses, which ensures the high efficiency. In addition, the proposed converter can be comprehensive to reduce the switch voltage stress byemploying stacked connection. Finally, a 500∼640 Vinput 48 Voutput 1 kW prototype is built and tested to verify the efficiency of the proposed converter. The results prove that the proposed converter is an excellent candidate for the high input voltage and high step-down dc/dc conversion systems.
An Asymmetrical Dc-Dc Converter with a High Voltage GainIJMER
An asymmetrical full bridge converter is proposed in the paper. The proposed converter
achieves zero voltage switching of all the power switches. Zero current switching of all the output diodes
are also achieved here. This in turn provides a highly efficienct operation. The proposed converter can
provide a high voltage gain and the voltages across the semi- conductor devices are effectively clamped.
The converter can be utilised effectively in high voltage applications as embedded systems, renewable
energy systems, fuel cells, mobility applications and uninterrupted power supply
Modified SEPIC Converter Performance for Grid-connected PV Systems under Vari...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Step-up converter is widely used to increase DC voltage level on PV systems either off-grid or grid connected. One of the step-up converters often used in PV systems is SEPIC converter. To improve its performance, many SEPIC converters have been modified. However, performance on various conditions has not been further investigated. In this study, the modified SEPIC converter was investigated under various change conditions for grid-connected PV applications. This converter was modelled and simulated using PSIM software. The modified SEPIC converter received input from PV array 15 kWp, and its output was connected to the three-phase inverter with grid and load. The irradiance level and ambient temperature were varied to test its performance and compared to Boost converter and SEPIC converter. For all tests, the performance of modified SEPIC converter was better than other step-up converters because it was able to rectify the quality of output voltage and more efficient.
Design and Performance of a Bidirectional Isolated Dc-Dc Converter for Renewa...IOSR Journals
1) The document describes a bidirectional isolated DC-DC converter for renewable power systems. The proposed converter uses a coupled inductor with the same winding turns on the primary and secondary sides, allowing for higher step-up and step-down voltage gains than conventional bidirectional converters.
2) A simulation of the proposed converter in a photovoltaic system is implemented in Simulink. The simulation results show the input voltage from the solar panel and output voltage in both forward and reverse modes of operation.
3) A quasi-optimal design method is presented to minimize conduction losses by reducing the RMS current value and extend zero-voltage switching to improve conversion efficiency. Duty cycle control is used to achieve this while accommodating variations in
The intention of this paper is to identify a suitable controller for closed loop multi converter system for multiple input sources and to improve time response of high-gain-step up-converter. Closed-loop Multi Converter System (MCS) is utilized to regulate load-voltage. This effort recommends suitable-controller for closed-two loop-controlled-SEPIC-REBOOST Converter fed DC motor. The estimation of the yield in open-two loop and closed- two-loop-circuit has been done using MATLAB or Simulink. Closed-two loop-control of Multi Converter System with Propotional+Integral (PI)- Propotional+Integral (PI) and Proportional+Resonant (PR) - Proportional+Resonant (PR) Controllers are investigated and their responses are evaluated in conditions of rise time, peak time, settling time and steady state error. It is seen that current-mode PR-PR controlled MCS gives better time domain response in terms of motor speed. A Prototype of MCS has been fabricated in the laboratory and the experimental-results are authenticated with the simulation-results.
This document presents a simulation study of a photovoltaic (PV) system that uses a cascade three-level inverter topology. The PV system consists of a PV array, boost converter, and inverter. A cascade three-level inverter is formed by connecting two two-level inverters in series. Space vector PWM control is used to generate switching pulses. MATLAB/Simulink studies are performed to analyze the total harmonic distortion in the output voltage and current waveforms when supplying an inductive load. The simulation results demonstrate the operation of the proposed PV system with the cascade three-level inverter.
DESIGN OF A MULTIFUNCTIONAL FLYBACK DC-DC CONVERTER WITH CURRENT CONTROLIAEME Publication
This paper proposes a set of design techniques to build a DC-DC converter for the interconnection of different sources of renewable energy with storage elements and flexible load profiles. This type of multifunctional DC-DC converter is essential to provide the dispatch of energy generation to storage connected to the DC bus or allow energy exchange with the AC network, with different decision modes as a function of the state of charge of batteries, with the forecast of the consumption of a house with renewable production. This work emphasizes the application of a method to design switched mode flyback converters with current control capabilities on the output side.
Ieee 2015 2014 power electronics project titlespowerprojects
We offer IEEE 2014 power electronics projects, IEEE 2015 power electronics projects for B.E, M.E, B.Tech, M.Tech final year students in engineering colleges. We provide all project support with project training.
Ecway Technologies provides IEEE projects and software development services for power electronics. It has offices in multiple cities in India. The document then lists over 100 project titles from 2013 in areas like boost converters, buck converters, inverters, motor drives, renewable energy, resonant converters, and more. Contact information is provided at the end.
This document contains a list of 2013 IEEE power electronics project titles organized by topic areas including boost converter, boost rectifier, buck converter, dc-dc converter, induction heating, inverter, LED drive, motor drives, multilevel inverter, power factor correction, renewable energy, resonant converter, SEPIC converter, STATCOM, uninterruptible power supply, wind energy, Z source inverter, and battery charger. The project titles focus on analysis, design, control, and optimization of power electronic converters and systems across various applications.
6.[36 45]seven level modified cascaded inverter for induction motor drive app...Alexander Decker
1) The document presents a modified cascaded multilevel inverter topology for induction motor drive applications that reduces the number of switches compared to conventional designs.
2) The proposed topology uses 7 switches and 3 diodes to generate 7 voltage levels, whereas conventional designs require 12 switches. This reduces switching losses, cost, and complexity.
3) Simulation and experimental results show the proposed design can generate 7 voltage levels to drive an induction motor. FFT analysis shows lower total harmonic distortion compared to conventional designs.
A High Gain Boost Converter for PV Power System ApplicationsIRJET Journal
This document presents a high gain DC/DC boost converter for photovoltaic power system applications. The proposed converter consists of a power switch, a coupled inductor, and four diodes and capacitors. It is based on the conventional SEPIC converter topology but uses a voltage multiplier cell to achieve high voltage gain. In simulation results using MATLAB/Simulink, the converter was able to boost a 20V input to a 240V output with high efficiency by reducing voltage stresses on components and recovering the leakage current of the coupled inductor. The converter is suitable for PV applications where each module can be connected independently with a dedicated converter.
Performance and Analysis of Hybrid Multilevel Inverter fed Induction Motor Drivernvsubbarao koppineni
This paper presents the Five level inverter with single DC source which is used to generate a five level output with two bridges and six switches and performance of three phase induction motor is analyzed when connected to PV array For this two identical dc sources of 50V each for two bridges in five levels using Multi level inverter and five level output is obtained by using a single DC source of 100V with six switches. A virtual DC source (charged capacitor acts as virtual DC source) is used for getting the output. The same technique is implemented for three-phase circuit i.e. by using single DC source. An asynchronous motor (three-phase) is connected as load and its performance characteristics are analyzed. And further the DC source is replaced by a renewable resource such as solar panels, fuel cell etc. and DC voltage is obtained. Performance characteristics of three-phase asynchronous motor are analyzed with PV array connected. The method can be easily extended to an m-level inverter.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Analysis and design of grid connected photovoltaic systems Karthik Dm
This paper proposes a new architecture for grid-connected photovoltaic systems called multiple-integrated converter modules sharing an unfolding full-bridge inverter with a pseudo dc link (MIPs). The proposed MIPs configuration can improve power conversion efficiency, reduce control circuit complexity, and lower costs. It consists of distributed flyback DC-DC converters and an unfolding full-bridge inverter with an AC filter. Experimental results validate the performance of the proposed design and confirm over 99% maximum power point tracking efficiency.
This document provides a list of 57 technical papers published between 2010-2013 related to electrical engineering topics like power electronics, renewable energy, and control systems. It includes the paper titles and their respective years of publication. Contact information is also provided to inquire about further details.
IRJET-Solar Power Generation with Capacitor Based Seven Level Inverter SystemIRJET Journal
The document proposes a solar power generation system using a seven-level inverter to improve efficiency. The system includes a DC/DC converter to boost the solar panel output voltage and charge capacitors, and a seven-level inverter built with a capacitor selection circuit and full-bridge converter to produce a seven-level output voltage using only six switches. The seven-level inverter is controlled using PWM signals from fuzzy logic controllers to regulate the output current and synchronize it with the grid voltage.
Switched Inductor based Quadratic Following Boost ConverterIRJET Journal
This document describes a switched inductor based quadratic following boost converter for applications requiring high voltage gain such as renewable energy. The converter consists of two switches, five diodes, three inductors, and three capacitors. It operates in two modes: 1) the input voltage charges the inductors while capacitors discharge and 2) the capacitors charge while inductors discharge to charge the output capacitor and supply the load. Simulation results show the converter boosting an input of 42V to an output of 251.8V at 90% efficiency for resistive loads and 80% efficiency for resistive-inductive loads. Analysis indicates this converter provides higher voltage gain than a conventional quadratic boost converter at the same duty cycle with lower output
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering
A Review on Modeling and Analysis of Multi Stage with Multi Phase DC DC Boost...YogeshIJTSRD
A new version of the new Hybrid Boost DC DC ready to draw power from two different DC sources for standard DC bus feeds is presented in this paper. An important feature of the proposed converter is that both sources provide simultaneous power to a lower load than the reduced current rate. This feature is very attractive for DC grid applications. With the analysis of the time zone, steady state performance is established and the transformational power correction parameters are obtained. In this paper, a powerful converter is introduced, with its operating principles based on charging pumps and converters of reinforcement series. In addition, although three switches are used, no separate gate driver is required instead of one bridge gate driver and one gate driver on the lower side. As such, the proposed converter is easy to analyze and easy to operate. In addition, additional test results are provided to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed converter. Mukesh Kuma | Manoj Kumar Dewangan | Maheedhar Dubey "A Review on Modeling and Analysis of Multi Stage with Multi Phase DC-DC Boost Converter" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd39985.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/39985/a-review-on-modeling-and-analysis-of-multi-stage-with-multi-phase-dcdc-boost-converter/mukesh-kuma
A ZVS Interleaved Boost AC/DC Converter Using Super Capacitor Power for Hybri...IJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
IRJET - Design and Analysis of a SEPIC Integrated Boost (SIB) Converter using...IRJET Journal
- The document presents the design of a SEPIC integrated Boost (SIB) converter using a coupled inductor. The proposed converter has advantages like lower voltage stress on switches, non-inverting output voltage, high efficiency, and high voltage gain.
- The proposed converter consists of two switches, three inductors (including a coupled inductor), two diodes, and three capacitors. It can be easily controlled in continuous conduction mode by giving the two switches the same gate pulses.
- Simulation results show that the proposed converter achieves a high output voltage gain and verifies its performance for both open-loop and closed-loop topologies.
Design of Half Bridge LLC Resonant Converter for Low Voltage Dc ApplicationsIOSRJEEE
An advanced hybrid LLC series resonant converter with united flying-capacitor cell is proposed in this paper to permit the high step-down conversion in the high input voltage applications. The in-built flyingcapacitor branch in the primary side can efficiently share out the primary switch voltage stress related with the half-bridge LLC converters. And the input voltage can be shared correspondingly and automatically between the two series half-bridge components lacking additional balance circuit or control strategies owing to the built-in flying- capacitor cell. Likewise, the inherent soft switching performance in extensive load range that exists in the LLC converters is still kept to decrease the switching losses, which ensures the high efficiency. In addition, the proposed converter can be comprehensive to reduce the switch voltage stress byemploying stacked connection. Finally, a 500∼640 Vinput 48 Voutput 1 kW prototype is built and tested to verify the efficiency of the proposed converter. The results prove that the proposed converter is an excellent candidate for the high input voltage and high step-down dc/dc conversion systems.
An Asymmetrical Dc-Dc Converter with a High Voltage GainIJMER
An asymmetrical full bridge converter is proposed in the paper. The proposed converter
achieves zero voltage switching of all the power switches. Zero current switching of all the output diodes
are also achieved here. This in turn provides a highly efficienct operation. The proposed converter can
provide a high voltage gain and the voltages across the semi- conductor devices are effectively clamped.
The converter can be utilised effectively in high voltage applications as embedded systems, renewable
energy systems, fuel cells, mobility applications and uninterrupted power supply
Modified SEPIC Converter Performance for Grid-connected PV Systems under Vari...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Step-up converter is widely used to increase DC voltage level on PV systems either off-grid or grid connected. One of the step-up converters often used in PV systems is SEPIC converter. To improve its performance, many SEPIC converters have been modified. However, performance on various conditions has not been further investigated. In this study, the modified SEPIC converter was investigated under various change conditions for grid-connected PV applications. This converter was modelled and simulated using PSIM software. The modified SEPIC converter received input from PV array 15 kWp, and its output was connected to the three-phase inverter with grid and load. The irradiance level and ambient temperature were varied to test its performance and compared to Boost converter and SEPIC converter. For all tests, the performance of modified SEPIC converter was better than other step-up converters because it was able to rectify the quality of output voltage and more efficient.
Design and Performance of a Bidirectional Isolated Dc-Dc Converter for Renewa...IOSR Journals
1) The document describes a bidirectional isolated DC-DC converter for renewable power systems. The proposed converter uses a coupled inductor with the same winding turns on the primary and secondary sides, allowing for higher step-up and step-down voltage gains than conventional bidirectional converters.
2) A simulation of the proposed converter in a photovoltaic system is implemented in Simulink. The simulation results show the input voltage from the solar panel and output voltage in both forward and reverse modes of operation.
3) A quasi-optimal design method is presented to minimize conduction losses by reducing the RMS current value and extend zero-voltage switching to improve conversion efficiency. Duty cycle control is used to achieve this while accommodating variations in
IRJET- A DC-DC Converter with High Voltage Gain for Motor Applications us...IRJET Journal
This document describes a proposed DC-DC boost converter with high voltage gain for use in motor applications powered by a fuel cell. The converter aims to step up the low voltage output of the fuel cell to the higher voltage required by the motor drive. It uses a switched capacitor circuit and voltage multiplier configuration to achieve high voltage gain while maintaining a common ground and reducing voltage stress on the power switches. Simulation and experimental results show the converter can achieve a voltage gain sufficient for motor applications with high efficiency and a wide input voltage range. The proposed converter provides advantages over existing designs for fuel cell powered motors.
IRJET- A DC-DC Converter with High Voltage Gain for Motor Applications using ...IRJET Journal
This document describes a proposed DC-DC boost converter with high voltage gain for use in motor applications powered by fuel cells. The converter aims to step up the low output voltage of the fuel cell to the higher voltage required by the motor drive system. It uses two inductors, five capacitors, and two switches operating simultaneously to achieve a high voltage gain without extreme duty cycles. The converter is intended to address issues with existing converters, such as high voltage stress on components, lack of a common ground, and inability to power motor loads. It is analyzed theoretically and through simulation to validate its performance.
High Efficiency Resonant dc/dc Converter Utilizing a Resistance Compression N...Projectsatbangalore
The document describes a new high-efficiency resonant DC/DC converter topology called the Resistance Compression Network (RCN) converter. It operates with simultaneous zero-voltage switching and near zero-current switching across a wide range of input voltages, output voltages, and power levels, resulting in low switching losses. Experimental results from a 200W prototype show over 95% efficiency is maintained across an input voltage range of 25V to 40V with an output voltage of 400V, and it operates efficiently over a wide output voltage and power range. The RCN converter uses a resistance compression network and on/off control to maintain desired current waveforms and high efficiency over varying operating conditions.
This document describes a novel 2D converter design that combines a synchronous rectifier buck converter and a KY boost converter. The proposed converter has a positive output voltage and improved stability compared to traditional buck-boost converters. It operates in continuous conduction mode and has a non-pulsating output current, reducing current stress on the output capacitor and voltage ripple. The converter uses the same power switches as the KY and buck converters, making the circuit more compact and lower cost. The document provides details on the circuit configuration and operating principles of the 2D converter and discusses its application in battery chargers. It also mentions controller design and simulation results to verify the converter's performance.
Universal demand for power increases due to continuous development to fulfil all these demand. Resources
are used with optimization. A high efficiency and high power factor converters are the major parts of energy
transfer system. This paper present a general review on single stage forward and flyback converter topologies to get
better its performance. This is paper presents a kind general idea of increasing efficiency and power factor of single
stage forward and fly back converter.
Interleaved Boost Converter Fed with PV for Induction Motor/Agricultural Appl...IAES-IJPEDS
In present Electricity market Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are gaining much importance. The most common Renewable Energy Sources are Photo voltaic (PV), fuel cell (FC) and wind energy systems, out of these three PV systems PV system can implemented in most of the locations. Due to the power cuts and power disturbances in Distribution systems agriculture application is concentrated on PV based Energy system. The use of PV system is increasing day by day in agriculture application, due to their ease of control and flexibility. PV Electrification schemes also involves various subsidies in government national and international donors. Especially in Agriculture field by use of PV one can achieve higher subsidy. The output of PV system is low voltage DC to have high efficiency. The motors used in agriculture field are Induction Motors (IM) fed from Three phase AC supply, to boost the PV output we need a high voltage gain boost converter along with PWM inverter to Induction motor drive. Out of various DC-DC converter configurations interleaved boost converter is gaining much attention, due to its reduction in size and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). In this work we are proposing a PV fed interleaved boost converter with PWM inverter for agriculture applications. The design process of interleaved boost converter is explain detail and compared with existing boost converter. A 10 KW Power rating is choosing for the Induction motor drive and design calculations are carried out. A MATLAB/SIMULINK based model is developed for boost and interleaved boost converter and simulation results are presented, finally a scaled down hardware circuit design for interleaved boost converter and results are presented.
Push-Pull Converter Fed Three-Phase Inverter for Residential and Motor LoadIJPEDS-IAES
The proposed paper is an new approach for power conditioning of a PV
(photo-voltaic) cell array. The main objective is to investigate an approach to
provide and improve the delivered electric energy by means of power
conditioning structures with the use of alternative renewable resources
(ARRs) for remote rural residential or industrial non-linear loads. This
approach employs a series-combined connected boost and buck boost DCDC
converter for power conditioning of the dc voltage provided by a photovoltaic
array. The input voltage to the combined converters is 100 V
provided from two series connected PV cells, which is converted and
increased to 200 V at the dc output voltage. Series-combined connected
boost and buck-boost DC-DC converters operate alternatively. This helps to
reduce the input ripple current and provide the required 400 Vdc on a
sinusoidal PWM three-phase inverter. Analysis of the two series-combined
DC-DC converters is presented along with simulation results. Simulations of
the series-combined DC-DC converters are presented with an output DC
voltage of 200 V and a maximum output load of Po=600 W.
This document discusses the analysis, design, and modeling of DC-DC converters using Simulink. It begins with an introduction to DC-DC converters, noting common types like buck, boost, and buck-boost converters. It then provides more detailed explanations of how each converter works through circuit diagrams and waveform explanations. The document also discusses advantages and disadvantages of DC-DC converters. It presents Simulink models of buck, boost, and buck-boost converters and concludes that DC-DC converters provide regulated low-voltage power in electronics and remain an interesting topic for improved regulation and response.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
Implementation of TI-SEPIC Converter for Optimal Utilization Of PV Powerijtsrd
In this project qualitative analysis and controller design of a TI-SEPIC converter for optimal utilization photovoltaic power is presented. This converter is essentially combination of conventional buck and SEPIC converters sharing common components. On the account of the integration load side only one inductor is sufficient enough for performing the power conversion in both Buck and SEPIC converters. Here the function of the lower SEPIC converter is to extract maximum power from the PV and feeds into the load, while the remaining load power demand is supplied by the dc source through a voltage-mode controlled buck converter. Proposed integrated Converter performance is verified through MAT/SIM software simulations and then verified with measurement results obtained the laboratory prototype converter system. A.S.Valarmathy"Implementation of TI-SEPIC Converter for Optimal Utilization Of PV Power" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-5 , August 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2393.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/2393/implementation-of-ti-sepic-converter-for-optimal-utilization-of-pv-power/asvalarmathy
The document discusses a novel high step-up DC/DC converter for renewable energy applications. Existing converters cannot achieve high step-up conversion with high efficiency due to resistances or leakage inductance. The proposed converter uses a coupled inductor and two voltage multiplier cells to achieve high voltage gain. Additionally, a capacitor is charged during the switch-off period using energy from the coupled inductor, further increasing the voltage transfer gain. A passive clamp circuit recycles energy stored in the leakage inductance. This reduces voltage stress on the main switch, allowing use of a lower resistance switch to reduce conduction losses.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
1. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 1 TNRITS
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In Parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) and electric vehicle (EV) system as shown in
Fig 1.1a, the converter is used for boosting the battery voltage to rated dc bus for an inverter to
drive motor.
Fig 1.1a: HEV and EV system. (a) Parallel HEV drive train. (b) EV drive train
In the multi motor drive system, the system will use two or more motors to boost torque,
especially under low speed and high-torque region as shown in Fig 1.1b. For such applications,
two or more inverters/ converters are required.
2. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 2 TNRITS
Fig 1.1b: Conventional multi motor drive system of EV/HEV.
Fig 1.1c shows the application of the proposed integrated circuit for motor drives with
dual-mode control for EV/HEV applications. As shown in Fig 1.1c, the proposed integrated
circuit allows the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) to operate in motor mode or
acts as boost inductors of the boost converter, and thereby, boosting the output torque coupled to
the same transmission system or dc-link voltage of an inverter connected to the output of the
integrated circuit. In motor mode, the proposed integrated circuit acts as an inverter and it
becomes a boost-type boost converter, while using the motor windings as the boost inductors to
boost the converter output voltage. Therefore, the proposed integrated circuit can significantly
reduce the volume and weight of the system.
Fig 1.1c: Proposed integrated inverter/converter for the multi motor drive system of EV/HEV.
3. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 3 TNRITS
Fig 1.1d: Boost converter with and without interleaved control.
(a) Single-phase boost converter. (b) Interleaved boost converter.
The integrated circuit presented in this project can act as an inverter and a boost converter
depending on the operation mode. For the integrated circuit, it not only can reduce the volume
and weight but also boost torque and dc-link voltage for motor/converter modes, respectively.
Moreover, a new control technique for the proposed integrated circuit under boost converter
mode is proposed to increase the efficiency. For conventional circuit, shown in Fig 1.1d (a) and
(b), a single phase boost converter has been widely used for boost control due to its simplicity.
However, for higher power applications, an interleaved boost converter can reduce the current
ripple and components stress and thereby reducing the losses and thermal stress. Based upon the
interleaved control idea, a boost-control technique using motor windings as boost inductors for
the proposed integrated circuit will be proposed. Under light load, the integrated circuit acts as a
single-phase boost converter for not invoking additional switching and conduction losses, and
functions as the two-phase interleaved boost converter under heavy load to significantly reduce
the current ripple and thereby reducing the losses and thermal stress.
4. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 4 TNRITS
Fig 1.1e: Integrated circuit for dual mode of motor drives and boost converter.
Fig 1.1f: Single-phase boost mode. (a) Charge path for inductor.
(b) Discharge path for inductor
Therefore, the proposed control technique for the proposed integrated circuit under boost
converter mode can increase the efficiency.
5. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 5 TNRITS
CHAPTER-2
DC-DC CONVERTERS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A DC–DC converter with a high step-up voltage gain is used for many applications, such
as high-intensity discharge lamp ballasts for automobile headlamps, fuel cell energy conversion
systems, solar-cell energy conversion systems and battery backup systems for uninterruptible
power supplies. Theoretically, a dc–dc boost converter can achieve a high step-up voltage gain
with an extremely high duty ratio. However, in practice, the step-up voltage gain is limited due
to the effect of power switches, rectifier diodes and the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of
inductors and capacitors.
In general, a conventional boost converter can be adopted to provide a high step-up
voltage gain with a large duty ratio. However, the conversion efficiency and the step-up voltage
gain are limited due to the constraints of the losses of power switches and diodes, the equivalent
series resistance of inductors and capacitors and the reverse recovery problem of diodes.
However, the active switch of these converters will suffer very high voltage stress and high
power dissipation due to the leakage inductance of the transformer. To reduce the Voltage spike,
a resistor–capacitor–diode snubber can be employed to limit the voltage stress on the active
switch. However, the efficiency will be reduced. High step-up converters with a low input
current ripple based on the coupled inductor have been developed. The low input current ripple
of these converters is realized by using an additional LC circuit with a coupled inductor.
However, leakage inductance issues that relate to the voltage spike and the efficiency
remain significant. An integrated boost–fly back converter based on a coupled inductor with high
efficiency and high step-up voltage gain has been presented. The energy stored in the leakage
inductor is recycled into the output during the switch off period. Thus, the efficiency can be
increased and the voltage stress on the active switch can be suppressed. Many step-up
converters, which use an output voltage stacking to increase the voltage gain, are presented.
6. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 6 TNRITS
High Step-
up DC-DC
Front END
DC-AC
Inverters
Low Voltage
DC Bus
+
-
VFc Vac
+
-
+
-
24-40VDC 380-400VDC
High Voltage
DC Bus
VDC
Fig 2.1: General Power generation system with a high step-up converter
A high step-up dc–dc converter is shown in Fig.2.1 with an integrated coupled inductor
and a common mode electromagnetic interference reduction filter. Here a specific back converter
with a coupled inductor and an output voltage stacking is developed. A high step-up converter,
which utilizes a coupled inductor and a voltage doubler technique on the output voltage stacking
to achieve a high step-up voltage gain, is introduced. A high step-up boost converter that uses
multiple coupled inductors for the output voltage stacking is proposed.
Additionally, step-up converters, which use a voltage lift, are introduced. Since the
switch must suffer high current during the switch on period, this technique is appropriate for
low-output-power applications. Since the low voltage rating and the low conducting resistance
RDS (on) of the power switch are used for these converters, the high conversion efficiency can be
achieved. However, the requirement for a coupled inductor with a high coupling coefficient will
result in manufacturing difficulty and cost increment. A high step-up converter, which uses a
three state switching cell and a voltage multiplier stage based on capacitors, can achieve high
step-up gain.
Power engineering is the method used to supply electrical energy from a source to its
users. It is of vital importance to industry. It is likely that the air we breathe and water we drink
are taken for granted until they are not there. Energy conversion technique is the main focus of
power engineering. The corresponding equipment can be divided into four groups:
AC/AC transformer
AC/DC rectifier
DC/DC converter
DC/AC inverter
7. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 7 TNRITS
Grid interconnection of PV/FC system requires power converters to meet the grid
requirements like voltage amplitude, frequency, and phase angle. First convert the low voltage
dc into high voltage dc by using boost dc-dc converter and then convert this dc voltage into ac by
using inverters and finally connect the whole system to grid. This type of system (dc-dc and dc-
ac conversion) is called two stage conversion systems.
DC-DC converters are electronic devices used whenever we want to change DC electrical
power efficiently from one voltage level to another. They are needed because unlike AC, DC
cannot simply be stepped up or down using a transformer. In many ways, a DC-DC converter is
the equivalent of a transformer.
The dc-dc converters can be viewed as dc transformer that delivers a dc voltage or
current at a different level than the input source. Electronic switching performs this dc
transformation as in conventional transformers and not by electromagnetic means. The dc-dc
converters find wide applications in regulated switch-mode dc power supplies and in dc motor
drive applications.
DC-DC converters are non-linear in nature. The design of high performance control for
them is a challenge for both the control engineering engineers and power electronics engineers.
In general, a good control for dc-dc converter always ensures stability in arbitrary operating
condition. Moreover, good response in terms of rejection of load variations, input voltage
changes and even parameter uncertainties is also required for a typical control scheme.
After pioneer study of dc-dc converters, a great deal of efforts has been directed in
developing the modaling and control techniques of various dc-dc converters. Classic linear
approach relies on the state averaging techniques to obtain the state-space averaged equations.
From the state-space averaged model, possible perturbations are introduced into the state
variables around the operating point. On the basis of the equations, transfer functions of the
open-loop plant can be obtained. A linear controller is easy to be designed with these necessary
transfer functions based on the transfer function.
DC to DC converters are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones
and laptop computers, which are supplied with power from batteries primarily. Such electronic
devices often contain several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage level requirement different
than that supplied by the battery or an external supply (sometimes higher or lower than the
supply voltage, and possibly even negative voltage). Additionally, the battery voltage declines as
its stored power is drained. Switched DC to DC converters offer a method to increase voltage
8. INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF
MOTOR DRIVES WITH DUAL MODE CONTROL FOR EV/HEV APPLICATIONS
B.TECH (EEE) 8 TNRITS
from a partially lowered battery voltage thereby saving space instead of using multiple batteries
to accomplish the same thing.
DC-DC converters are electronic devices that are used whenever we want to change DC
electrical power efficiently from one voltage level to another. In the previous chapter we
mentioned the drawbacks of doing this with a linear regulator and presented the case for SMPS.
Generically speaking the use of a switch or switches for the purpose of power conversion can be
regarded as a SMPS. From now onwards whenever we mention DC-DC Converters we shall
address them with respect to SMPS.
A few applications of interest of DC-DC converters are where 5V DC on a personal
computer motherboard must be stepped down to 3V, 2V or less for one of the latest CPU chips;
where 1.5V from a single cell must be stepped up to 5V or more, to operate electronic circuitry.
In all of these applications, we want to change the DC energy from one voltage level to another,
while wasting as little as possible in the process. In other words, we want to perform the
conversion with the highest possible efficiency.
2.2 TYPES OF DC-DC CONVERTERS
There are many different types of DC-DC converters, each of which tends to be more
suitable for some type of applications than for others. For convenience they can be classified into
various groups, however. For example some converters are only suitable for stepping down the
voltage, while others are only suitable for stepping it up a third group can be used for either. In
this we are going to main types of DC-DC converters.
Currently DC-DC converters can be divided into two types.
Non-isolated dc-dc converters
Isolated dc-dc converters
2.3 NON-ISOLATED DC-DC CONVERTERS
The non-isolated converter usually employs an inductor, and there is no dc voltage
isolation between the input and the output. The vast majority of applications do not require dc
isolation between its input and output voltages. The non-isolated dc-dc converter has a dc path
between its input and output. Battery-based systems that don’t use the ac power line represent a
major application for non-isolated dc-dc converters. Point-of-load dc-dc converters that draw
input power from an isolated dc-dc converter, such as a bus converter, represent another widely
used non-isolated application.
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Most of these dc-dc converter ICs use either an internal or external synchronous rectifier.
Their only magnetic component is usually an output inductor and thus less susceptible to
generating electromagnetic interference. For the same power and voltage levels, it usually has
lower cost and fewer components while requiring less pc-board area than an isolated dc-dc
converter. For lower voltages non-isolated buck converters can be used.
There are five main types of converter in this non-isolating group they are
Buck Converter
Boost Converter
Buck-Boost Converter
Cuk Converter
The Buck converter is used for voltage step-down reduction, while the Boost converter is
used for voltage step-up. The Buck-Boost and Cuk converters can be used for either step-down
or step-up, but are essentially voltage polarity reversers or ‘inverters’. The Charge-pump
converter is used for either voltage step-up or voltage inversion, but only in relatively low power
applications.
2.4 BOOST CONVERTER
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter with an output
voltage greater than its input voltage. It is a class of switched- mode power supply (SMPS)
containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy
storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. Filters made of capacitors
(sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to the output of the converter to
reduce output voltage ripple.
LOAD
SUPPLY
Fig 2.4: the basic schematic of a boost converter
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Power for the boost converter can come from any suitable DC sources, such as batteries,
solar panels, rectifiers and DC generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different
DC voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is a DC-to-DC converter with an
output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up
converter since it “steps up” the source voltage. Since power (P=VI) must be conversed, the
output current is lower than the source current.
2.4.1 HISTORY
For high efficiency, the SMPS switch must turn on and off quickly and have low losses.
The advent of a commercial semiconductor switch in the 1950s represented a major milestone
that made SMPSs such as the boost converter possible. The major DC to DC converters were
developed in the early 1960s when semiconductor switches had become available. The aero
scope industry’s need for small, lightweight, and efficient power converters led to the converter’s
rapid development.
Switched systems such as SMPS are a challenge to design since its model depends on
whether a switch is opened or closed. R. D. Middle brook from Caltech in 1977 published the
models for DC to DC converters used today. Middle brook averaged the circuit configurations
for each switch state in a technique called state-space averaging. This simplification reduced two
systems into one. The new model led to insightful design equations which helped SMPS growth.
2.4.2 APPLICATIONS
Battery powered systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However,
sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of space.
Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two battery
powered applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting
systems.
A boost converter is used as the voltage increase mechanism in the circuit known as the
‘Joule thief’. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed at
the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would
otherwise be wasted since the low voltage of a nearly depleted battery makes it unusable for a
normal load. This energy would otherwise remain untapped because many applications do not
allow enough current to flow through a load when voltage decreases. This voltage decrease
occurs as batteries become depleted, and is a characteristic of the ubiquitous alkaline battery.
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Since (𝑃 = 𝑉2
/𝑅) as well, and R tends to be stable, power available to the load goes down
significantly as voltage decreases.
2.4.3 OPERATING PRINCIPLE
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage When the switch is closed, current flows through
the inductor, which stores energy from the current in a magnetic field. During this time, the
switch acts like a short circuit in parallel with the diode and the load, so no current flows to the
right hand side of the circuit.
When the switch is opened, the short circuit is removed and the load is back in play in the
circuit. This represents a sudden increase in the impedance of the circuit, which, by Ohm’s law
will demand either a decrease in current, or an increase in voltage. The inductor will tend to
resist such a sudden change in the current, which it does by acting as a voltage source in series
with the input source, thus increasing the total voltage seen by the right hand side of the circuit
and thereby preserving (for a brief moment) the current level that was seen when the switch was
closed. This is done using the energy stored by the inductor. Over time, the energy stored in the
inductor will discharge into the right hand side of the circuit, bringing the net voltage back down.
If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between
charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone
when the switch is opened. Also while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the
load is charged to this combined voltage.
When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is shorted out from the left hand
side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this
time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The switch
must of course be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states.In the On-state, the switch S
is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor current.
In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the fly back diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This result in transferring
the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.
The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen.So it is not
discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are relaxed
compared to a buck converter
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Vi
L
IL ID
D
S
Is
Vs C R V0
Fig 2.4.3a: over all diagram of Boost converter
Fig 2.4.3b: the two configuration of boost converter depending on the
state of the switch S Continuous mode
When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor
(IL) never falls to zero. the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter operating in
this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e.
using components with an ideal behaviour) operating in steady conditions.
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Fig 2.4.3c: Waveforms of current and voltage in
a boost converter operating in continuous mode
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear
across the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a
time period (t) by the formula:
∆𝐼𝐿
∆𝑡
=
𝑉𝑖
𝐿
(1.1)
At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:
∆𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑛 =
1
𝐿
∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐷𝑇
0
=
𝐷𝑇
𝐿
𝑉𝑖 (1.2)
D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the
switch is ON. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we
consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain
constant, the evolution of IL is:
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉0 = 𝐿
𝑑𝐼 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
(1.3)
Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:
∆𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑓𝑓 = ∫
( 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑇
𝐷𝑇
=
( 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0)(1−𝐷) 𝑇
𝐿
(1.4)
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As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of
energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a
commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:
𝐸 =
1
2
𝐿𝐼𝐿
2
(1.5)
So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This
means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:
∆𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑛 + ∆𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0 (1.6)
Substituting ∆ILON and ∆ILOFFby their expressions yields:
∆𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑛 + ∆𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑓𝑓 =
𝑉𝑖 𝐷𝑇
𝐿
+
( 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0 )(1−𝐷) 𝑇
𝐿
= 0 (1.7)
This can be written as:
𝑉0
𝑉𝑖
=
1
1−𝐷
(1.8)
This in turn reveals the duty cycle to be:
𝐷 = 1 −
𝑉𝑖
𝑉0
(1.9)
The above expression shows that the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to infinity
as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.
Fig2.4.3d: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost
converter operating in discontinuous mode
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If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be completely
discharged before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under light
loads. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see
waveforms in figure 1.6). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output
voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value 𝐼𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥 (at t=DT)
is
𝐼𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉𝑖 𝐷𝑇
𝐿
(1.10)
During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:
𝐼𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥 +
(𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0 )𝛿𝑇
𝐿
= 0 (1.11)
Using the two previous equations, δ is:
𝛿 =
𝑉𝑖 𝐷
𝑉0 −𝑉𝑖
(1.12)
The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure
1.6, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output
current can be written as:
𝐼0 = 𝐼 𝐷
̅ =
𝐼 𝐿𝑀𝑎 𝑥
2
𝛿 (1.13)
Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:
𝐼0 =
𝑉𝑖 𝐷𝑇
2𝐿
.
𝑉𝑖 𝐷
𝑉0−𝑉𝑖
=
𝑉𝑖
2
𝐷2
𝑇
2𝐿(𝑉0−𝑉𝑖 )
(1.14)
Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:
𝑉0
𝑉𝑖
= 1 +
𝑉𝑖 𝐷2
𝑇
2𝐿 𝐼0
(1.15)
Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this
expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output
voltage gain not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage,
the switching frequency, and the output current.
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2.5 INTERLEAVED BOOST CONVERTER
Interleaved power converters can be very beneficial for high performance electrical
equipment applications. Reductions in size and electromagnetic emission along with an increase
in efficiency, transient response, and reliability are among the many advantages to using such
converters. Studies of interleaved DC-DC boost converters, which were performed by members
of the Power, Energy, and Thermal Division of the Air Force Research Laboratory’s (AFRL)
Propulsion Directorate, included theoretical derivations and simulations, and experimental
demonstrations. The experimental results clearly showed that interleaved designs can provide
significant benefit when utilized for high temperature and high power applications. In addition to
the electrical performance benefits, it was also demonstrated that coupled inductor interleaved
boost converters can be smaller and lighter compared to conventional converter topologies.
These study results have been organized and published as several technical papers during the
course of this project. In this technical report, the cumulative interleaved coupled inductor DC-
DC converter studies are summarized.
In response to these increasingly demanding electrical equipment power density
requirements, interleaved buck and boost converters have been studied in recent years for their
potential to improve power converter performance in terms of efficiency, size, conducted
electromagnetic emission, and transient response. Figure 2.5 shows a conventional DC-DC boost
converter circuit, consisting of an inductor, switch, diode, and capacitor configured in parallel to
a resistive load. The inductance of inductor (L1) is L. For continuous current conduction mode
(CCM) operation, the voltage gain between input and output voltages is given by Equation (1),
where D is the duty ratio of switch S1.
Fig 2.5: Conventional DC-DC Boost Converter Topology
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛
⁄ = 1
(1 − 𝐷)⁄ (1.16)
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Equation (1) reflects the fact that a large duty ratio is required for a large voltage boost,
which places a practical limit on the achievable voltage step-up due to the large volume and
weight of the required capacitance. For example, if the switch duty ratio (D) is greater than 0.5
(50%), the capacitor, C, supplies all of the output current for a longer portion of each period
compared to the energy storage inductor.
Therefore, in order to maintain acceptably small output ripple voltages, a prohibitively
large capacitance is required to ensure that the output voltage does not sag as the stored energy is
supplied by C during the duration D. Furthermore, since both dc and ac current are being sourced
through the inductor, the inductor must be designed such that the cores will not saturate during
high power operation. In addition, elevated temperatures typically lower the saturation flux
threshold of the inductor core material, making this requirement a more significant design
consideration.
In order to address these concerns, an interleaved design involving parallel operation of
two boost converters, was evaluated as a means to reduce the burden on the output capacitor as
well as the form factor and weight of the inductor.
Additional benefits of interleaving include high power capability, modularity, and
improved reliability of the converter. An interleaved topology, however, improves converter
performance at the cost of additional inductors, power switching devices, and output rectifiers.
Since the inductor is the largest and heaviest component in a power boost converter, the
use of a coupled inductor, where a core is shared by multiple converters instead of using multiple
discrete inductors, offers a potential approach to reducing parts count, volume, and weight.
Coupled inductor topologies can also provide additional advantages such as reduced core and
winding loss as well as improved input and inductor current ripple characteristics. Properly
implemented, the coupled inductor can also yield a decrease in electromagnetic emission, an
increase in efficiency, and improved transient response. Inductor flux coupling can be realized
using either direct or indirect winding configurations and is a primary design consideration for
the interleaved topology. Descriptions of the benefits and disadvantages of each configuration
are more fully described below.
A generalized steady state analysis of multiphase interleaved boost converters has been
previously reported in detail. Useful design equations for CCM operation of an interleaved boost
converter along with the effects of inductor coupling on the key converter performance
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parameters such as inductor ripple current, input ripple current, minimum load current
requirement for achieving CCM operation are reported in [4]. Analysis of the dc and ac flux
levels in the coupled inductor and its’ optimization have been reported in [5]. The following
sections summarize our investigations into the theory, design, and testing of interleaved DC-DC
boost converters with coupled inductors. Included are discussions on a 10kW prototype, a 2kW
high temperature prototype, and two 2kW compact converters that were built to demonstrate the
researched concepts.
2.6 THE PRINCIPLE OF INTERLEAVED BOOST CONVERTER
In order to achieve the requirement of small volume, light weight, and reliable properties,
a High Power Interleaved Boost Converter is constructed, as shown in fig 2.6a.
Fig 2.6a: The topology of the Interleaved Boost Converters
The principle of Interleaved Boost Converter as follows: each phase is a BOOST/BUCK
DC-DC Converter, which is composed of a bridge of power switches and storage energy
inductor. When S1u=S2u=OFF, S1d and S2d switch on and off, the system work in the BOOST
mode, shown in Table 2.6a.
Table 2.6a: The state of the power device in boost mode
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From the table 2.6a, we can see that in Boost mode, only the power devices
(S1d,S2d,D1u,D2u) have switching commutation, the power devices (S1u,S2u,D1d, D2d) have
no commutation. The power switches S1d and S2d have 180-degree phase difference of driving
pulses in a cycle. The current fluctuation of input power supply is reduced greatly because the
two 180-degree phase difference inductor currents minify the fluctuation of each other. In one
switching cycle Ts, considering the commutation of power switches and diodes
(S1d,S2d,D1u,D2u), there have eight kinds of running states, as shown in Table 2.6b.
Table 2.6b: The eight kinds of running states in interleave boost mode
According to Table 2.6b, the converter has eight equivalent sub-circuits of state 1~state
8,as shown in Fig 2.6a.
Fig 2.6b: The equivalent sub-circuits of state 1
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Fig 2.6c: The equivalent sub-circuits of state 2
Fig 2.6d: The equivalent sub-circuits of state 3
Fig 2.6e: The equivalent sub-circuits of state 4
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Fig 2.6f: The equivalent sub-circuits of state 5
Fig 2.6g: The equivalent sub-circuits of state 6
Fig 2.6h: The equivalent sub-circuits of state 7
Fig 2.6i: the equivalent sub-circuits of state 8
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CHAPTER-3
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is an emerging technology in the modern world because
of the fact that it mitigates environmental pollutions and at the same time increases fuel
efficiency of the vehicles. Multilevel inverter controls electric drive of HEV of high power and
enhances its performance which is the reflection of the fact that it can generate sinusoidal
voltages with only fundamental switching frequency and have almost no electromagnetic
interference. This paper describes precisely various topology of HEVs and presents transformer
less multilevel converter for high voltage and high current HEV. The cascaded inverter is IGBT
based and it is fired in a sequence. It is natural fit for HEV as it uses separate level of dc sources
which are in form of batteries or fuel cells. Compared to conventional vehicles, hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs) are more fuel efficient due to the optimization of the engine operation and
recovery of kinetic energy during braking. With the plug-in option (PHEV), the vehicle can be
operated on electric-only modes for a driving range of up to 30–60 km.
The PHEVs are charged overnight from the electric power grid where energy can be
generated from renewable sources such as wind and solar energy and from nuclear energy. Fuel
cell vehicles (FCV) use hydrogen as fuel to produce electricity, therefore they are basically
emission free. When connected to electric power grid (V2G), the FCV can provide electricity for
emergency power backup during a power outage. Due to hydrogen production, storage, and the
technical limitations of fuel cells at the present time, FCVs are not available to the general public
yet. HEVs are likely to dominate the advanced propulsion in coming years. Hybrid technologies
can be used for almost all kinds of fuels and engines. Therefore, it is not a transition technology.
In HEVs and FCVs, there are more electrical components used, such as electric
machines, power electronic converters, batteries, ultra capacitors, sensors, and microcontrollers.
In addition to these electrification components or subsystems, conventional internal combustion
engines (ICE), and mechanical and hydraulic systems may still be present. The challenge
presented by these advanced propulsion systems include advanced power train components
design, such as power electronic converters, electric machines and energy storage; power
management; modelling and simulation of the power train system; hybrid control theory and
optimization of vehicle control.
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In recent years, research in hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) development has been focused
on various aspect of design, such as component architecture, engine efficiency, reduced fuel
emissions, material for lighter components, power electronics, efficient motors and high power
density batteries. To meet some of the aspect of HEV cascaded multilevel inverter is used so as
to meet high power demands. The multilevel voltage source inverters with unique structure allow
them to reach high voltages with low harmonics without the use of transformers or series-
connected synchronized switching devices. The general function of the multilevel inverter is to
synthesize a desired voltage from several levels of dc voltages. For this reason, multilevel
inverters can easily provide the high power required of a large electric drive. As the number of
levels increases, the synthesized output waveform has more steps, which produces a staircase
wave that approaches a desired waveform. Also, as more steps are added to the waveform, the
harmonic distortion of the output wave decreases, approaching zero as the number of levels
increases. As the number of levels increases, the voltage that can be spanned by summing
multiple voltage levels also increases.
The structure of the multilevel inverter is such that no voltage sharing problems are
encountered by the active devices. HEV Configurations
3.2 WHY EV’S HV’S?
fig 3.2: block diagram of EV and HV
Vehicles equipped with conventional internal combustion engines (ICE) have been in
existence for over 100 years. With the increase of the world population, the demand for vehicles
for personal transportation has increased dramatically in the past decade. This trend of increase
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will only intensify with the catching up of developing countries, such as China, India, and
Mexico. The demand for oil has increased significantly. Another problem associated with the
ever-increasing use of personal vehicles is the emissions. The green house effect, also know as
global warming, is a serious issue that we have to face. There have been increased tensions in
part of the world due to the energy crisis.
Government agencies and organizations have developed more stringent standards for the
fuel consumption and emissions. Nevertheless, with the ICE technology being matured over the
past 100 years, although it will continue to improve with the aid of automotive electronic
technology, it will mainly rely on alternative evolution approaches to significantly improve the
fuel economy and reduce emissions. Battery-powered electric vehicles were one of the solutions
proposed to tackle the energy crisis and global warming. However, the high initial cost, short
driving range, long charging (refueling) time, and reduced passenger and cargo space have
proved the limitation of battery-powered EVs. The HEV was developed to overcome the
disadvantages of both ICE vehicles and the pure battery-powered electric vehicle.
The HEV uses the onboard ICE to convert energy from the onboard gasoline or diesel to
mechanical energy, which is used to drive the onboard electric motor, in the case of a series
HEV, or to drive the wheels together with an electric motor, in the case of parallel or complex
HEV. The onboard electric motor(s) serves as a device to optimize the efficiency of the ICE, as
well as recover the kinetic energy during braking or coasting of the vehicle. The ICE can be
stopped if the vehicle is at a stop, or if vehicle speed is lower than a preset threshold, and the
electric motor is used to drive the vehicle along. The ICE operation is optimized by adjusting the
speed and torque of the engine.
The electric motor uses the excess power of the engine to charge battery if the engine
generates more power than the driver demands or to provide additional power to assist the
driving if the engine cannot provide the power required by the driver. Due to the optimized
operation of the ICE, the maintenance of the vehicle can be significantly reduced, such as oil
changes, exhaust repairs, and brake replacement. In addition, the onboard electric motor provides
more flexibility and controllability to the vehicle control, such as antilock braking (ABS) and
vehicle stability control (VSC).
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3.3 HEV CONFIGURATIONS
Although a number of configurations are used for HEV power trains, the main
architectures are the series, parallel and series-parallel ones. They are analyzed in this Section.
i) by disregarding the losses in the electric and mechanical devices, the power consumption of
the auxiliary electric loads and the presence of gearboxes and clutches, and
ii) by considering the static converters used for the interface of the electric devices as a whole
with the devices themselves. Moreover, the analysis is carried out by assuming that
iii) the powers are positive quantities when the associated energy flows in the direction of the
arrows reported in the schemes of the architectures, and
iv) the driving requirements for a vehicle are the speed and the torque at the wheels, where the
product of the two variables gives the required propulsion power.
3.3.1 SERIES ARCHITECTURE
The Power train of a Series HEV (SHEV) has the architecture. It comprises a genset (i.e.
a generation set) and a drive train of electric type, which are connected together through a
common power Bus (B). To B is also connected an energy Storage system (S). In the genset, ICE
is fed by the Fuel tank (F) and delivers the mechanical power pe to the electric Generator (G).
The latter one converts pe into electric form and supplies B. The energy associated to pe can be
either stored in S (in this case the power ps or drawn by the electric driver train or both. During
the engine start-up, G behaves as a crank motor energized from S. The electric driver train is
constituted by one (or more) electric Motor (M) that draws the propulsion power pw from B and
delivers it to the Wheels (W). Note that in this architecture the wide speed-torque regulation
allowed by M may make superfluous the insertion of a variable-ratio gearbox between M and W.
During the regenerative braking, M operates as a generator to recover the kinetic energy of the
vehicle into S.
The mechanical separation between genset and electric driver train and the energy
buffering action of S give the series architecture the maximum flexibility in terms of power
management. As a matter of fact, SHEV may be considered as a purely electric vehicle equipped
with a genset that recharges S autonomously instead of at a recharge station. Sometimes, the
genset is undersized with respect to the average propulsion power absorbed during a typical
travel mission.
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In this case, the genset is used to extend the operating range allowed by S, and SHEV is
referred to as "range extender". Pros and cons of the series architecture may be summarized as
follows. Pros: i) ICE and G are conveniently sized for the average propulsion
power or even less; ii) genset and electrical driver train are mechanically separated thus
permitting to maximize the ICE efficiency with a consequential substantial reduction of
emissions. Cons:
i) two electric machines (i.e. G and M) are required;
ii) M must be sized to provide the peak propulsion power;
iii) the power generated by ICE is transferred to W by means of at least two energy conversions
(from mechanical to electrical to possibly chemical inside S, and vice-versa), with a lower
efficiency than a direct mechanical connection.
The series architecture is reputed to be more suited for vehicles mainly used in urban
area, with rapidly varying requirements of speed (and power); it is also used in large vehicles,
where the lower efficiency of both ICE and the mechanical transmission make more convenient
the electric propulsion.
Fig 3.3.1: Series architechture
3.3.2 PARALLEL ARCHITECTURE
The Power train of a Parallel HEV (PHEV) has the architecture of Fig 3.3.1. It comprises
two independent driver trains, namely one of mechanical type and the other one of electric type,
whose powers are "added" by a 3-way mechanical devices -the Adder (A)- to provide the
propulsion power As shown in Fig 3.3.1, the mechanical driver train generates the part pe of the
propulsion power, whilst the electric driver train delivers the remaining part pm. The propulsion
power pw is then equal to
pw=pe+pm
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Fig 3.3.2: Parallel architecture
Differently from SHEV, M acts here as generator not only during the regenerative braking but
also during the normal driving, whenever S must be recharged; in the latter circumstance, M
draws energy from ICE through A. As a matter of fact, PHEV may be considered as a
conventional vehicle supplemented with an additional driver train of electric type that overtakes
the role of the traditional generator-battery set by contributing to the propulsion.
Sometimes, S is chosen to have small storable energy but high power capability, and M
is sized with a wide overload margin. In this case the electric driver train is used as a power
boost to supplement ICE during fast changes of the propulsion power, thus permitting ICE to
adapt slowly to the driving conditions. The modifications required to convert a conventional
vehicle into PHEV may be somewhat moderate, and this makes easier the manufacturing of
PHEVs using the existing production processes. A vehicle built up accordingly is termed
“minimal” or “mild” HEV depending on the extent of the modifications introduced in the
original Power train. Pros and cons of the parallel architecture may be summarized as follows.
Pros:
1) only one electric machine is needed;
2) the peak power requirement for M is lower than in SHEV since both M and IC provide the
propulsion power;
3) the power generated by ICE is transferred to W directly, which is more efficient than a double
energy conversion.
Cons:
1) an additional 3-way mechanical device is required to couple together ICE, M and W;
2) such coupling imposes a tighter constraint on the power flow compared to SHEV, possibly
turning into worse operation of ICE. The parallel architecture is reputed to be more suited for
Small and mid-size vehicles mainly travelling along extra urban routes, where the range for the
required propulsion power is not too wide.
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3.3.3 SERIES-PARALLEL ARCHITECTURE
The Power train of a Series-Parallel HEV (SPHEV) has the architecture. It may be
viewed as a mix of the SEHV and PHEV architectures, obtained by employing a Power split
apparatus (P) with 2 mechanical ports and 1 electric port. The 3 ports are connected to ICE, A
and B, respectively. P divides the power generated by ICE into two parts, i.e. the part pd, which
is delivered directly in mechanical form to W via A, similarly to PHEV, and the part pb, which is
delivered in electric form to B, similarly to SHEV. The task of the power split apparatus is then
twofold; besides dividing the power generated by ICE, it must convert mechanical energy into an
electric form.
The series-parallel architecture has two main features: the propulsion requirements are
decoupled from the ICE operation and the overall losses are lower since a fraction of the power
generated by ICE is delivered to W without any intermediate energy conversion. The former
feature makes the management of the power flow very flexible, enabling in principle to optimize
the ICE operation in a wide range of driving conditions.
Fig 3.3.3a: Series-parallel architecture
Compared to conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are more fuel
efficient due to the optimization of the engine operation and recovery of kinetic energy during
braking. With the plug-in option (PHEV), the vehicle can be operated on electric-only modes for
a driving range of up to 30–60 km. The PHEVs are charged overnight from the electric power
grid where energy can be generated from renewable sources such as wind and solar energy and
from nuclear energy.
Fuel cell vehicles (FCV) use hydrogen as fuel to produce electricity, therefore they are
basically emission free. When connected to electric power grid (V2G), the FCV can provide
Electricity for emergency power backup during a power outage.
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Due to hydrogen production, storage, and the technical limitations of fuel cells at the
present time, FCVs are not available to the general public yet. HEVs are likely to dominate the
advanced propulsion in coming years. Hybrid technologies can be used for almost all kinds of
fuels and engines.
Therefore, it is not a transition technology. In HEVs and FCVs, there are more electrical
components used, such as electric machines, power electronic converters, batteries, ultra
capacitors, sensors, and microcontrollers. In addition to these electrification components or
subsystems, conventional internal combustion engines (ICE), and mechanical and hydraulic
systems may still be present. The challenge presented by these advanced propulsion systems
include advanced power train components design, such as power electronic converters, electric
machines and energy storage; power management; modeling and simulation of the power train
system; hybrid control theory and optimization of vehicle control.
This project provides an overview of the state of the art of electric vehicles (EVs), HEVs
and FCVs, with a focus on HEVs. Section II tries to answer a fundamental question: why EV,
HEV, and FCV? It also looks at the key issues of HEVs and FCVs. Section III reviews the
history of EVs, HEVs, and FCVs. Section IV highlights the engineering philosophy of EVs,
HEVs, and FCVs. Section V presents the architectures of HEVs and FCVs. Section VI provides
an overview of the current status of HEVs and FCVs. Section VII discusses the key technologies,
including electric motor technology, power converter technology, control and power
management technology, and energy storage devices.
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Table 3.3.3: Characteristics of BEVs, HEVs, and FCVs
3.4 HISTORY OF HEV
In 1898, the German Dr. Ferdinand Porsche built his first car, the Lohner Electric Chaise.
It was the world’s first front-wheel-drive car. Porsche’s second car was a hybrid, using an ICE to
spin a generator that provided power to electric motors located in the wheel hubs. On battery
alone, the car could travel nearly 40 miles. By 1900, American car companies had made 1681
steam, 1575 electric, and 936 gasoline cars. In a poll conducted at the first National Automobile
Show in New York City, patrons favored electric as their first choice, followed closely by steam.
In the first few years of the 20th century, thousands of electric and hybrid cars were produced.
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This car, made in 1903 by the Krieger company, used a gasoline engine to supplement a
battery pack. Also in 1900, a Belgian carmaker, Pieper, introduced a 3-1/2 horsepower
Bvoiturette[ in which the small gasoline engine was mated to an electric motor under the seat.
When the car was Bcruising,[ its electric motor was in effect a generator, recharging the
batteries. But when the car was climbing a grade, the electric motor, mounted coaxially with the
gas engine, gave it a boost. The Pieper Table 1 Characteristics of BEVs, HEVs, and FCVs Chan:
The State of the Art of Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 706 Proceedings patents were
used by a Belgium firm, Auto-Mixte, to build commercial vehicles from 1906 to 1912. In 1904,
Henry Ford overcame the challenges posed by gasoline-powered cars Vnoise, vibration, and od
orV and began assembly-line production of low-priced, lightweight, gas-powered vehicles.
Henry Ford’s assembly line and the advent of the self-starting gas engine signaled a rapid decline
in hybrid cars by 1920. Within a few years, the electric vehicle company failed.
In 1905, an American engineer named H. Piper filed a patent for a petrol-electric hybrid
vehicle. His idea was to use an electric motor to assist an ICE, enabling it to achieve 25 mph.
Two prominent electric vehicle makers, Baker of Cleveland and Woods of Chicago, offered
hybrid cars. Woods claimed that their hybrid reached a top speed of 35 mph and achieved fuel
efficiency of 48 mpg. The Woods Dual Power was more expensive and less powerful than its
gasoline competition and therefore sold poorly.
Hybrid and electric vehicles faded away until the 1970s with the Arab oil embargo. The
price of gasoline soared, creating new interest in electric vehicles. The U.S. Department of
Energy ran tests on many electric and hybrid vehicles produced by various manufacturers. The
world started down a new road in 1997 when the first modern hybrid electric car, the Toyota
Prius, was sold in Japan. Two years later, the U.S. saw its first sale of a hybrid, the Honda
Insight. These two vehicles, followed by the Honda Civic Hybrid, marked a radical change in the
type of car being offered to the public: vehicles that bring some of the benefits of battery electric
vehicles into the conventional gasoline powered cars and trucks we have been using for more
than 100 years. Along the line, over 20 models of passenger hybrids have been introduced to the
auto market.
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3.5 ARCHITECTURE OF HEVS AND FCVS
HEVs are propelled by an ICE and an electric motor/ generator (EM) in series or parallel
configurations. The ICE provides the vehicle an extended driving range, while the EM increases
efficiency and fuel economy by regenerating energy during braking and storing excess energy
from the ICE during coasting.
Design and control of such power trains involve modeling and simulation of intelligent
control algorithms and power management strategies, which aim to optimize the operating
parameters to any given driving condition. Traditionally, there are two basic categories of HEV,
namely series hybrids and parallel hybrids. In series HEV, the ICE mechanical output is first
converted to electricity using a generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery or
bypasses the battery to propel the wheels via an electric motor. This electric motor is also used to
capture the energy during braking. A parallel HEV, on the other hand, has both the ICE and an
electric motor coupled to the final drive shaft of the wheels via clutches. This configuration
allows the ICE and the electric motor to deliver power to drive the wheels in combined mode, or
ICE alone, or motor alone modes. The electric motor is also used for regenerative braking and
for capturing the excess energy of the ICE during coasting. Recently, series– parallel and
complex HEVs have been developed to improve the power performance and fuel economy.
3.5.1 SERIES HEV
In series HEVs, the ICE mechanical output is first converted into electricity using a
generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery or can bypass the battery to propel
the wheels via the same electric motor and mechanical transmission. Conceptually, it is an ICE-
assisted EV that aims to extend the driving range comparable with that of conventional vehicle.
Due to the decoupling between the engine and the driving wheels, it has the definite advantage of
flexibility for locating the ICE generator set. Although it has an added advantage of simplicity of
its driver train, it needs three propulsion devices, the ICE, the generator, and the electric motor.
Therefore, the efficiency of series HEV is generally lower. Another disadvantage is that all these
propulsion devices need to be sized for the maximum sustained power if the series HEV is
designed to climb a long grade, making series HEV expensive. On the other hand, when it is
only needed to serve such short trips as commuting to work and shopping, the corresponding
ICE generator set can adopt a lower rating.
There are six possible different operation modes in a series HEV:
1) battery alone mode: engine is off, vehicle is powered by the battery only;
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2) engine alone mode: power from ICE/G.
3) combined mode: both ICE/G set and battery provides power to the traction motor;
4) power split mode: ICE/G power split to drive the vehicle and charge the battery;
5) stationary charging mode;
6) regenerative braking mode.
Fig 3.5.1: Four common architectures of HEV
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3.5.2 PARALLEL HEV
Differing from the series hybrid, the parallel HEV allows both the ICE and electric motor
to deliver power in parallel to drive the wheels. Since both the ICE and electric motor are
generally coupled to the drive shaft of the wheels via two clutches, the propulsion power may be
supplied by the ICE alone, by the electric motor, or by both. Conceptually, it is inherently an
electric-assisted ICEV for achieving both lower emissions and fuel consumption.
The electric motor can be used as a generator to charge the battery by regenerative
braking or by absorbing power from the ICE when its output is greater than that required to drive
the wheels. Better than the series HEV, the parallel hybrid needs only two propulsion devices V
the ICE and the electric motor. Another advantage over the series case is that a smaller ICE and a
smaller electric motor can be used to get the same performance until the battery is depleted. Even
for long-trip operation, only the ICE needs to be rated for the maximum sustained power while
the electric motor may still be about a half. The following are the possible different operation
modes of parallel hybrid:
1) motor alone mode: engine is off, vehicle is powered by the motor only;
2) engine alone mode: vehicle is propelled by the engine only;
3) combined mode: both ICE and motor provides power to the drive the vehicle;
4) power split mode: ICE power is split to drive the vehicle and charge the battery (motor
becomes generator);
5) stationary charging mode;
6) regenerative braking mode (include hybrid braking mode).
3.5.3 SERIES–PARALLEL HEV
In the series–parallel hybrid, the configuration incorporates the features of both the series
and parallel HEVs, but involving an additional mechanical link compared with the series hybrid
and also an additional generator compared with the parallel hybrid. Although possessing the
advantageous features of both the series and parallel HEVs, the series–parallel HEV is relatively
more complicated and costly. Nevertheless, with the advances in control and manufacturing
technologies, some modern HEVs prefer to adopt this system.
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3.5.4 COMPLEX HEV
As reflected by its name, this system involves a complex configuration that cannot be
classified into the above three kinds. Electric motor are both electric machinery. However, the
key difference is due to the bidirectional power flow of the electric motor in the complex hybrid
and the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the series–parallel hybrid. This
bidirectional power flow can allow for versatile operating modes, especially the three propulsion
power (due to the ICE and two electric motors) operating mode, which cannot be offered by the
series–parallel hybrid. Similar to the series–parallel HEV, the complex hybrid suffers from
higher complexity and costliness. Nevertheless, some newly introduced HEVs adopt this system
for dual-axle propulsion.
3.5.5 HEAVY HYBRIDS
Vehicles used typically for delivery are one special kind of vehicle, usually referred to as
heavy vehicles. When hybridized, these vehicles are referred to as heavy hybrids. Heavy hybrids
can be either series or parallel. Heavy hybrids may run on gasoline or diesel.
3.5.6 FCV
Fuel cell vehicles can be considered as series-type hybrid vehicles. The onboard fuel cell
produces electricity, which is either used to provide power to the propulsion motor or stored in
the onboard battery for future use.
Fig 3.5.6: Architectures of fuel cell HEV
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To meet some of the aspect of HEV cascaded multilevel inverter is used so as to meet
high power demands. The multilevel voltage source inverters with unique structure allow them
to reach high voltages with low harmonics without the use of transformers or series-connected
synchronized switching devices [4]. The general function of the multilevel inverter is to
synthesize a desired voltage from several levels of dc voltages. For this reason, multilevel
inverters can easily provide the high power required of a large electric drive. As the number of
levels increases, the synthesized output waveform has more steps, which produces a staircase
wave that approaches a desired waveform. Also, as more steps are added to the waveform, the
harmonic distortion of the output wave decreases, approaching zero as the number of levels
increases.
As the number of levels increases, the voltage that can be spanned by summing multiple
voltage levels also increases. The structure of the multilevel inverter is such that no Voltage
sharing problems are encountered by the active devices.
3.6 HEV CONFIGURATIONS
HEV elaborates the various configurations of HEVs highlighting its advantages and
disadvantages. IGBT based cascaded multilevel has been developed and it is interface with
20kW 3-phase induction motors suitable for HEVs and simulation result in PSIM as well as
MATLAB are done and results are presented.
Although a number of configurations are used for HEV power trains, the main
architectures are the series, parallel and series-parallel. They are analyzed in this Section
i) by disregarding the losses in the electric and mechanical devices, the power consumption of
he auxiliary electric loads, and the presence of gearboxes and clutches, and
ii) by considering the static converters used for the interface of the electric devices as a whole
with the devices themselves. Moreover, the analysis is carried out by assuming that
i) the powers are positive quantities when the associated energy flows in the direction of the
arrows reported in the schemes of the architectures, and
ii) the driving requirements for a vehicle are the speed and the torque at the wheels, where the
product of the two variables gives the required propulsion power.
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3.6.1 SERIES ARCHITECTURE
The Power train of a Series HEV (SHEV) has the architecture of Fig.3.6.1. It comprises a
genset (i.e. a generation set) and a driver train of electric type, which are connected together
through a common power Bus (B). To B is also connected an energy Storage system (S).
Fig 3.6.1: SHEV Power train architecture
In the genset, ICE is fed by the Fuel tank (F) and delivers the mechanical power pe to the
electric Generator (G). The latter one converts pe into electric form and supplies B.
The energy associated to pe can be either stored in S (in this case the power ps of
Fig.3.6.1 is negative) or drawn by the electric driver train or both. During the engine start-up, G
behaves as a crank motor energized from S. The electric driver train is constituted by one (or
more) electric Motor (M) that draws the propulsion power pw from B and delivers it to the
Wheels (W). Note that in this architecture the wide speed-torque regulation allowed by M may
make superfluous the insertion of a variable-ratio gearbox between M and W. During the
regenerative braking, M operates as a generator to recover the kinetic energy of the vehicle into
S. The mechanical separation between genset and electric driver train, and the energy buffering
action of S give the series architecture the maximum flexibility in terms of power management.
As a matter of fact, SHEV may be considered as a purely electric vehicle equipped with a genset
that recharges S autonomously instead of at a recharge station. Sometimes, the genset is
undersized with respect to the average propulsion power absorbed during a typical travel
mission. In this case, the genset is used to extend the operating range allowed by S, and SHEV is
referred to as "range extender". Pros and cons of the series architecture may be summarized as
follows. Pros:
ICE and G are conveniently sized for the average propulsion power or even less;
genset and electrical driver train are mechanically separated thus permitting to maximize
the ICE efficiency with a consequential substantial reduction of emissions. Cons:
i) two lectric machines (i.e. G and M) are required;
ii) M must be sized to provide the peak propulsion power;
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iii) the power generated by ICE is transferred to W by means of at least two energy
conversions (from mechanical to electrical to possibly chemical inside S, and vice-versa), with a
lower efficiency than a direct mechanical connection. The series architecture is reputed to be
more suited for vehicles mainly used in urban area, with rapidly varying requirements of speed
(and power); it is also used in large vehicles, where the lower efficiency of both ICE and the
mechanical transmission make more convenient the electric propulsion.
3.6.2 PARALLEL ARCHITECTURE
The Power train of a Parallel HEV (PHEV) has the architecture. It comprises two
independent driver trains, namely one of mechanical type and the other one of electric type,
whose powers are "added" by a 3-way mechanical devices -the Adder (A)- to provide the
propulsion power As shown in Fig 3.6.2, the mechanical driver train generates the part pe of the
propulsion power, whilst the electric driver train delivers the remaining part pm.
Fig 3.6.2: PHEV Power train architecture
The propulsion power pw is then equal to
Pw=Pe+Pm
The power sum may be done by adding either the speeds or the torques of ICE and M. In the first
case it is
Where cwe and cwm are coefficients that depend on the gear arrangement of A. By (1), the
relationships between the torques are
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In the second case it is
Where cwe and cwm are coefficients that depend again on the gear arrangement of A. By (1), the
relationships between the speeds are
The simplest implementation for A is a torque adder with a mechanical shaft that couples ICE
and M to W. With this implementation it is
Differently from SHEV, M acts here as generator not only during the regenerative
braking but also during the normal driving, whenever S must be recharged; in the latter
circumstance, M draws energy from ICE through A. As a matter of fact, PHEV may be
considered as a conventional vehicle supplemented with an additional driver train of electric type
that overtakes the role of the traditional generator-battery set by contributing to the propulsion.
Sometimes, S is chosen to have small storable energy but high power capability, and M is sized
with a wide overload margin. In this case the electric driver train is used as a power boost to
supplement ICE during fast changes of the propulsion power, thus permitting ICE to adapt
slowly to the driving conditions. The resultant PHEV is often referred to as “power-assist”; a
commercial example of it is the Honda Insight car [7]. The modifications required to convert a
conventional vehicle into PHEV may be somewhat moderate, and this makes easier the
manufacturing of PHEVs using the existing production processes. A vehicle built up accordingly
is termed “minimal” or “mild” HEV depending on the extent of the modifications introduced in
the original Power train. Pros and cons of the parallel architecture may be summarized as
follows. Pros:
i) only one electric machine is needed;
ii) the peak power requirement for M is lower than in SHEV since both M and ICE provide
the propulsion power;
iv) the power generated by ICE is transferred to W directly, which is more efficient than
through a double energy conversion. Cons:
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v) an additional 3-way mechanical device is required to couple together ICE, M and W;
such coupling imposes a tighter constraint on the power flow compared to SHEV, possibly
turning into worse operation of ICE. The parallel architecture is reputed to be more suited for
small- and mid-size vehicles mainly traveling along extra urban routes, where the range for the
required propulsion power is not too wide.
3.6.3 SERIES-PARALLEL ARCHITECTURE
The Power train of a Series-Parallel HEV (SPHEV) has the architecture of Fig.3.6.3. It
may be viewed as a mix of the SEHV and PHEV architectures, obtained by employing a Power
split apparatus (P) with 2 mechanical ports and 1 electric port. The 3 ports are connected to ICE,
A and B, respectively. P divides the power generated by ICE into two parts, i.e. the part pd,
which is delivered directly in mechanical form to W via A, similarly to PHEV, and the part pb,
which is delivered in electric form to B, similarly to SHEV. The task of the power split apparatus
is then twofold; besides dividing the power generated by ICE, it must convert mechanical energy
into anelectric form. The series-parallel architecture has two main features: the propulsion
requirements are decoupled from the ICE operation and the overall losses are lower since a
fraction of the power generated by ICE is delivered to W without any intermediate energy
conversion.
The former feature makes the management of the power flow very flexible, enabling in
principle to optimize the ICE operation in a wide range of driving conditions
Fig 3.6.3: SPHEV Power train architecture
So splitting of the ICE power is obtained by two ways:
i). an apparatus based on a mechanical devices.
ii) an apparatus based on electrical device.
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CHAPTER-4
PROPOSED CONCEPT
4.1 PROPOSED INTEGRATED CIRCUIT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUE
4.1.1 PROPOSED INTEGRATED INVERTER/CONVERTER CIRCUIT
The integrated circuit for dual-mode control.,Cin and Cout can stabilize the voltage when
input and output voltages are disturbed by source and load, respectively. Diode(D)is used for
preventing output voltage impact on the input side.
Fig 4.1.1: Proposed interleaved boost mode. (a) Phase B: Charge; Phase C:
Discharge. (b) Phase B: Discharge; Phase C:Charge.
When the integrated circuit is operated in inverter (motor) mode, relay will be turned ON
and six power devices are controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM) control signals. When
the proposed integrated circuit is operated in the converter mode, relay is turned OFF. And a
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single-phase or interleaved control method will be applied to control of the power devices
depending upon the load conditions the single-phase and two-phase interleaved boost converters.
the single-phase boost converter uses power switch V∗, stator winding “A” and winding “B” to
boost the output voltage. In two-phase interleaved boost converter uses power switches V ∗ and
W∗, stator winding “A” winding “B” and winding “C” to boost the output voltage and reduce the
current ripple.
4.1.2 MODELLING AND CONTROLLER DESIGN UNDER BOOST MODE
This section will introduce the model of boost converter and derive the transfer function
of the voltage controller. Fig. 4.1.2a shows the non ideal equivalent circuit of the boost
converter, it considers non ideal condition of components: inductor winding resistance RL,
collector-emitter saturation voltage VCE, diode forward voltage drop VD, and equivalent series
resistance of capacitor Resr. Analysis of the boost converter by using the state-space averaging
method [14], small-signal ac equivalent circuit can be derived, the transfer function of the
voltage controller can be derived as shown in (3.1), at the bottom of the next page.
Fig 4.1.2a: Equivalent circuit of the boost converter.
Fig 4.1.2b: Small-signal equivalent circuit.
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(3.1)
Substituting the parameters shown in Table II into (3.1) gives
(3.2)
The block diagram of voltage loop, using a proportional-integral (PI) controller for the
compensator. In this project, the switching frequency is 20 kHz and voltage loop bandwidth will
be less than 2 kHz. And the phase margin should be more than 45◦ to enhance the noise
immunity. For the designed controller shown the Bode plot of the closed loop loop gain, the
bandwidth is 7.73 Hz and the phase margin is 91.8◦
(3.3)
Fig 4.1.2c: Block diagram of voltage loop.
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4.2 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED DRIVE
Fig 4.2: Adjustable speed drive
Line regenerative variable frequency drives, showing capacitors (top cylinders) and
inductors attached which filter the regenerated power.
Adjustable speed drive (ASD) or variable-speed drive (VSD) describes equipment used
to control the speed of machinery. Many industrial processes such as assembly lines must
operate at different speeds for different products. Where process conditions demand adjustment
of flow from a pump or fan, varying the speed of the drive may save energy compared with other
techniques for flow control.
Where speeds may be selected from several different pre-set ranges, usually the drive is
said to be adjustable speed. If the output speed can be changed without steps over a range, the
drive is usually referred to as variable speed.Adjustable and variable speed drives may be purely
mechanical (termed variators), electromechanical, hydraulic, or electronic.
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4.3 BASIC ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVE ALTERNATIVES
AC electric motors can be run in fixed-speed operation determined by the number of
stator pole pairs in the motor and the frequency of the alternating current supply.
AC motors can be made with one or more stator pole pairs the number of which
determines the motor's synchronous or asynchronous speed, synchronous speed being defined as
where n is synchronous speed in RPM, f is frequency in Hertz and p is number of poles.
The number of such fixed-speed-operation speeds is constrained by cost as number of
pole pairs increases. If many different speeds or continuously variable speeds are required, other
methods are required.
Direct-current motors allow for changes of speed by adjusting the shunt field current.
Another way of changing speed of a direct current motor is to change the voltage applied to the
armature.
An adjustable speed drive might consist of an electric motor and controller that is used to
adjust the motor's operating speed. The combination of a constant-speed motor and a
continuously adjustable mechanical speed-changing device might also be called an adjustable
speed drive. Power electronics based variable frequency drives are rapidly making older
technology redundant.
4.4 REASONS FOR USING ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES
Process control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an
adjustable speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for process control,
but energy conservation has emerged as an equally important objective.
4.4.1 ADJUSTING SPEED AS A MEANS OF CONTROLLING A PROCESS
The following are process control benefits that might be provided by an adjustable speed drive:
Smoother operation
Acceleration control
Different operating speed for each process recipe
Compensate for changing process variables
Allow slow operation for setup purposes
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Adjust the rate of production
Allow accurate positioning
Control torque or tension
Allow catching of spinning load (e.g., column of water) after outage.
Example:
Fig 4.4.1: Alternative fixed speed mode of operation
An adjustable speed drive can often provide smoother operation compared to an
alternative fixed speed mode of operation. For example, in a sewage lift station sewage usually
flows through sewer pipes under the force of gravity to a wet well location. From there it is
pumped up to a treatment process. When fixed speed pumps are used, the pumps are set to start
when the level of the liquid in the wet well reaches some high point and stop when the level has
been reduced to a low point. Cycling the pumps on and off results in frequent high surges of
electric current to start the motors that results in electromagnetic and thermal stresses in the
motors and power control equipment, the pumps and pipes are subjected to mechanical and
hydraulic stresses, and the sewage treatment process is forced to accommodate surges in the flow
of sewage through the process. When adjustable speed drives are used, the pumps operate
continuously at a speed that increases as the wet well level increases. This matches the outflow
to the average inflow and provides a much smoother operation of the process.
4.4.2 SAVING ENERGY BY USING EFFICIENT ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES
Some adjustable speed driven applications use less energy than fixed-speed operated
loads, variable-torque centrifugal fan and pump loads are the world's most energy-intensive.
Since most of the energy used for such fan and pump loads is currently derived by fixed-speed
machines, use of efficient adjustable speed drives for these loads in retrofitted or new
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applications offers the most future energy savings potential. For example, when a fan is driven
directly by a fixed-speed motor, the airflow is invariably higher than it needs to be. Airflow can
be regulated using a damper but it is more efficient to directly regulate fan motor speed.
According to affinity laws motor-regulated reduction of fan speed to 50% of full speed can thus
result in a power consumption drop to about 12.5% of full power.
4.5 TYPES OF ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES
Speed adjustment techniques have been used in transmitting mechanical power to
machinery since the earliest use of powered machinery. Before electric motors were invented,
mechanical speed changers were used to control the mechanical power provided by water wheels
and steam engines. When electric motors came into use, means of controlling their speed were
developed almost immediately. Today, various types of mechanical drives, hydraulic drives and
electric drives compete with one another in the industrial drives market.
4.5.1 MECHANICAL ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES
There are two types of mechanical drives, variable pitch drives and traction drives.
Variable pitch drives are pulley and belt drives in which the pitch diameter of one or both pulleys
can be adjusted. Traction drives transmit power through metal rollers running against mating
metal rollers. The input/output speed ratio is adjusted by moving the rollers to change the
diameters of the contact path. Many different roller shapes and mechanical designs have been
used..
4.5.2 HYDRAULIC ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES
There are three types of hydraulic drives, those are : hydrostatic drives, hydrodynamic
drives and hydro viscous drives. A hydrostatic drive consists of a hydraulic pump and a
hydraulic motor. Since positive displacement pumps and motors are used, one revolution of the
pump or motor corresponds to a set volume of fluid flow that is determined by the displacement
regardless of speed or torque. Speed is regulated by regulating the fluid flow with a valve or by
changing the displacement of the pump or motor. Many different design variations have been
used. A swash plate drive employs an axial piston pump and/or motor in which the swash plate
angle can be changed to adjust the displacement and thus adjust the speed.
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Hydrodynamic drives or fluid couplings use oil to transmit torque between an impeller on
the constant-speed input shaft and a rotor on the adjustable-speed output shaft. The torque
converter in the automatic transmission of a car is a hydrodynamic drive.
A hydro viscous drive consists of one or more discs or connected to the input shaft
pressed against a similar disc or discs connected to the output shaft. Torque is transmitted from
the input shaft to the output shaft through an oil film between the discs. The transmitted torque is
proportional to the pressure exerted by a hydraulic cylinder that presses the discs together.
4.5.3 CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE TRANSMISSION (CVT)
Main article: Continuously variable transmission Mechanical and hydraulic adjustable
speed drives are usually called transmissions or continuously variable transmissions when they
are used in vehicles, farm equipment and some other types of equipment.
4.5.4 ELECTRIC ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES
A) TYPES OF CONTROL
Control can mean either manually adjustable - by means of a potentiometer or linear hall
effect device, (which is more resistant to dust and grease) or it can also be automatically
controlled for example by using a rotational detector such as a Gray code optical encoder.
B) TYPES OF DRIVES
There are three general categories of electric drives: DC motor drives, eddy
current drives and AC motor drives. Each of these general types can be further divided into
numerous variations. Electric drives generally include both an electric motor and a speed control
unit or system. The term drive is often applied to the controller without the motor. In the early
days of electric drive technology, electromechanical control systems were used. Later, electronic
controllers were designed using various types of vacuum tubes. As suitable solid state electronic
components became available, new controller designs incorporated the latest electronic
technology.
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C) DC DRIVES
DC drives are DC motor speed control systems. Since the speed of a DC motor is directly
proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to motor flux (which is a function of
field current), either armature voltage or field current can be used to control speed.
Several types of DC motors are described in the electric motor article. The electric motor
article also describes electronic speed controls used with various types of DC motors.
D) EDDY CURRENT DRIVES
An eddy current drive consists of a fixed speed motor and an eddy current clutch. The
clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and an adjustable speed rotor separated by a small air gap. A
direct current in a field coil produces a magnetic field that determines the torque transmitted
from the input rotor to the output rotor. The controller provides closed loop speed regulation by
varying clutch current, only allowing the clutch to transmit enough torque to operate at the
desired speed. Speed feedback is typically provided via an integral AC tachometer.
Eddy current drives are slip-controlled systems the slip energy of which is necessarily all
dissipated as heat. Such drives are therefore generally less efficient than AC/DC-AC
conversion based drives. The motor develops the torque required by the load and operates at full
speed. The output shaft transmits the same torque to the load, but turns at a slower speed. Since
power is proportional to torque multiplied by speed, the input power is proportional to motor
speed times operating torque while the output power is output speed times operating torque. The
difference between the motor speed and the output speed is called the slip speed. Power
proportional to the slip speed times operating torque is dissipated as heat in the clutch.
E) AC DRIVES
AC drives are AC motor speed control systems. A slip-controlled wound-rotor induction
motor (WRIM) drive controls speed by varying motor slip via rotor slip rings either by
electronically recovering slip power fed back to the stator bus or by varying the resistance of
external resistors in the rotor circuit. Along with eddy current drives, resistance-based WRIM
drives have lost popularity because they are less efficient than AC/DC-AC-based WRIM drives
and are used only in special situations.
Slip energy recovery systems return energy to the WRIM's stator bus, converting slip
energy and feeding it back to the stator supply. Such recovered energy would otherwise be
wasted as heat in resistance-based WRIM drives. Slip energy recovery variable-speed drives are
used in such applications as large pumps and fans, wind turbines, shipboard propulsion systems,
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large hydro-pumps/generators and utility energy storage flywheels. Early slip energy recovery
systems using electromechanical components for AC/DC-A Cconversion (i.e., consisting of
rectifier, DC motor and AC generator) are termed Kramer drives, more recent systems
using variable-frequency drives (VFDs) being referred to asstatic Kramer drives.
In general, a VFD in its most basic configuration controls the speed of
an induction or synchronous motor by adjusting the frequency of the power supplied to the
motor.
Fig 4.5.4: Adjusting the frequency of the power supply
When changing VFD frequency in standard low-performance variable-torque
applications using Volt-per-Hertz (V/Hz) control, the AC motor's voltage-to-frequency ratio can
be maintained constant, and its power can be varied, between the minimum and maximum
operating frequencies up to a base frequency. Constant voltage operation above base frequency,
and therefore with reduced V/Hz ratio, provides reduced torque and constant power capability.
Regenerative AC drives are a type of AC drive which have the capacity to recover the
braking energy of a load moving faster than the motor speed (an overhauling load) and return it
to the power system.
The VFD article provides additional information on electronic speed controls used with
various types of AC motors.
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CHAPTER-5
VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER
Single-phase voltage source inverter can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge
topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely used in power
supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power static power topologies,
such as for instance, the multi cell configurations that are reviewed The main features of both
approaches are reviewed and presented in the following.
5.1 TYPES OF VSI
5.1.1 HALF-BRIDGE VSI
The power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are required to provide a
neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage=2. Because the current
harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are low-order harmonics, a set of large
capacitors (C. and Cÿ) is required. It is clear that both switches S. and Sÿ cannot be on
simultaneously because short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced.
There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch state as shown
in Table. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output voltage
condition, the modulating technique should always ensure that at any instant either the top or the
bottom switch of the inverter leg is on.
Fig 5.1.1a: Single phase half bridge VSI
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shows the ideal waveforms associated with the half-bridge inverter. The states for the
switches S. and Sÿ are defined by the modulating technique, which in this case is a carrier-based
PWM.
The Carrier-Based Pulse width Modulation (PWM) Technique: As mentioned earlier, it is
desired that the ac output voltage. Va N follow a given waveform (e.g., sinusoidal) on a
continuous basis by properly switching the power valves. The carrier-based PWM technique
fulfils such a requirement as it defines the on and off states of the switches of one leg of a VSI by
comparing a modulating signal vc (desired ac output voltage) and a triangular waveform vD
(carrier signal). In practice, when vc > vD the switch S. is on and the switch is off; similarly,
when vc < vD the switch S. is off and the switch Sÿ is on. A special case is when the modulating
signal vc is a sinusoidal at frequency fc and amplitude ^vc , and the triangular signal vD is at
frequency fD and amplitude ^vD. This is the sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) scheme. In this case, the
modulation index ma (also known as the amplitude-modulation ratio) is defined as
and the normalized carrier frequency mf (also known as the frequency-modulation ratio) is
vaN is basically a sinusoidal waveform plus harmonics, which features: the amplitude of
the fundamental component of the ac output voltage ^vo1 satisfying the following expression:
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Fig 5.1.1b: Sinusoidal wave forms AC output voltages
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Fig 5.1.1c: Add values of harmonics in AC output voltages
for odd values of the normalized carrier frequency mf the harmonics in the ac output
voltage appear at normalized frequencies fh centered around mf and its multiples, specifically,
Where k . 2; 4; 6; . . . for l . 1; 3; 5; . . . ; and k . 1; 3; 5; . . .for l . 2; 4; 6; . . . ; (c) the
amplitude of the ac output voltage harmonics is a function of the modulation index ma and is
independent of the normalized carrier frequency mf form f > 9; (d) the harmonics in the dc link
current (due to the modulation) appear at normalized frequencies fp centered around the
normalized carrier frequency mf and its multiples, specifically,
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where k . 2; 4; 6; . . . for l . 1; 3; 5; . . . ; and k . 1; 3; 5; . .for l . 2; 4; 6; . . . . Additional
important issues are: (a) for small values of mf (mf < 21), the carrier signal vD and the
modulating signal vc should be synchronized to each other(mf integer), which is required to hold
the previous features; if this is not the case, sub harmonics will be present in the ac output
voltage; (b) for large values of mf (mf > 21), the sub harmonics are negligible if an asynchronous
PWM
Fig 5.1.1d: Order of sub harmonics
technique is used, however, due to potential very low-order sub harmonics, its use should
be avoided; finally (c) in the over modulation region (ma > 1) some intersections between the
carrier and the modulating signal are missed, which leads to the generation of low-order
harmonics but a higher fundamental ac output voltage is obtained; unfortunately, the linearity
between ma and ^vo1achieved in the linear region does not hold in the over modulation region,
moreover, a saturation effect can be observed
The PWM technique allows an ac output voltage to be generated that tracks a given
modulating signal. A special case is the SPWM technique (the modulating signal is a sinusoidal)
that provides in the linear region an ac output voltage that varies linearly as a function of the
modulation index and the harmonics are at well-defined frequencies and amplitudes.
These features simplify the design of filtering components. Unfortunately, the maximum
amplitude of the fundamental ac voltage is vi=2 in this operating mode. Higher voltages are
obtained by using the over modulation region (ma > 1); however, low-order harmonics appear in
the ac output voltage.
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Fig 5.1.1e: AC output voltage
5.1.2 SQUARE-WAVE MODULATING TECHNIQUE
Both switches S. and Sÿ are on for one-half cycle of the ac output period. This is
equivalent to the SPWM technique with an infinite modulation index ma. the following: (a) the
normalized ac output voltage harmonics are at frequencies h . 3; 5; 7; 9; . . . , and for a given dc
link voltage; (b) the fundamental ac output voltage features an amplitude given by
and the harmonics feature an amplitude given by
5.1.3 SELECTIVE HARMONIC ELIMINATION
The main objective is to obtain a sinusoidal ac output voltage waveform where the
fundamental component can be adjusted arbitrarily within a range and the intrinsic harmonics
selectively eliminated. This is achieved by mathematically generating the exact instant of the
turn-on and turn-off of the power valves.
The ac output voltage features odd half- and quarter wave symmetry; therefore, even
harmonics are not present(voh . 0; h . 2; 4; 6; . . .). Moreover, the per-phase voltage waveform
(vo . vaN), should be chopped N times per half-cycle in order to adjust the fundamental and
eliminate N ÿ 1 harmonics in the ac output voltage waveform. For instance, to eliminate the third
and fifth harmonics and to perform fundamental magnitude control (N. 3), the equations to be
solved are the following:
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where the angles a1, a2, and a3 are defined as shown. The angles are found by means of iterative
algorithms as no analytical solutions can be derived. The angles a1, a2, and
Fig 5.1.3a: Iterative algorithm as no analytical solutions
are plotted for different values of . The general expressions to eliminate an even N
ÿ 1 .N ÿ 1 . 2; 4; 6; . . .) number of harmonics is
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where a1, a2; . . . ; aN should satisfy a1 < a2 < _ _ _ < aN <p=2. Similarly, to eliminate an odd
number of harmonics, for instance, the third, fifth and seventh, and to perform
Fig 5.1.3b: eliminate on odd number of harmonics
Fundamental magnitude control (N ÿ 1 . 3), the equations to be solved are:
where the angles a1; a2; a3, and a4 are defined as shown in Fig.b. The angles a1; a2, a3 and a4
are plotted for different values of The general expressions to
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Fig 5.1.3c: eliminate an odd N-1 number of harmonics
eliminate an odd N -1 (N ÿ 1 . 3; 5; 7; . . .) number of harmonics are given by
5.1.4 FULL-BRIDGE VSI
The power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the half-bridge
inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load. As expected, both switches
S1. and S1ÿ (or S2. and S2ÿ) cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc
link voltage source vi would be produced. There are four defined and one undefined.
The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the ac
output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output
voltage condition, the modulating technique should ensure that either the top or the bottom
switch of each leg is on at any instant. It can be observed that the ac output voltage can take
values up to the dc link value vi , which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies.
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Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to full-bridge
VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.
Fig 5.1.4: Full bridge VSI
5.1.5 BIPOLAR PWM TECHNIQUE
States 1 and 2 (Table) are used to generate the ac output voltage in this approach. Thus,
the ac output voltage waveform features only two values, which are vi and ÿvi. To generate the
states, a carrier-based technique can be used a sine half-bridge configurations where only one
sinusoidal modulating signal has been used. It should be noted that the on state in switch S. in
the half-bridge corresponds to both switches S1. and S2ÿ being in the on state in the full-bridge
configuration.
Similarly, Sÿ in the on state in the half-bridge corresponds to both switches S1ÿ andS2.
being in the on state in the full-bridge configuration. This is called bipolar carrier-based SPWM.
The ac output voltage waveform in a full-bridge VSI is basically a sinusoidal waveform that
features a fundamental component of amplitude ^vo1that satisfies the expression
In the linear region of the modulating technique (ma _ 1),which is twice that obtained in
the half-bridge VSI. Identical conclusions can be drawn for the frequencies and amplitudes of the
harmonics in the ac output voltage and dc link current, and for operations at smaller and larger
values of odd mf(including the over modulation region (ma > 1)), than in half bridge VSIs, but
considering that the maximum ac output voltage is the dc link voltage vi . Thus, in the over
modulation region the fundamental component of amplitude ^vo1 satisfies the expression