Shows how research & discussion of things like “entrepreneurial personality characteristics” can negatively affect female students’ intent and motivation to act as entrepreneurs. Also gives examples of entrepreneurial language that is exclusive or otherwise problematic.

1. Mandy Wheadon & Nathalie Duval-Couetil
Purdue University
mwheadon@purdue.edu
natduval@purdue.edu

2. PURPOSE
Gender Theory
WHY ARE WE DISCUSSING THIS?
Communication Theory Entrepreneurship Theory
+ +

3. PURPOSE
WHAT ARE WE TRYING TO DO?
• Show how research & discussion of things like “entrepreneurial
personality characteristics” can negatively affect female students’
intent and motivation to act as entrepreneurs
• Give examples of entrepreneurial language that is exclusive or
otherwise problematic

4. BACKGROUND
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE “ENTREPRENEURIAL
PERSONALITY”?
• Research often frames differences in
entrepreneurial success, career choice, and
income earned as being related to the presence or
absence of certain traits & characteristics.

5. BACKGROUND
THE BIG FIVE
High levels of:
• Conscientiousness
• Openness
• Extraversion
Low levels of:
• Neuroticism
• Agreeableness
For example, the Big Five personality traits
that make up the “entrepreneurial personality”
are commonly reported as being:
(see Brandstatter, 2011; Goldberg, 1992; Shane et al.,
2010; Zhao et al., 2010; & Leutner et al., 2014)

6. AWARENESS
SO WHAT’S WRONG WITH THAT?
Language shapes
understanding
THE BIG FIVE
High :
Conscientiousness
Openness
Extraversion
Low:
Neuroticism
Agreeableness
• Marked language (i.e.,
“nurse” vs. “male nurse” or
“entrepreneur” vs.
“female/woman
entrepreneur”)
• Gender associations with
certain words
Entrepreneurship Theory Communication Theory

7. EXISTING EXAMPLES
Masculinity words
(from Bem’s masculinity index)
Entrepreneur words
(from foundational texts)
MASCULINITY WORDS COMPARED TO ENTREPRENEUR WORDS
Self-reliant Self-centered, internal locus of control, self-efficacious, mentally free, able
Defends own beliefs Strong-willed
Assertive Able to withstand opposition
Strong personality Resolute, firm in temper
Forceful, athletic Unusually energetic, capacity for sustained effort, active
Has leadership abilities Skilled at organizing, visionary
Willing to take risks Seeks challenges, optimistic, daring, courageous
Makes decisions easily Decisive in spite of uncertainty
Self-sufficient Independent, detached
Dominant, aggressive Influential, seeks power, relentless
Willing to take a stand Sticks to a course, speaks up
Acts as a leader Leads progress, pilot of industrialism, manager
Individualistic Detached, prefers not to have a boss
Competitive Wants to fight and conquer, wants to prove competence/superiority
Ambitious Achievement oriented
Independent Independent, mentally free
Analytical Exercises sound judgment, superior business skill, perceptive, intelligent
(adapted from Ahl, 2006)

8. AWARENESS
SO WHAT’S WRONG WITH THAT?
It’s never as
simple as just
biology.
TRAIT
PERSPECTIVE
• Personality traits
conceptualized as
intrinsic characteristics,
relatively stable,
measurable
• Genetic/biological
implications
• Socialization
• Opportunities to
learn/express traits
(especially when
capital is involved)
Entrepreneurship Theory Gender Theory

9. WHY DO THE WORDS MATTER?
ASSUMPTIONS SHAPE BELIEFS & ACTIONS
Ahl (2006):
• “Research on entrepreneurship holds certain assumptions about
business, gender, family, society, the economy, and the individual,
all of which influence the research questions asked, the methods
chosen, and the answers received. The assumptions also [shape]
WHAT IS EXCLUDED—i.e., factors or circumstances that are not
perceived as relevant for entrepreneurship research—and issues
of legitimacy: who is allowed to speak on the subject and what
channels count?” (p.579)
• Assumptions about directionality influence research
(most likely that behaviors are shaping the context as
the context is simultaneously shaping the behaviors)

10. WHY DO THE WORDS MATTER?
Foucault (1972):
• Discourse is never neutral—power structures aid in
determining who shapes the dominant discourse on a
topic, what information is included within (or excluded
from) the discourse, as well as who has access to it.
• The words used to describe something influence what is
represented as knowledge or truth on that subject, as well
as how it may be known, and who may come to know it.
• In other words, the words used in teaching & research
generate information, but they also generate meanings.
LANGUAGE, POWER, & KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION ARE
INTERRELATED

11. EXAMPLES
Obschonka et al. (2014):
• “It is well-documented that men and women differ in their
personality characteristics” (p.2).
• Emphasize importanceof “factors that lie ‘under the skin,’
something as fundamental as a person’s basic personality
structure” (p.10) as determinants of entrepreneurial career
choice & behavior.
• “Gender difference in entrepreneurial personality, which ‘favors’
men, indeed show a certain degree of…universality” (p.9).
• (*However, also throw in: “this gender difference in personality
differs substantially across cultures; and that in some cultures
this gender difference may not even exist, or may rather exist in
the reverse direction” (p.9).)
BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM

12. EXAMPLES
Miller (2014):
• Entrepreneurship demands “a special type of individual; it
is not surprising, then, that…..particular personality traits
inhere in these individuals” (p.2).
• Also looked for, and found, that the hormone testosterone is
higher among entrepreneurs than among the general
population.
What assumptions underlie these examples? How might they
prevent some individuals from engaging in entrepreneurship?
EXCLUSIVITY OF ENTREPRENEURIAL ABILITY

13. IMPACT
EXPECTANCY EFFECT
Dweck (2008):
• Personality shaped by the way one perceives self, others, situations,
& opportunities
• Central part of perception & personality development shaped through
socialization by exposure to beliefs & expectations of others
• Personality is shaped by beliefs about whether traits &
characteristics CAN be developed or not, and by beliefs about
whether others will ACCEPT their expressions of certain
characteristics or not
LANGUAGE BELIEFS
DEVELOPMENT
(OR LACK) OF
INTENTIONS,
ACTIONS, &
BEHAVIORS

14. IMPACT
SOCIAL IDENTITY, ACCEPTANCE, & INFLUENCE
Hogg (2001):
• As a group develop over time, a group prototype
also develops.
• Self identification & group acceptance/credibility
influenced by degree to which a person fits with
identity of the group.
• Individuals become influential in the group when
they become most like the group prototype.

15. IMPACT
POWER IMBALANCE IN KNOWLEDGE CREATION
• Disciplines such as entrepreneurship, where the
research has historically been dominated by
scholars who share certain privileges and
characteristics, often illustrate the fundamental
relationship between the construction of
knowledge and the transferal of power to similar
others.
• Reproduces and perpetuates status quo

16. IMPACT
(Based on search of AcademicSearch Premier database using query terms “entrepreneur*”AND “personality”
OR “traits” with results filtered to include only results published in peer reviewed journals between 2005 and
2015)
RISING TREND OF STUDIES LOOKING AT
“ENTREPRENEURIAL PERSONALITY TRAITS”
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

17. GENDERED DIFFERENCE IN RESEARCH PURSUED
Reviewing the available literature on the
development of entrepreneurial intention shows:
• The majority of researchers who focus on the role
of intrinsic personality traits are male.
• By contrast, female researchers tend to
emphasize the role of self-efficacy—which may be
developed.
IMPACT

18. IMPACT
Entrepreneurial
Personality
Using a framework of traits and
characteristics implies the
necessity of fixed biological or
psychological attributes to be
present in order to exhibit an
entrepreneurial personality -
allowing one to “be” an
entrepreneur (identity).
Entrepreneurial
Skills
Conversely, entrepreneurial skills
may be cultivated through training
and practice, making it possible for
anyone to develop the capacity to
“act entrepreneurially”
(role/process/behavior/tool).
DO THE TOPICS WE RESEARCH & THE WORDS WE USE
WHILE TEACHING IMPLY:
or

19. IMPACT
DEVELOPMENT OF INTENT
Given these connections, how might research
on, and references to, “entrepreneurial
personality” impact career intention and
behavior of females?

20. IMPACT
WHAT ARE WE IMPLYING?
If entrepreneurial traits are innate… …and the words used to describe the traits of an entrepreneur
are the same words used to describe masculinity….
…then our biology is saying that men are probably better at
entrepreneurship... right?

21. IMPACT ON WOMEN’S ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITY
• Women in the U.S. receive an increasingly greater proportion
of university degrees than men do, yet continue to be less
likely to believe that they are capable of being successful
entrepreneurs (Bygrave et al., 2013; Kelley, Brush, Greene, & Litovsky, 2012;
VanderBrug, 2013).
• One in five men anticipate starting a business in the next five
years, while only one in thirteen women report intentions to do
likewise (Kelley et al., 2012; Pofeldt, 2013b).
• Two-thirds of men in the U.S. have positive perceptions about
their entrepreneurial abilities & opportunities, are confident
they could start a business, and have a relatively low fear of
failure—but less than half of women with similar levels of
education and experience share these beliefs (Pofeldt, 2013b).
IMPACT

22. IMPACT ON WOMEN’S ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITY
(CONT.)
• Existing female entrepreneurs are overwhelmingly found in
less-profitable consumer, retail, and service sectors, while
males continue to dominate the more profitable
manufacturing and technology sectors (Kelley et al., 2012).
• It is more difficult for women to secure funding for new
business ventures, and they generally have limited access to
valuable mentorship and support networks during the
enterprise creation process (Pofeldt, 2013b).
IMPACT

23. IMPACT
SO, WHAT?
• Taken together, these factors result in many women failing to
consider entrepreneurship as a career option at all.
• Since entrepreneurship skills are projected to be vital to job
creation and future economic security, the gender gap in the
amount and types of entrepreneurial work performed by
women brings with it substantial societal & individual losses.

24. INTERRUPTION OF PATTERNS
“At any historical moment, both the gender order and
linguistic conventions exercise a profound constraint on our
thoughts and actions, predisposing us to follow patterns set
down over generations and throughout our own development.
Change comes with the interruption of such patterns, and
while sometimes that interruption may be sudden, it comes
more commonly through infinitesimally small events that may
or may not be intentional.”
(Eckert & McConnell-Ginet (2013), Language and Gender, p.44)
CONCLUSION

25. MOVING FORWARD: INTERRUPTING THE PATTERNS
• Entrepreneurship requires flexibility. Relying on narrow descriptions of
entrepreneurship implies that there is a “right way” to be an
entrepreneur, erasing the possibility for multiple interpretations and
diverse enactments of entrepreneurship.
• Multiple outcomes and objectives. A more flexible and pluralistic view of
entrepreneurship would generate multiple definitions, each specific to a
different desired outcome or best suited to the combination of skills
that falls under a particular entrepreneurial archetype.
• “Skills mindset” vs. “Identity mindset.” Personality language constructs
entrepreneurs as an identity that someone either ‘is’ or ‘is not’ based on
their level of conformity to the ‘right way’ to be entrepreneurial—instead
of portraying it as a complex and integrative process that involves a
combination of diverse mindsets, skills, perspectives, and tools that
anyone can potentially learn to access and employ.
CONCLUSION

26. CONCLUSION
FOR EXAMPLE, A SKILLS MINDSET IDENTIFIES SOME
ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS & COMPETENCIES AS:
• Opportunity recognition
• Opportunity assessment
• Risk management/mitigation
• Convey a compelling vision to
others
• Tenacity/perseverance
• Creative problem-
solving/imaginativeness
• Identify/leverage resources
• Do more with
less/resourcefulness
• Value creation
• Focused yet adaptable
• Resilient
• Believe they have ability to
accomplish tasks/achieve
goals
• Building/using/maintaining
useful networks
(see Morris et al., 2013)

27. QUESTIONS?

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Brandstätter, H. (2011). Personality aspects of entrepreneurship: A look at five meta-analyses Personality and Individual Differences, 51,
222–230.
Bygrave, W. D., Healey, K., Lee, M., Barefoot, B., Fetters, M., & Greene, P. (2013). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: National
Entrepreneurial Assessment for the United States of America, 1–64.
Dweck, C. (2008). Can Personality Be Changed? The Role of Beliefs in Personality and Change. Current Directions in Psychological Science,
17( 6), 391-394. Eckert, P., & McConnell-Ginet, S. (2013), Language and Gender. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge and the discourse on language (A.M. Sheridan Smith, Trans.). Truth: Engagements
Across Philosophical Traditions. New York: Pantheon.
Goldberg, L.R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 26–42.
Hogg, M.A. (2001). A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 184-200.
Kelley, D. J., Brush, C. G., Greene, P. G., & Litovsky, Y. (2012). 2012 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Women’s Report (pp. 1–58).
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Miller, D. (2014). A downside to the entrepreneurial personality? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(5), 1–8.
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empirical insights. Journal of Small Business Management, 51(3), 352–369.
Obschonka, M., Schmitt-Rodermund, E., & Terracciano, A. (2014). Personality and the gender gap in self-employment: A multi-nation study.
PloS One, 9(8).
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