Urban Planning, “Creative Planning” and Participation in Dar Es Salaam.pdf

Urban Planning, “Creative
Planning” and Participation in
Dar Es Salaam
Guglielmo CEccarossi

Index
Introduction
People and divisions
History
Gerarchy and Actors Network
material of THe Swahili city
How to Recognized It
The Mud Plaster
The Makuti Roof
Formal and Informal Green in Public Space
Public Spaces and green areas
The Value of Public Space
30
22
20
16
12
10
8
4

Index
Bibliography
THE COMMUNITY BASED PROPOSAL
The General Timeline
Material and Maintenance
48
47
The Future Enviroment 46
Data and Phases Proposal 45
The Actual Situation 44
The Project Proposal
Participation
Using the netowrk
Enhance the Local Identities Throw the Needs
Identity
Time
42
40
38
34

4
INTRODUCTION
From the beginning the Tanzania has been
composed by linguistically isolated populations,
the first two we can see were the Hadza and San-
dawe.
After that, thanks to the high accessibility given
from the position between two continent, as also
the high availability of resource, the Tanzania, or
Tanganyka, became the center of the different
rises of several populations. Following that path,
the first immigration wave came from the Iraqw,
Gorowa and Burunge populations; probably fa-
cilitated from the presence of the Lake Victoria
and the Lake Tanganyka, from one side because
some population arrives from those places, on
the other side because they was looking for the
resources given by the territory, as iron and gold.
But before seeing the rise of the iron age, we
must wait the new immigration wave of the
Haya population, the first who probably bring
the technology of the blasting furnace.
Making a big step in the future precisely in the
middle ages period, the Tanzania remain the
same pole of attraction for the main population
in the area: in this period the Tanzania’s popu-
lation saw a fast growth, thanks to the Egyptian
and Persian commercial routes which need to
pass throw the Red Sea to reach the India. Clearly,
the important presence of this two empire, both
Muslim, became a fundamental key reading for
the Tanzania, as the mainland people was more
dedicated to their religion, but the islands peo-
ple as who from Zanzibar became and remain
more than the 90% Muslim. After that, we can’t
ignore the fact that the Muslims empire give to
the Tanzania another fast growth, probably facili-
tated from the presence of the gold but still they
decide to improve the environment.
The last fundamental period to get what does it
mean public spaces and public relations in Tan-
zania, it’s the Colonialism period. Starting from
the beginning the Omani Sultan claims all the
coast and move the capital to Zanzibar. After
HISTORY
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Fig.1
“Eastern Africa: major states, peoples, and trade routes c.
1850”. Encyclopedia Britannica 2023

5
that, Zippu Zip, Msiri and Mirambo controlled
the area and start to trade with the European
warlords, throw ivory, iron and slaves. Few deca-
des after, the Germany starts to conquer all East
Africa and they made up the GEA (Germany Est
Africa). But after the Paris Peace Conference, Bel-
gium and Britain split the GEA in two parts, the
Tanganyka taken by UK and the West GEA, so
Rwanda and Urundi, taken by Belgium. Remai-
ning on the Tanganyka side, the Britain decide
to use the Indirect Rules system, which was a
conceptual independency because they had a
local govern or something similar, but still under
the control of UK. This period of repressions and
salves trade, take the local population to the ex-
treme consequences: before the WWII the Tan-
zanian population, both Swahili and Arabic peo-
ple, starts to fight back with the to rebellion, the
Maji-Maji and the Abushiri revolts.
After this bloody period, we reach the WWII,
were Tanzania fought against Italian, French and
Japanese while they were part of the alliance.
This stake in the Tanzania was probably driven
by the common knowledge of be a territory full
of food supply, despite the great depression a
little before the war. Ended the WWII, the UK still
control the Tanzania’s territory but, in the 1954
they select as prime minister Julius Nyerere, who
drive the easy Tanzania organization in an actual
political oriented entity, the TANU. Clearly his
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
Fig.2
“Eastern Africa partitioned, c. 1914”. Encyclopedia Britannica
2023

6
aim was to make Tanzania an independent sta-
te and he actually reach is point, because in the
1961 they reach the independence given by the
commonwealth. Few years later, in the 1963, the
instability of Zanzibar leads to the slaughter of
many people, for that reasons all the archipelago
became part of the Tanganyka.
Becoming the nation we know today, Nyere’s
challenge for Tanzania became to bring the po-
pulation to a decent livable condition. For this
reason, he had a political turn toward a leftist
party, more precisely he had a socialist turn, in
1967. Probably facilitated by the proximity of
thought, a few years later, from 1970 to ‘75 China
decided to invest in the country, building about
1860km of railway, starting in Dar Es Salaam and
ending in Zambia. Later another war shook Tan-
zania, what came to be called the Uganda-Tan-
zania War, which saw two major forces, even
Uganda backed by the Gaddafi government,
fighting each other in the name of freedom.
The root cause can be attributed to the flight of
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
Fig.3
“Kenya Uganda and Tanzania 1970 Ninth Commonwealth
Games”. Commonwealth Stamp Store
Fig.4
“President Julius Kambarage Nyerere”. By Rob Mieremet, 1975

7
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
rebels who, following a failed coup d’état, took
refuge in Tanzania, with this excuse, the Ugan-
dan government accused Nyerere of supporting
and aiding the rebels, effectively advancing with
their army inside the United Republic of Tanzania
gave the motive to enter Uganda, oust President
Idi Amin and return to a situation of internal pe-
ace. One element that cannot be left out is the
consistency of Tanzania, which responded pu-
rely in defense, and although they reached the
capital, they then abandoned their positions to
return to their homeland.
The last two keys within modern-contemporary
history are the inclusion of the Kilimanjaro and
Serengeti sites on the UNESCO heritage list in
1980, as well as the election of a female presi-
dent in 2021.
Fig.5
“Serve the revolutionary people of the world”, Chinese worker in
Africa, helping to build the TanZam or TAZARA Railway, linking Tanza-
nia and Zambia. Publisher Tianjin renmin meishu chubanshe, 1971.
TANZANIA
KENYA
ZAMBIA
Dar es Salam
Mwanza
Kigoma
Arusha
Dodoma
Nairobi
Tabora Tanga
Mbeya
Mpanda
Kitadu
Mombasa
Kasama
Fig.6
“Tanzania Railways”, Wikimedia.

8
INTRODUCTION
As widely introduced, Tanzania is a peculiar state,
on the one hand, because it is the sum of ter-
ritories that are morphologically and historical-
ly divided from one another, and on the other
hand because even within the portions that may
seem consistent with themselves, we find tribes
and peoples with diverse and even contrasting
cultures, excellent examples come to us from
the number of languages spoken, roughly more
than mid-thirty, and of the religions professed,
being among the few states to have as many as
three major ones, Christianity, Mussulmanism,
and indigenous religions, such as Animism.
This, is from a perspective in which the popula-
tion shapes the territory to its own use and need
but, as time goes on, it is the territory itself that
will shape the population, the built environment,
since ancient times, draws clear lines, walls, and
separations, which sometimes are knocked
down, others become an integral part of the pla-
ce, culture, and even language.
The first line that a foreigner is immediately able
to pick up on is clearly economic segregation:
like many megacities, or would-be megacities
in developing countries, the capital city of Dar
Es Salaam is characterized by a particular den-
sity of housing: mainly developed vertically in
the central area, which is dense with specialized
services, tourism-imposed activities, and tertiary;
it tends to a generally horizontal dimension as
soon as one starts to leave, with areas mainly po-
pulated by “slums” or the like, and a diversity in
the uses of the same spaces that is noteworthy:
while all streets have frontages entirely devoted
to neighborhood economic activities, the back is
residential, with slums following the orography
of the land, Dar Es Salaam being a city characte-
rized by heavy flooding and thus having a multi-
tude of drainage channels.
Another element briefly mentioned but empha-
sizing formal diversity in the territory, starting
from the center towards the periphery, is the
PEOPLE AND DIVISIONS
Region Pop. 1 Pop. 2 Pop. 3 Pop. 4 Pop. 5 Pop. 6 Pop. 7 Pop. 8 Pop. 9 Pop. 10 Pop. 11
Songwe Wamatengo Wangoni Wayao Wanyasa Wandendeule Wapoto Wamanda Wanindi Wamatambwe
Katavi Bende Holoholo Konongo Pimbwe Tongwe Vinza Rungwa
Simiyu Sukuma (nyantuzu) Nyiramba Nyaturu Hadzabe (Tindiga)
Dodoma Gogo Rangi Sandawe Burungi
Arusha Iraqw Arusha Maasai Wameru Sonjo Chagga Pare Nguu
Morogoro Luguru Ngulu kutu Sagara Vidunda Kaguru Mbunga Ndamba Pogoro Ngindo
Pwani Zaramo Kwere Doe Ndengereko Zigua Ruﬁji
Kilimanjaro Chaga Ngasa Pare
Tanga Bondei Zigula Sambaa Digo Segeju Ngulu Mbugu Pare
Mtwara Makonde Yao Makua
Ruvuma Wamatengo Wangoni Wayao Wanyasa Wandendeule Wapoto Wamanda Wanindi Wamatambwe
Dar-es-salaam Zaramo
Lindi Matumbi Mwera Ngindo Machinga Makonde
Singida Nyaturu Iramba Isanzu Datooga Kimbu Nyamwezi
Tabora Nyamwezi
Iringa Hehe
Mbeya Nyakyusa Sangu Safwa Ndali Kinga Wanji Lambya Nyiha Wungu Kimbu Rungwa
Mjini Magharibi Hadimu
Kaskazini Pemba Hadimu
Shinyanga Sukuma Sumbwa Nyamwezi
Kagera Wahaya Wanyambo Washubi Wahangaza Waha Wazinza Warongo
Kaskazini Unguja Hadimu
Kusini Unguja Hadimu
Rukwa Fipa Nyiha Lyangalile Mambwe Lungu
Kigoma Ha Vinza Jiji Holoholo
Manyara Iraqw Mbugwe Assa Barabaig Gorowa
Kusini Pemba Hadimu
Arab People
Fig.7 Representation of “how many culture and
populations live in each region?”.

9
different economic trends from the rich to the
poorer areas. As mentioned earlier, we have two
areas, one based on specialized services, tourism
and tertiary, and another specific in local needs:
in fact, the latter is mainly populated by the sale
of food goods similar to fast food, thus consi-
sting of a cart or a shack with a fire as a stove;
stores specializing in repairing means of tran-
sportation and firms related to the construction
world. The latter sector is particularly prominent,
the outskirts of the city are dotted with large fir-
ms producing cements and the like, as well as
small businesses offering services such as metal
work or cheap furniture.
Here we open the parenthesis that will probably
most reflect the cut of this research in a “Bot-
tom-up” design perspective: the huge difference
between European and Tanzanian participatory
urban planning is the “know-how,” the meticu-
lous knowledge of the territory and its risks, the
high “mixité” and adaptability that the popula-
tion uses to populate places that for a foreigner
would be branded as unlivable or to be reclai-
med entirely. This element gives the city a high
level of customization to needs that Western
World cities have not even touched upon and
probably never will achieve, except by actions
almost entirely supported by the public.
The last element of particular relevance to de-
sign is the complexity of the subdivision of the
city or of the neighborhoods themselves into
primarily Muslim areas, thus generally close to a
mosque, the Christian areas which are less cle-
ar-cut but more dispersed within the cities, and,
the areas for indigenous religions, which sadly
coincided with the less affluent neighborhoods.
However, as it is difficult to be able to give a cor-
rect detailed view on this last element, I will only
observe in the next chapter, how public space
has been historically affected by this division of
spaces, using papers and research already done
in the field.
INTRODUCTION
PEOPLE AND DIVISIONS
Region Pop. 1 Pop. 2 Pop. 3 Pop. 4 Pop. 5 Pop. 6 Pop. 7 Pop. 8 Pop. 9 Pop. 10 Pop. 11
Songwe Wamatengo Wangoni Wayao Wanyasa Wandendeule Wapoto Wamanda Wanindi Wamatambwe
Katavi Bende Holoholo Konongo Pimbwe Tongwe Vinza Rungwa
Simiyu Sukuma (nyantuzu) Nyiramba Nyaturu Hadzabe (Tindiga)
Dodoma Gogo Rangi Sandawe Burungi
Arusha Iraqw Arusha Maasai Wameru Sonjo Chagga Pare Nguu
Morogoro Luguru Ngulu kutu Sagara Vidunda Kaguru Mbunga Ndamba Pogoro Ngindo
Pwani Zaramo Kwere Doe Ndengereko Zigua Ruﬁji
Kilimanjaro Chaga Ngasa Pare
Tanga Bondei Zigula Sambaa Digo Segeju Ngulu Mbugu Pare
Mtwara Makonde Yao Makua
Ruvuma Wamatengo Wangoni Wayao Wanyasa Wandendeule Wapoto Wamanda Wanindi Wamatambwe
Dar-es-salaam Zaramo
Lindi Matumbi Mwera Ngindo Machinga Makonde
Singida Nyaturu Iramba Isanzu Datooga Kimbu Nyamwezi
Tabora Nyamwezi
Iringa Hehe
Mbeya Nyakyusa Sangu Safwa Ndali Kinga Wanji Lambya Nyiha Wungu Kimbu Rungwa
Mjini Magharibi Hadimu
Kaskazini Pemba Hadimu
Shinyanga Sukuma Sumbwa Nyamwezi
Kagera Wahaya Wanyambo Washubi Wahangaza Waha Wazinza Warongo
Kaskazini Unguja Hadimu
Kusini Unguja Hadimu
Rukwa Fipa Nyiha Lyangalile Mambwe Lungu
Kigoma Ha Vinza Jiji Holoholo
Manyara Iraqw Mbugwe Assa Barabaig Gorowa
Kusini Pemba Hadimu
Njombe Bena Pangwa Kinga Wanji Mahanji Poroto Kisi Mwelya Sandia Manda
Mwanza Wasukuma Wakerewe Wakara Wazinza
Mara Zanaki Kurya Ngurimi Ikoma Ikizu Kwaya Jita Suba Kerewe Sizaki Simbiti
Geita Zinza Sumbwa Haya
Fig.8 Specific populations or tribes table

10
INTRODUCTION
As mentioned earlier, there are many actors in-
volved in city planning with different purposes
and nature. Starting with those who hold the
most power we have: the national and local go-
vernments, which clearly decide and make the
final decisions in terms of the direction of future
development; private actors whether they are
small or large companies, for example Vodafone
has invested heavily in the city, creating spaces
for both economic activities and social aggre-
gation; even states like China, which obviously
like the private actors are bearers of economic
interests but, unlike the latter, are also bearers
of international political interests, thus general-
ly more dangerous; NGOs, then organizations
unrelated to the government that work on the
ground with different purposes, generally with
the main goal of increasing the quality of life,
the basic rights of human beings and finding
mediation between the different parties in case
of conflict; finally we find the population and its
informal tendency to occupy spaces, which al-
though not endowed with a marked economic
interest, has as its main purpose its own housing
but, as a tangible indirect goal, aims to create its
own image of the city.
This complex reality has a double value: on the
one hand, any project of a larger scale, which
does not have to be understood necessarily as a
physical size but also as the size of the attraction
it could generate, will have to be well thought
out according to this structure; on the other
hand, however, the freedom left by the public or
taken by the population and private individuals
makes it relatively easy to create new proposals
and experiments that can help the premises find
their own vocation and stability.
Gerarchy and Actors Network
Population
in the Districts
United Republic
of Tanzania
People's
Republic of China
NGO
Private
Actors
Fig.9 Basic network actors scheme

12
Public Spaces and green areas
Now, using research done in the field, I will try
to trace how public space has changed over
time and how people have approached it. The
first case study I present is that of Songo Mnara,
which offers an important insight into how spa-
ce was shaped by the various populations in the
area. In the period between 1350 and 1500 A.D.,
East African settlements saw a major transforma-
tion fostered by the power of traders and sultans.
As a result of this drive, the design of the city of
Songo Mnara became more articulated and
detailed, with the construction of housing, mo-
sques, and open spaces in the north, center, and
west. Among these spaces, of particular interest
we have frequented public spaces that actually
had the purpose of a cemetery, an element of
particularly different from the South-European
vision of using burial grounds.
Moving instead to the central area, which as
mentioned above, was an open public space,
the first element to note is the use of dwellings
as the physical boundary of the space; moving
now instead to the areas to the south and east,
we could find both composite structures that re-
presented grouped domestic spaces, and even
larger structures also called palaces; finally, in the
northern area, the dwellings traced a more inti-
mate pattern, having been conceived and built
as individual domestic cells.
Thus, as mentioned earlier, these open spaces
The value of public space
Fig.10 Public Space in Bagamoyo

13
were not only plazas but also had the function
of tombs, which were divided into two main
locations, an element that suggests a probable
division of the population, one of the areas ha-
ving a greater concentration of tombs near the
mosque, and the other being near the dwellings.
Another element that signals this proximity and
respect toward the deceased is the finding of
objects left in the areas of the graves, thus com-
memorative.
Turning now to the area to the west, where
there was both the entrance and one of the lar-
gest public open areas, the research suggests,
through the study of the soil bug levels, a low
presence of activities producing organic waste,
but mainly activities related to construction and
raw material work. The last important element is
the difficult temporal attribution but sure realiza-
tion of metal forges, which were always located
in the Western area but more toward the central
open space. Putting the elements together, the
space devoted to forges and the making of raw
materials offers food for thought that they were
very devoted to boat building.
In conclusion “The archaeology of public spaces
reminds us that these were complex and mul-
ti-use places, which incorporated mundane and
profane acts, as well as those likely considered
sacred and/or politically charged.” Also “Likewi-
se, the entrance complex at the site, with its
protected and maintained unwanda area, pro-
Public spaces and green areas
the value of public space
Fig.11 Green Public Space in Bagamoyo

14
vides a place for formal urban activities-perhaps
the location of public ceremonies, rituals, and
dances-but mundane acts like the production
of shell beads, and the drying of fish and nets.”
(How Public Space is Used in Ancient Cities: The
Case of Songo Mnara, a Medieval Swahili City in
Tanzania. Jeffrey Fleisher)
The key element therefore that must now tran-
spire is how urban space is not just the result of
urban planning theory or study but that, in cer-
tain cultures, it is the result of constant practice, a
know-how inherent in the people themselves, in
a process of creative design and implementation
the value of public space

16
The subsequent paper necessary for the com-
plete understanding of the place and how citi-
zens approach it deals with the topic of climate
change from a perspective of the level of quality
and quantity of green infrastructures, how they
are conceived and designed but above all, how
the population of Dar Es Salaam feels the shorta-
ge as a problem but at the same time, how the
possible choices are still always against ameni-
ties, the cause of primary needs and necessities
that are not yet or can be met.
When we talk about quality of life within an ur-
ban reality, we normally refer to the set of services
offered to the citizen, among these we have ro-
ads, services in the pure sense and environment,
which is both composed of the aesthetics of a
city and the quantity and quality of public green
areas. Clearly, the identification of these criteria is
not straightforward; low livability can be both an
obvious obstacle and a general feeling of malai-
se within a space, as well as the sum of the two.
Because of this difficult identification of it, less
affluent populations, consequently those with
more problems and difficulties within the urban
context, often perceive less the partial or total
absence of these services that we can define as
superior. For this reason, as the research points
out, populations that are baseline accustomed to
having less, including public green spaces, con-
sequently not all the less affluent but only those
living within densely populated settings, have si-
gnificantly less dependence than their counter-
Formal and informal green in public space
Fig.12 Functional Trees in Bagamoyo

17
parts in rural settings. Another factor supporting
these theses is the notion that when people talk
about infrastructure for urban quality, they are
normally inclined to think of roads and rail, little
often referring to green infrastructure.
Of greater concern, connected to this issue, is
the now certainty that by 2050 70 percent of the
world’s population will live in urban settings; as
well as the fact that the normal trend for the lo-
cation of slums is typically in places laden with
hazards, such as disease, flooding, heat waves
and the like. The accepted fact around the world
now, however, is that many people ‘prefer urban
squalor to rural hopelessness’ (The Economist,
2007). Continuing to follow the elements offered
by research, in this case by the TEEB, four types of
ecosystem services are identified: provisioning,
regulating, habitat or supporting and cultural
amenity services.
Thus, given the dangerous context, because
as mentioned earlier these slums grow on soils
composed of various hazards, such as disease
and natural disasters, generally all related to lack
of clean water or excess stagnant water, the pre-
sence of green areas, to reduce the areas occu-
pied and thus achieve both greater permeability
and greater passage of air and sunlight, brings
direct benefits to the population, as well as to
the city itself in terms of aesthetics.
Beyond that, the absence of green areas, can
lead to running into four types of risk “Vulnera-
Fig.13 Functional Green and Public Space in Bagamoyo

18
bility is the physical, economic, social or political
susceptibility of a system to damage” (Birkmann,
2006). Within this view, climate change becomes
just one part of this large group of risks and vul-
nerabilities, taking the concept of green infra-
structure design to a new level.
Now, focusing our gaze on the context, then gi-
ving a methodological slant to the research, the
city of Dar Es Salaam is one of the fastest growing,
with a probable reaching the size of a megacity
around 2034. As mentioned above, the deficien-
cies of the state, like the city in question, being
of varying but always major nature, the current
expansion of cities does not include the design
of green infrastructure, this however leads in the
less affluent neighborhoods, to a reciprocal in-
verse relationship between increasing housing
density and decreasing green areas, it being visi-
ble already to the naked eye that densification of
slums means sacrificing green areas.
Dealing instead with the formal and hierarchical
subdivision of the city or also called the admini-
strative subdivision, it consists of the Streets (cal-
led Mitaa in Kiswahili), which have within them
10-cell units; after the Ward, the Division, the Mu-
nicipal Council and the City Council. Interesting
about this reality is the public administration’s
awareness and acceptance of the existence of
both formal and informal realities, the latter also
being an integral part of the aforementioned
structure.
Following the logical thread proposed by the
paper, the goal they have now set for themsel-
ves is to identify the common practices that oc-
cur within green areas in informal settings. The
first step they take is to divide green infrastructu-
re into three categories based on the type of
use made of it: first is private use, thus directly
dependent on one or more housing cells but
still enclosed and not accessible to all; use as a
“common good,” which is easily represented by
free-access beaches; clubs/toll goods, which like
the previous ones are well represented by bea-
ches but in this case for a fee; and finally, among
these green infrastructures, there are also reali-
ties of multi-functionality.
Peculiar to these realities, is the stigma they carry
with them, if as mentioned earlier green space is
sacrificed in favor of new land for informal hou-
sing, residents also view negatively the excessive
presence of tree planting, as it is quite common
for them to fall creating inconvenience and da-
mage to homes. But at the same time, other citi-
zens declare suffering in the lack of public open
spaces, claiming that “Now you can’t even find
space to dry your clothes. Before the open spa-

19
ces made our life easier and cheaper because
we were able to grow food to supplement our
diets, and reduce expenses on groceries. The be-
ach increased the air circulated; now there is too
much congestion and air cannot pass through.”
This awareness was then also found in active
practices toward the urban reality, these infor-
mal areas being full of adjustments and adap-
tation to the consequences of this unplanned
high density, whether by the common people,
the Community-Based Organizations or finally
by external actors. This shows how all the people
affected by these situations, are particularly sen-
sitive, in terms of actually changing the environ-
ment negatively, than helping the local popula-
tion. This brings us to the fundamental concept
for the purpose of this research, in a complex city
like Dar Es Salaam, the design of spaces, mainly
the public ones, should be on the large scale at
the strategic level and due to the know-how and
knowledge of the weaknesses of the place by
the population, and bottom-up when it comes
to detailing and designing the specific areas and
functions. Using a quote from the paper, “Throu-
gh a more considered and inclusive form of ur-
ban planning, green structures in and around
low-income settlements can find a place in de-
velopment initiatives. Poor communities must
be included in such processes, so that their local
knowledge, enthusiasm and expertise can be ef-
ficiently harnessed. We have called this creative
urban planning.”

20
material of THe Swahili city
The identification of the typical Swahili town
starts mainly with identifying what a Swahili hou-
se looks like, being the first cell from which it is
composed and having a distinctiveness distin-
guishable at first glance. The design of a house
of this kind, tends to be uniform in size and pro-
portion within it, it consists of a main body with
a hallway grafted into it, with a varying number
of rooms on either side, within these spaces of
can be found storerooms, areas for cleaning, the
kitchen separated from the main body by a wal-
led courtyard. These types of dwellings, obser-
ved as a group, form a uniform and particularly
organic mass. In general, on the other hand, in
addition to the classic house system, other bu-
ildings that can be inserted into Swahili culture
are mosques, mandrasa, a type of school that
can be asserted to Arab-Islamic culture, and, fi-
nally, maskans, which are another type of typical
housing always connected to Arab culture. Fasci-
nating about this subdivision is how the Swahili
culture has managed to embrace and integrate
different cultural expressions within common
urban objects, making the perceived environ-
ment a mix of styles and traditions. Fortifying this
cultural mixite is the presence of larger, generally
multi-family and multi-story dwellings, examples
of these objects can be traced in the ancient ci-
ties of Kilwa and Lamu. At the same time, howe-
ver, while they are part of the history and cultu-
re, they are not properly ascribed to the Swahili
culture, although they have coexisted with the
previous ones listed in their history.
As is clear both from history and from this brief
paragraph, Swahili culture, though complex and
vast, has always been accustomed to accepting
diverse populations within it: both from the be-
ginning of history with the influences of tribes
from the confined countries, with then the rise of
the Arabs and finally the arrival of the European
colonialists, Swahili culture has in part maintai-
ned its traditions but simultaneously integrated
and absorbed what they found of interest and
useful, the latter concept being fundamental in
this country.
Returning instead to traditional Swahili houses,
they are generally built from “coral rag,” mixtures
made of earth within wooden structures and pla-
stered with lemon to make them more resistant
to weathering and thus more durable over time.
Past the vertical elements we have the roofs,
which are generally built with the classic Makuti
technique, which is based on coconut, palm, or
banana leaf roofing but then, to efficiently close
the roof, closed with mangrove poles, mboriti
and always coral stone. Fortifying the thesis, we
are helped by the presence of the ancient mo-
sques and buildings, which to this day consist of
How to recognized it

21
coral rag masonry, covered with coral stone and
with lime trim. A practical peculiarity in the use
of stone is of mburiti is that they themselves de-
termine the internal division of spaces, generally
having a maximum extension of four meters.
Moving away from the scale, the other typical
element of this culture is the tendency to densi-
fy spaces, with winding and sinuous streets that
run through residential neighborhoods and,
again with a view to functionality and efficiency
of spaces, open into public squares that, as men-
tioned earlier, are used both as gathering places
and as spaces for work, as well as for household
chores. As these typical dwellings are generally
composed of the materials listed above, their
strength vertically is particularly limited, which
is precisely why any necessary increase in the
square footage of a house occurs primarily ho-
rizontally
materials of THe Swahili city
How to recognized it

22
The mud Plaster
The starting point for this section is fundamental:
finding written documents and specifics on how
historic buildings used vernacular architecture is
virtually impossible. This is because of a simple
common sociological factor of the know-how
acquired over time typical of developing coun-
tries, knowledge is passed down orally, from
professional to professional, or, for elements
that must not be forgotten or have specific cha-
racteristics that must be followed, at best the
very notes of the professional builder are used.
From the point of view of an outside observer
who is not in contact with this form of culture,
the only way one can learn, understand, and in a
future reuse these techniques is through the use
of materials such as historical and original do-
cuments of how these objects were produced,
laboratory analysis of materials, research of raw
materials on site, and finally the key element that
led these populations to have a marked practi-
cal manual skill, experimentation. Peculiar howe-
ver to the history of the Central and East African
states, is the use and acceptance of foreigners
in the construction of buildings, among them,
thanks to the study material I am using, we have
a Ukrainian immigrant and fortunately he wor-
ked, learned and wrote down how to produce
this specific material. Starting from the base, the
basic material for these techniques is a mixture
of earth, which inside the building is applied on
Fig.14 Old Mud Plastering and bricks in a wood frame

23
The mud Plaster
diagonal or horizontal lines of wood that make
the structure, while outside directly on the logs
that make the structure; of course, when for the
application, creation and processing of it, being
entirely natural and non-toxic, hands and feet
are used.
Now, thanks to this written testimony, I was able
to get a good recipe for recreating mud and ear-
th walls; for this reason, this chapter will be an
entire citation to the document, being in itself
already very clear and specific.
“I. Materials
A. Yellow clay
1. Use clay containing 60 percent sand and 40
percent clay, as determined by a sediment test.
If there is too much clay, add sand. If there is too
much sand, find another source of clay.
2. If possible, use clay that has been excavated
and allowed to sit over the winter so that frost
action can break up the clay.
3. To prepare for use, sift clay through a 1/2-inch
wire mesh to remove large rocks and chunks of
debris.
4. Always dry mix sand and clay before wetting.
B. Binder
1. Use binder consisting of wheat or rye straw
chopped into 2-inch lengths.
2. Alternate materials can also be used as binder:
wheat or rye chaff, animal dung, or hair.
II. Mixing
A. Mixing by Foot
1. To mix plaster, use a box 4’x8’x8” deep. Pla-
ce the clay in the box. Add water until the clay
is uniformly very thick. Several barefoot workers
stomp on the material. Several other workers
with shovels scrape the mud off the bottom of
the box and turn it over. At least four to six peo-
ple are needed for this work. If only four people
are used, reduce the size of the box.
2. The mud is the proper consistency when it
will not come off the shovel when the shovel is
turned over. The mud is ready when the shovel
has to be whacked against the side of the box to
release the mud.
3. To prepare binder, it is best to put it in a con-
Fig.15 Mud Plastering in a wood frame

24
tainer with water and let it soak for an hour.
Otherwise, if dry straw is added to the clay, the
straw will absorb water from the mud, leaving it
dry and crumbly. Water for the mixture can be
clean water or slough water, warm water or cold.
4. Binder should be of equal volume to the clay
mud.
5. The binder is added by sprinkling it over the
mud and stomping it into the clay mud. Binder
is added gradually until all of it has been added.
More water may have to be added or more clay.
The goal is to have the same consistency as the
original clay mud, e.g. clay and straw sticking to a
shovel when turned over.
C. Storing the Material
1. When the mud is not being used it should be
covered with a plastic covering to prevent eva-
poration.
2. A batch of clay mud should be used within
several hours of mixing or it will become too stiff
to work.
II. Application
A. Rough Coat
1. All surfaces to receive the mud should be
damp but not wet. This can be achieved by mi-
sting with a pump, using a bucket of water and
a brush, or by hosing. The purpose is to prevent
the log or wood surface from drawing the moi-
sture out of the clay mud and having it dry too
fast causing mud to fail to adhere to the logs.
2. A raggedy handful of clay is grasped and
thrown either underhand or overhand onto the
surface being plastered. (The mud is not shaped
into a mud ball before throwing at the wall.)
3. Mud is built up to the desired thickness. After
applying mud for about an hour, the applicators
should go back to the area where their work star-
ted and begin tamping the mud onto the wall
using the palms of their hands. An area is not re-
ady for tamping if “clay icicles” stick to the hand
as the clay is tamped (e.g. clay leaves a stippled
effect on the hands and wall). An area is ready for
tamping if the hand comes away dry but the clay
is still malleable.
4. A wall should not be started if it cannot be fini-
shed the same day. Cold joints (dry-clay/wet-clay
joints) are not desirable and should be avoided.
5. After tamping, the replastered area should be
draped with burlap or another heavy material to
prevent too rapid evaporation of the moisture in
the clay mud. Rapid moisture loss leads to severe
cracking of the mud plaster and often to poor
adhesion to the surface. The wall should be left
covered and allowed to dry for 8-10 days.
6. After the wall is uncovered there may be cracks
varying from hairline cracks to 1/2-inch cracks.
These do not present a problem unless there are
areas of loose plaster. Small cracks can be igno-
The mud Plaster

25
red as they will be filled in by the final coat. Large
cracks should be filled before applying the finish
coat.
B. Plaster Keys
1. If a log wall is being plastered with clay mud
on both sides, the mud should be applied to
both sides of the wall at the same time. This pro-
vides better bonding than trying to rewet plaster
that has already dried.
2. Other historical methods used to key mud
onto log walls include small hardwood wedges
driven into the logs, nails, or willow lath. For re-
storation work, lull-inch stucco mesh or sawn
wooden lath has also been used in conjunction
with damp-proofing details near ground level.
C. Finish Coat
1. Use clay consisting of 60 percent sand and 40
percent clay, mixed to a slurry with water.
2. Apply to a wall that has previously been lightly
misted (dampened).
3. Maximum thickness of the finish coat is 1/8
inch with 1/4 inch being desirable.
4. Apply by hand, scooping the slurry out of a
bucket and spreading it across the wall. Succes-
sive coats can be applied 2-3 hours apart. (The
slurry is very abrasive to workers’ hands.)
5. The finish coat does not need to be draped
with burlap.
6. On a log building that will not be painted on
the exterior, Hydrozo Clear Double 7 water repel-
lent can be used to prolong the life of the surfa-
ce and reduce maintenance costs.
7. If the building is to be painted or whitewa-
shed, the walls should be sized with shellac dilu-
ted with methyl hydrate (half and half).
A Current Specification
Peter Caron is correct when he states that writ-
ten specifications for indigenous historic mate-
rials are not available from contemporary sour-
ces. Much of the craft skills were passed from
generation to generation through the apprenti-
ce system or informally. However, in modern-day
conservation, it often is necessary to prepare
specifications for the purpose of public bidding,
and it falls to today’s practitioners to develop
contract documents from the verbal tradition.
A sample specification based on Mr. Caron’s de-
scription follows.
Part 1--General
1.01 Related Documents: Drawings and gene-
ral provisions of the contract, including general
conditions, supplementary conditions, and all
Division 1 (standard CSI format) Specification
sections apply to the work of this section.
1.02 Summary of Work: Extent of mud plaster re-
storation work is as shown on drawings and as
specified herein. The work includes, but is not li-
mited to: resurfacing exterior bake oven, relining
The mud Plaster

26
chimney, interior wall surfaces, exterior wall sur-
faces.
1.03 Related Work Described Elsewhere: Mason-
ry repair of bake oven and chimney; Epoxy con-
solidation of timber and logs; Dutchman repair
of logs; Consolidation of existing mud plaster;
Lime wash and lime paint.
1.04 Quality Assurance: Mud plaster work must
be performed by a skilled journeyman mason fa-
miliar with the materials and methods specified
herein. In acceptance or rejection of mud plaster
repairs, no allowance will be made for lack of skill
of the worker.
1.05 Submittals: The contractor shall submit the
following samples to the Architect prior to orde-
ring the materials or executing the work: Sedi-
mentation analysis of two samples each of exi-
sting mud plaster from the bake oven, chimney,
interior walls and exterior walls. Analysis to be
conducted by an independent material testing
laboratory. Sedimentation analysis of two sam-
ples each for the proposed clay, or clay/aggrega-
te mixture. One pound sample of each proposed
clay, for acceptance by Architect of color match.
Clay shall be matched to color chip number in
the Munsell (or Plochere) color system. One cu-
bic foot of proposed binder. Three square feet of
willow lathing, showing full range of sizes pro-
posed.
1.06 Test Panels: The contractor shall provide a
test panel area for each of the locations requiring
mud plaster repair as follows: One square foot on
the bake oven; One square foot inside the chim-
ney; 4’ by 4’ on the interior wall; Six lineal feet on
an exterior wall (between logs). Approved test
panels shall be retained and protected during
construction, and shall be the standard of com-
parison for the work.
1.07 Delivery, Storage and Handling: Store all
materials supplied under this section to prevent
damage from moisture, temperature, or other
source. Store clay off the ground and under co-
ver. Store binder in bales or enclosed boxes, off
the ground, and under cover. Store aggregate in
a manner that prevents contamination.
1.08 Acceptance of Surface and Working Con-
ditions:
A. Before commencing mud plaster repairs,
make certain that the surfaces are in sound con-
dition and properly prepared to receive the mud
plaster. No materials shall be applied if and when
unfavorable atmospheric conditions prevail whi-
ch could adversely affect the curing, texture or
adhesion of the plaster. If surface, atmospheric
or other conditions are found to be improper
for plastering, report such conditions to the Ar-
chitect at once and do not proceed until the
situation is corrected. Commencement of work
The mud Plaster

27
by the contractor in any given area shall be con-
strued to mean acceptance of such areas by the
Contractor.
B. Cold Weather Plastering: Cold weather is de-
fined as being a temperature below 40 degrees
F. or whenever atmospheric temperatures will
probably fall below this limit within 10 days (for
rough coat work) or 4 days (for finish coat work).
When placing mud plaster in cold weather, the
Contractor shall have on the job and ready to
install, adequate equipment for heating the
materials and for maintaining the proper tem-
peratures for the freshly placed plaster. Do not
use Salaamanders or open fires. Submit descrip-
tion of equipment and placement necessary to
maintain adequate temperatures for approval of
the Architect. Before placing the mud plaster on
any surface in cold weather, heat shall be ap-
plied to the surface such that ice, frost or snow
will be completely removed and the substrate is
at or above 40 degrees F. The use of salts, chemi-
cals, anti-freeze or other foreign materials in the
mix to lower the freezing point of the plaster is
strictly prohibited.
C. Hot Weather: Hot weather is defined as being
a temperature of 80 degrees F. and rising, or 85
degrees F. and falling. During hot weather, the
Contractor shall plan for prompt placement by
assuring an adequate number of personnel to
mix, handle, and place the mud plaster. The Con-
tractor shall provide adequate protection from
direct sunlight to allow for proper curing. The
plaster shall be covered with dampened burlap
held tight to the walls throughout the curing
process. Admixtures to delay the setting time
of the clay or to reduce evaporation shall not be
permitted.
Part 2 - Products
2.01 Mud Plaster Materials
A. Clay: Shall match the existing as closely as
possible in color and soil constituents as deter-
mined by sedimentation analysis. If the mined
sample contains too much clay, fine sand, coarse
sand and aggregate may be added to match the
original samples. If the mined sample contains
too much clay, it must be rejected. Clay shall be
sifted through a 1/2”x1/2” sieve to screen out
rocks and chunks of debris.
B. Aggregates: Clean natural bank silica sand, free
from excessive organic or deleterious matter. If
required to be mixed to the clay, aggregate shall
be selected so as to result in a clay/aggregate ra-
tio that matches the original mud plaster as de-
ter- mined by independent laboratory analysis.
C. Binder: Shall be wheat or rye straw, clean and
free of debris, chopped into 2” to 3” lengths. Al-
ternate material may be wheat or rye chaff, hog
hair, or horsehair, cut into 2” lengths.
The mud Plaster

28
D. Water: Clean, potable water, free from orga-
nic matter, chemicals, salts or other deleterious
substances.
2.02 Prohibited Materials
A. Cement: No cement shall be added to mud
plaster, used to coat surfaces prior to application
of plaster, or used to coat finished plaster surfa-
ces.
B. Bonding Agent: No bonding agent shall be
added to the water, mud plaster mixture, or ap-
plied to the surface prior to application of mud
plaster.
Part 3 - Execution
3.01 Removals: Remove all loose, deteriorated,
flaking plaster, all rotted substrate, and all pre-
vious cement repairs in all areas noted on the
drawings. During all removals, exercise care that
sound material is not damaged or disturbed. De-
teriorated plaster is defined as those areas of ori-
ginal plaster where the attachment to the sub-
strate has failed, or where the plaster is crumbly
to the touch and cannot be consolidated. Dete-
riorated masonry is defined as those areas where
the bricks are crumbly to the touch or where the
mortar has failed. Rotted substrate is defined as
lath which is water or insect damaged and has
lost its ability to support plaster. Deteriorated
timber, log, and plaster that has been consolida-
ted is to be retained in place.
3.02 Preparation Masonry Surfaces: Dampen ma-
sonry surfaces prior to applying rough coat. Use
a light spray; do not apply mud plaster if there is
sitting water. Plaster Surfaces: Cut areas of plaster
to be removed with a sharp knife to produce a
clean edge. Undercut edges of the repair area to
a slight dovetail. Lightly spray the sound plaster
so that it is damp, but do not soak. Lath, Timber
and Log Surfaces: Exposed lath and wood surfa-
ces shall be pre-wetted prior to the application
of the rough coat. Replacement lath shall be se-
cured with galvanized nails, and in a pattern and
spacing that matches the existing.
3.03 Mixing: Mixing may be done by machine or
using the traditional “foot” technique. Commen-
cement of application by the Contractor shall be
construed to mean acceptance by the Contrac-
torofthequalityandcompletenessofthemixing.
Do not mix more mud plaster than can be used
within several hours. If it starts to set up, discard;
do not dampen and reuse. Machine mixing shall
be done using a rubber-bladed mortar mixer.
The mixer shall have a capacity twice the size of
the amount of plaster to be mixed. Begin by ad-
ding 11/2 cubic feet of dry binder and 2 gallons
of water to the mixer. Mix several minutes Next
add 11/2 cubic feet of the clay to the mixer. Con-
tinue to add clay and binder in equal amounts
until the desired quantity has been mixed. Mix is
The mud Plaster

29
ready when the clay in the mixer starts to form a
crust on the lip of the drum or when a shovel-full
of the mixture will not fall off when the shovel is
turned up- side down.
3.04 Application:
A. Rough Coat: Collect a handful of the clay/
binder mud and gently but firmly push it against
the surface to be plastered. Do not shape the
plaster into a ball first; just use it loose. Build up
the mud to the desired thickness (architect to
specify as determined by the original samples in
situ). After an hour, return to the area where work
started and tamp the surface using the palms of
hands. An area is ready for tamping if the hand
comes away dry but the clay is still malleable. If
the clay leaves a stippled residue on the hands, it
is not ready to be tamped. Wait 10 minutes and
try again. Where a smoother finish is desired (see
Finish Schedule), use a small cross-grained wood
float. An area should not be started if it cannot
be completed in the same day. Cold joints shall
be avoided. After tamping, the plaster shall be
cured for 8-10 days. Drape the replastered areas
with damp burlap or heavy tarp to retard moi-
sture evaporation. Keep the burlap damp throu-
ghout the curing process. Where a wall is to be
plastered on both sides (see Finish Schedule), the
mud shall be applied to both sides at the same
time. Large cracks shall be filled before applying
the final coat. Use the same mix as specified for
the rough coat.
B. Finish Coat: Using the clay without binder, mix
to a slurry with water. Pre-wet the wall and apply
the finish coat by hand to a thickness of 1/8” to
1/4”. A successive coat can be applied after 2-3
hours. Coat or finish as specified in other sections.
3.05 Adjust and Clean:
A. Remove excess mud plaster from adjacent
surfaces using warm water and a soft bristle bru-
sh. Do not damage finished surfaces of plaster.
Do not flood surfaces with water.
B. Any mud plaster repair that does not match
the approved sample or does not result in a con-
sistent and acceptable appearance shall be con-
sidered defective. The Contractor shall replace
all such defective work to the satisfaction of the
Architect at no additional cost to the Owner.”
(“Making Mud Plaster”, Peter Caron and Michael
F. Lynch)
The mud Plaster

30
The makuti roof
The Makuti construction technique is one of the
traditional forms of thatched roofs that we can
generally find in Sub Saharan Africa, Southeast
Asia, and in some traditional constructions of
Pre-Columbian civilizations such as the Aztecs
and Maya. Given its oral learning nature, being
handed down from worker to worker, as well as
being found more in areas of the world where it
is needed to be used, thus like the elements pre-
viously discussed, more functional than aesthe-
tic, there is little if any literature on the subject.
For this reason, in this section I will mainly try
to outline the general characters and, throu-
gh field surveys, interviews, I will attempt
to describe to the best of my ability the hi-
story, techniques and applications, as well
as technical features, of this methodology.
The first element to be addressed is how the
composition of materials: being a structure en-
tirely based on readily available local materials,
the purpose being to insulate houses as quickly
and cheaply as possible, the roofing that covers
the structure does not use only one type of ma-
terial, but rather uses different materials depen-
ding on the location; among these we can find
banana leaves in Southeast Asia while, looking
more specifically at North African realities, as well
as Sub-Saharan realities instead, the most com-
mon materials that are used are the leaves of the
coconut tree or in general all leaves belonging
to the Arecaceae family, thus all tree coverings
endowed with structured foliage with a central
body and separate segments, which are easily
described with the fishbone structure.
The reason for this specific material is the fac-
tor that the foliage, whether dry or wet, is easily
worked by braid systems, which block, knot and,
when overlaid on several layers, cover entirely
from sun, water and wind.
However, although in some examples still wet le-
aves are used, the original technique involves the
drying of the leaves, which has a variable period
Fig.16 Wood frame and starting point for the Makuti roof

31
The makuti roof
depending on the climate and must be comple-
ted in the correct manner: the leaves should nei-
ther be too wet nor too dry, since in the former
casetheycouldrotandinthelattertheycouldrot.
Turning instead to the structure that supports
the whole thing, since the Makuti roof is in any
case particularly light and therefore at risk of
being destroyed by the weather or even simply,
at high risk of collapse, the construction tech-
nique behind the thatched roof is based on a
structure, a wooden frame, then embedded sti-
cks that can either call up a simple quadrangular
structure parallel to the shape of the roof, thus
composed of several squares or rectangles that,
added together can cover the entire roof area, or
with the dry foliage resting directly on a structu-
re inclined at forty-five degrees in comparison to
the roof or perimeter wall.
Thus, as can already be imagined, the woo-
den structure or frame that supports the enti-
re roof is based on two quite distinct bodies:
the actual roof structure and the structure on
which the leaves are resting, which will cle-
arly be lighter and interlocking, tied to or re-
sting on the larger and more solid structure.
Turning now to the more technical aspects, they
clearly have both advantages and disadvanta-
ges; these can be summarized as insulation, eco-
nomy, durability, and construction techniques.
The first category is one of the main advantages
that a solution of this type can offer: being ba-
sed on the use of dry foliage woven, pressed and
resting on top of a structure, it has the great ad-
vantage of allowing enough air to pass through
so that the interior does not get moldy, clearly if
well produced, but it insulates completely from
sound, heat and, as we shall see later, if well incli-
ned even entirely from rain; an element that in
humid areas of the world such as Tanzania du-
ring the rainy season, can be destructive.
Turning now to the second family of advanta-
Fig.17 The dry leaf pattern

32
ges and disadvantages, economics is the other
element that, with insulation, makes this tech-
nique useful and particularly practical in less af-
fluent parts of the world: since it is a technique
based on the use of local materials, the first ele-
ment we must not forget is the easy availability
of raw materials, wood, bamboo, palm leaves
and ropes made from natural fibers are all ma-
terials that can be found or are easy to produce
without spending a lot of money, in the case of
particularly pronounced know-how in the field
at no cost, and, as we will later see more in the
construction techniques, up to this stage the te-
chnique does not require any special gifts or skil-
ls but only common sense and organized work.
The penultimate aspect, on the other hand, is
the one that at its core possesses the most criti-
cal issues. The durability of these roofs is a com-
bination of several factors, the technical skill of
the builder, the quality with which the materials
have been treated, and how it is implemented in
the overall construction.
The first element is probably the main aspect, a
poorly pressed thatched roof could be gutted by
the wind or suffer water infiltration, while in the
opposite case, an overly pressed roof could suf-
fer from little air exchange and undergo mold at-
tack that would clearly affect its total lifespan, or,
in less severe cases, the builder will have to take
special care and more frequent maintenance.
The other fundamental element that we must
not forget is the greatest danger that one could
run into with this type of roofing, fire. Since they
are made of dry wood and foliage, the huge risk
of these elements is that they will catch fire, and
should this occur, the related risk is the speed of
heat expansion. This last factor is obviously diffi-
cult to prevent in case it happens due to natural
causes, such as excessive heat or the wind car-
rying small sparks in the air however, as these ca-
ses are not particularly likely, the first precaution
that will have to be taken is to keep these roofs
away from extreme sources of heat such as co-
The makuti roof
Fig.18 Wood frame and ending results

33
The makuti roof
oking fires, electrical outlets that are not fully in-
sulated and of course, keep away from smokers.
Finally, the element that will have to be most
reasoned within the compound instead is what
shape the roofs should be. As already mentio-
ned, the shape of the structure affects all the risks
and benefits that this technique can bring, the
key element too, for example, having insulation
from water and not to have risks of stagnation
of the aforementioned, is the inclination of the
structure of forty-five degrees, so, as already a
mental image suggests, one will have to either
give a useful and effective shape to the roofs, or
the area covered in proportion to the vertical di-
mension will never be enough.

34
Participation
The concept of networks within urbanism is ba-
sed on the relationship between actors in the
territories, endowed with interests ranging from
economic to community to what we might call
personal.Thefirst,whichisrelativelysimpletoun-
derstand, works in different directions, the main
ones being: the relationship that exists between
an economic activity and its ability to attract cu-
stomers, which is obviously closely related to the
functionality and aesthetics of the place; as well
as the possibility by large companies to invest in
a city, automatically acquiring power within the
latter, making a simple example, a large land ow-
ner will always have direct political power that
will influence all the choices made in the areas
adjacent to his properties. The second, on the
other hand, relates mainly to the interest of pu-
blic administrations, such as citizens, to improve
the perceived environment for themselves but
also for the city, good examples are the practices
of civic crowdfunding, a new urban investment
tool. Finally, we have what is defined as self-in-
terest, such as the desire on the part of citizens
to improve the environment surrounding their
homes, whether it be through the addition of
a simple service such as a parking space, to the
request for more green areas in which to spend
their leisure time.
As the division already suggests, another distin-
ction that can be made between these types
of interests relates to the size of the project or
proposal: when we talk about private compa-
nies investing in the city, we are generally talking
about large urban transformations, example in
Dar Es Salaam are the various buildings financed
by Vodafone, such as the office tower and the
future hospital; the second of course is very re-
lative, generally when we refer to the public we
are talking about large scale plans and projects,
however, in the current situation of local politics,
the actions identified are mainly punctual and
regulatory, consequently the tangible effects
are mainly on a medium to large scale; finally we
have the element on which the research tries
to give a strong emphasis, the informal or for-
mal actions but carried out by citizens or small
organizations, which clearly are always those of
smaller size both physical and economic, howe-
ver they have that intrinsic value that only a citi-
zen can give, the vision from the inside and not
lowered from above.
For this reason, when we talk about the use of a
network, the first question we must ask is related
to “who are the interest-bearing figures?” and
then continue with “in what kind of interest does
their figure fall?” and finally, “how could all this
bring an advantage to the project itself?”
Using the netowrk

35
This type of approach brings immediate advan-
tages towards the project, among the main ones
that necessarily need to be mentioned are the
design of a service, object or element that is cer-
tainly highly demanded by the population, whi-
ch brings as a consequential advantage, safety in
use. Trivially, can we call a public square such if it
has never been used? Does a residential building
deserve this name if it will never be inhabited?
These questions immediately should suggest
the key point with which the research began,
can a project, whether small or large, be discon-
nected from place? Can the same object be pla-
ced in two different realities and have the same
function and value? These are questions that are
obviously unanswerable, nowadays different
currents of thought have tried to make sense of
it but the reality of the facts is that there is no dry
answer but only a multitude of solutions, howe-
ver, what has certainly transpired from the rese-
arch is that, unlike more affluent realities, where
disservices and urban issues are not on the basic
needs, places like Dar Es Salaam suffer from basic
criticalities, an element that can never be igno-
red, whether it is for a bar or whether it is for a
green space.
participation
using the network

36
Participation
Reaching this point, the goal is to ask “what can
Art in Tanzania offer the local community?”,
“what categories of people will use this place?”
and subsequently, “what are the needs and ha-
bits of these people?” The first question asked
clearly refers to the mission of the NGO, which is
clearly made explicit: the elements, in brief, that
Art in Tanzania offers to the local community are
related to teaching children from fragile cate-
gories, helping women in need, and finally how
to approach climate change in an underserved
context. Since all three points are related to the
community, the first concept to be worked on
is the creation of a space that works in the di-
rection of the community, thus a space that is
flexible, useful but most importantly, that is par-
ticipatory in its realization from the beginning.
Beyond that, an element that we cannot exclude
is the economic availability of the actor, which
can be remedied by using local materials, a fac-
tor that also facilitates the pursuit of eco-sustai-
nable criteria.
For this reason, the logical process that should
lead to a useful and shared solution must start
from the large scale by asking “what functions are
missing in the area?”, then carve out more preci-
sely within the area of interest with “how to fit
the functions defined as useful for the place with
the available space?” and finally, taking a look at
the lower scale, then at the selection of objects
and materials, “are there materials and objects
that can be produced by the users themselves?”
With a quick glance, one of the missing elements
that immediately jumps out at the eye is a spa-
ce for teaching and specialized gathering, with
items that can both be used individually and in
groups; the idea arises from the strong presen-
ce offered by the “Busungu” school, from which
many children, partly intrigued and partly eager
to learn from their “Musungo” friends, leave at
the end of class and come here to gather to do
homework, play and gather. This element alrea-
dy offers an interesting cue about the temporal
division of use, the spaces that will be included
then will have to respond to this multifunctiona-
lity punctuated by the hours of the day. This is
also because, during much of the day, the boys
who work as interns spend much of their time in
the gravitational center represented by the cen-
tral patio, or core area of the place. An element
related to this dynamic is the marked manual
dexterity that interns often have: small appliance
repairs, design proposals for solar ovens, simple
manual labor such as gardening and the like are
common practices observable in this NGO.
Following this logic and thanks to Hadija’s sup-
port through information and proposals, one of
the key elements found between the theoretical
Enhance the local identities throw the needs

37
research and the design proposal that will fol-
low this theoretical part, is the use of greenery
as a tool rather than a decoration, each element
needs to be useful, so the need is to plant food,
plants with natural benefits, and perhaps plants
that can also offer building materials.
Now, given the NGO’s proposed mission, the-
se spaces will need to follow simple criteria: to
be community-based, functionally flexible, and
produced with local techniques and materials
by the users themselves; for these reasons, the
first step to begin the design proposal will be a
temporal and functional breakdown of activities.

A
The ﬁrst operation will be to create a
useful space for building and making
tools, as well as a ﬂexible space
depending on the uses, which will be
mainly three:
I) Creative workshop
II) Space for learning
III) Place for recreation
B
At the same time, because of the
time required by the plants, plants
needed to obtain building or useful
materials, such as:
I) Palms
II) Timber trees
Phase 1
Theoretical phase
aDAPTATION
38
THE COMMUNITY BASED project
The general timeline
Thanks to the information gathered in the pre-
vious chapters, we have understood some fun-
damental concepts: the know-how present in
the area is particularly pronounced when it co-
mes to local practices, consequently the goal of
the proposal is not so much to have the interns
teach, but to learn from those who know these
practices inside out, thus the local population;
the public spaces that find the most success in
this locality, are those conceived and designed
in community, being the city of Dar Es Salaam in
small, and Tanzania in large scale, perfect exam-
ples of how efficient and effective space is sha-
ped by citizens; another key point is related to
the multifunctionality of spaces, unlike realities
of low-density housing, where usable surfaces
are almost always available, here the reality of
the facts has bent the population, making them
become maximum exponents of multifunctio-
nality; last key point is the usefulness of these
places as of the elements that make up the spa-
ce, whether they are furniture or plants, the local
population sees urban objects as useful and not
useful, ignoring the concept of aesthetics if not
functional to something else. Therefore, thanks
to the previous research, from this chapter on, I
will try to outline a clear methodology on how to
create the spaces asked and proposed by those
who live this place, following the various steps
outlined in the general timeline.

Phase 2 Phase 3
C
Thanks to the creative workshop,
construction of the GreenHouse and
the Makuti insulation materials can
begin, using both materials and tools
produced in the Compound and
those obtained from local actors
C
Having obtained the space for the
crafting and the greenhouse, one can
ﬁnally start with planting edible or
useful plants, but still needing more
care
39
THE COMMUNITY BASED project
The general timeline

40
THE COMMUNITY BASED PROject
The project proposal
Having arrived at this point, the goal of the rese-
arch is realized in the opening of a new project
for the NGO, which will be mainly based on
the design, construction, and implementation
of new spaces for social gathering, which will
have to respond to the actual needs of the pla-
ce, in the aspect of material selection, the actual
form of the spaces and clearly the furniture.
To achieve all this, as already pointed out in the
research for materials, both Mud Plastering and
Makuti style are techniques that require mainly
practice but, at the same time, a first approach
through a teaching professional, the first step
will be to identify a specialist who can teach how
to produce these materials.
Thanks to the visit I made to the city of Baga-
moyo, I had the opportunity both to discover
a different form of urbanity from the context of
Dar Es Salaam, and to discover the vitality and
dynamism of the place: chatting with the local
people, they showed me both the events that
the city hosts, such as the event that draws many
tourists to the city every June on an annual ba-
sis, and the work they do. Focusing now on this
last aspect, the people we were lucky enough to
meet are a small community of artists and arti-
sans, specializing in sculptures and paintings, as
well as, however, in traditional construction te-
chniques, both Makuti and Mud Plastering.
Fascinated by this aspect, was the time when
they explained to me that, these kinds of tech-
niques, are both handed down from practitioner
to student and from masters to students within
the public school: incredibly amazing about Ba-
gamoyo is just that, young students have to learn
how to work with traditional materials, an activi-
ty that obviously brings a double advantage, on
the one hand they will always know how to deal
with the practical problems of life, being general-
ly gifted with a strong manual dexterity, and on
the other hand, they will always carry with them
a big piece of their own culture and origin; clear-
ly, this last factor is a huge advantage economi-
cally speaking, manual practices in the Western
World being both highly valued and well paid.
So, as mentioned earlier, we were fortunate to
get to know professionals and, thanks to the
support of Team Leader Hadija, I had the op-
portunity to assist and learn the technique
they described as most effective for Makuti ro-
ofing. In addition to that, the artist who helped
me in this endeavor also told me about her
other skills in working with palm leaves, such
as making hats, backpacks, chairs, and brooms.
Now, in the view that both the space and ma-
terials of this project are to be made with con-

41
currence between interns and local people, the
proposal I want to bring is based on the establi-
shment of a small network that can facilitate the
creation of a workshop space for the creation
of tools, furniture, and materials for thermal and
acoustic insulation. The person I feel proposes to
teach these practices, as to help future interns in
the work is called Idd Mnayamili, who is one of
the artists in the workshop found in Bagamoyo.
He, who is a man who is very proud of the hi-
story and culture of his country, has a keen gift
for teaching, so keen that he overcomes even
the small frictions that may arise from the fact
that both of us are not native English speakers.
Fig.19 Me and Idd Mnayamili
The project proposal

74mq
45mq
25mq
20mq
22mq
700mq
100mq
40mq
18mq
58mq
44mq
490mq
50mq
65mq
102mq
41,5mq
19mq 33mq
42mq
36mq
82mq
42
The Actual Situation
Concluding this project is the representation
of the changes that will take place as a result of
energy efficiency using the Makuti technique.
As can be easily seen, in the schematic on the
first page, there is an axonometric representa-
tion of the compound area and auxiliary buildin-
gs, such as the dormitory rooms at the bottom,
the kitchen, and the bar. In order to show the
elevation, without losing the schematic effect of
the drawing, I chose to use a black color for the
walls facing the hypothetical shaded side.
Finally, in red, I chose to represent the ele-
ments that will be either replaced or impro-
ved over time through the Makuti technique.
Clearly, using the local perspective, amply highli-
ghted in the antecedent research, waste mate-
rials may be reused or sold in a circular philo-
sophy that is characteristic of the place.
Instead, looking at the next page, you can see
how I have exemplified the possible replace-
ment steps in order not to overburden daily life

43
UnityMeasures
Total Surface 5735 smq
Covered Surface 841 smq
Uncovered and not Permeable Surface 4359
smq
smq
Roof Surface 470,5
Weight Alluminium Sheet 1~1,2
Material Disposal 470,5~564,6
General information
Roof Information
kg
kg/sqm
33 days
760 Leaf
143 sqm ca.
31 days
744 Leaf
143 sqm ca.
31 days
752 Leaf
144 sqm ca.
55 days
1310 Leaf
252 sqm ca.
42 days
1001 Leaf
192,5 sqm ca.
Data and Phases proposal

74 sqm
45 sqm
25 sqm
20 sqm
22 sqm
700 sqm 100 sqm
40 sqm
18 sqm
58 sqm
44 sqm
490 sqm
189 sqm
63 sqm
60 sqm
83 sqm
192,5 sqm
72 sqm
48,5 sqm
96 sqm
74,3 sqm
44
The Future enviroment
With the replacement and innovation phases of
the roofs completed, clearly the reality we will
face will be changed, both in physical terms,
since, on the one hand, the roofing will change
the quality of life through efficiency and pure ae-
sthetics, and on the other hand, in the hope that
an efficient network can be created between in-
terns and local people equipped with the know-
how to work with local materials and techniques.
This will obviously bring direct and indirect be-
nefits, from new knowledge shared to new pro-
fessionalism incorporated into the organization.
In conclusion, since this is a project based on
the selection of efficient materials, the necessary
conclusion is the exemplification of the mate-
rials needed, the time required to make them,
and the number of items that will need to be
enameled.

45
1m
1m
1 Leaf
20 minutes
1 Leaf Block
UnityMeasures
Time
Time
Roof Surface 878,3smq 20 min/person
Leaf Block(1m*1m) 5,2leaf 91343,2 min/person
Total 4567,16 leaf 1522,387 h/person
190,2983 day/person
visual inspection nn nn
cleaninginspection nn nn
extraordinaryreplacement nn nn
UnityMeasures Time
Roof Surface 878,3smq 20 min/person
Leaf Block(1m*1m) 5,2leaf 91343,2 min/person
Total 4567,16 leaf 1522,387 h/person
190,2983 day/person
Construction
YearlyMaintenance
Total ReplacementEvery10Years
Materials and Maintenance
Fig.20 Schematic view of the material
needed for one leaf block

46
Bibliography
How Public Space is Used in Ancient Cities: The Case of Songo Mnara, a Medieval Swahili
City in Tanzania.
Jeffrey Fleisher, Department of Anthropology
Climate change and declining levels of green structures: Life in informal
settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Manoj Roya, Riziki Shemdoeb, David Hulmec, Nicholaus Mwagenib, Alex Gougha
Urbanization and Its Impacts to Food Systems and Environmental Sustainability in Ur-
ban Space: Evidence from Urban Agriculture Livelihoods in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Wakuru Magigi
Social Production of Space: “Lived Space” of Informal Livelihood Operators; the Case of
Dares Salaam City Tanzania.
Nelly John Babere
The Emerging Metropolis: A history of Dar es Salaam, circa 1862-2000
James R. Brennan and Andrew Burton
Urban planning historical review of masterplans and the way toward sasustainable city:
Dar Es Salaam,Tanzania.
Linda Lazaro Petern, YuzhenYang
Creating urban communities at Kilwa Kisiwani, Tanzania, AD 800-1300
Stephanie Wynne-Jones
Interpreting Medieval to Post-Medieval Seafaring in South East Tanzania Using 18th- to
20th-Century Charts and Sailing Directions.
Edward Pollard
NG’AMBO TUITAKAYO: RECONNECTING THE SWAHILI CITY Antoni Scholtens Folkers,
Muhammad Juma Muhammad, Iga Perzyna, Marie Morel, Abdalla Rashid, Berend van
der Lans “What makes a Swahili city?”

47
Bibliography
“Making Mud Plaster”. Peter Caron and Michael F. Lynch

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