Urban Economics - city models - Ain shams university.pdf

Urban economics
City models
Dr. Mennatullah Hendawy
2022, Ain Shams University

How are the slides organized?
SOURCE
Extra
Information

Agenda
● Urban, Urban growth, and Urbanisation
● Theory, model, pattern
● Father of economics, history and sociology
● City models
● Example theories (brief)
● Example patterns (brief)

1.Urban, Urban growth,
and Urbanisation

What is Urban?
https://prezi.com/rk8al3scycg4/urban-growth-concepts-theories-trends-and-policy-response/

http://lumengeo.weebly.com/causes-and-consequences-of-urbanisation.html
Urban growth and urbanisation

Urbanisation
https://www.whitecase.com/insight-our-thinking/accelerating-change-smart-city-smart-society
https://study.com/academy/lesson/urban-population-growth-and-compact-development.html
According to the United Nations (2001) World
Population Prospects Revision Report,
“as 1950, 30% of the world’s population lived in
urban areas. By the year 2030, 60%
of the world’s population will live in cities”

Issues about urbanisation
Dr. Sami Afifi’s Lectures

Some of the advantages of urbanisation
1. Technology and Infrastructure: There is an enhancement in technology and infrastructure as
more resources join in to build and contribute.
2. Transport and communication: It gives better facility in carrying things from one place to another.
Hence, it improves transport services, including communication with varied people from different
walks of life as there is a mix of cultures and ethnicities from across the country.
3. Nation’s growth: Population moving from one place to another impacts the GDP (Gross Domestic
Product) as their standard of living transforms accordingly.
https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/society/what-is-urbanisation-know-about-the-advantages-and-disadvantages

Push and pull factors for cities
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwtqnbk/revision/1#:~:text=Push%20factors%20are%20things%20that,attract%20people%20to%20a%20city.
The population of cities usually changes in one of two ways:
1. Natural increase (or decrease) - this is the difference between the number of births and the
number of deaths.
2. Migration - this is the movement of people into or out of the city.
More and more people are leaving rural areas and moving to cities. This is called rural to urban
migration. People move because of push and pull factors.

The push and pull definitions are as follows:
Push factors are things that make people want
to leave rural areas and pull factors are the
things that attract people to a city.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwtqnbk/revision/1#:~:text=Push%20factors%20are%20things%20that,attract%20people%20to%20a%20city
https://www.emigration.link/push-pull-factors-urbanization.htm

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwtqnbk/revision/1#:~:text=Push%20factors%20are%20things%20that,attract%20people%20to%20a%20city
https://www.emigration.link/push-pull-factors-urbanization.htm
Push factors
● unemployment
● lower wages
● crop failure
● poor living conditions
● poor health and education services
● few facilities
● natural disasters
● civil war
Pull factors
● more jobs
● higher wages
● better living conditions
● better education and health
services
● better facilities
● less chance of natural
disasters

Suburbanization
Suburbanization is
a term used to
describe the growth
of areas on the
fringes of major
cities.
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Introduction_to_Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/17%3A_Population_and_Urbanization/17.05
%3A_Urban_Problems_and_Policy/17.5A%3A_Suburbanization

Urbanisation and economics
https://prezi.com/rk8al3scycg4/urban-growth-concepts-theories-trends-and-policy-response/

Watch later:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4s25rmTfvAk

Watch later: Google Timelapse: Urban Explosion |
TIME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqUSo2hstHI

2. Urban economics theories
vs./ and models, patterns

Models can be described as theories with a
more narrowly defined scope of explanation; a
model is descriptive, whereas a theory is
explanatory as well as descriptive.
Frankfort-Nachmias C, Nachmias D. Research Methods in the Social Sciences. London: Arnold; 1996. In
https://implementationscience.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13012-015-0242-
0#:~:text=Models%20can%20be%20described%20as,well%20as%20descriptive%20%5B29%5D.

Models and theories
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=81&v=lYHy2XLa4u0
&feature=emb_logo

Why Models and theories
theories and conceptual models have been
developed to explain why economic activities tend
to locate where they do.
https://courses.planetizen.com/course/location-theory

Sample of urban economic models
1. Concentric zone model
2. Sector model
3. Multiple-nuclei model

Sample of urban economics theories
● Bid rent theory
● Central place theory
● Economic base theory
● Concentric zone theory
● The Radial sector theory
● Multiple nuclei theory
● Growth poles Theory
● Human Ecology Trend
● Communication Theory
● Jefferson and Zipf Bases
● Cellular Autometa
● Space Syntax
● Agricultural land rent theory J.H. von Thünen 1826

Sample of urban economics patterns
Linear settlement Grid plan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_settlement and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_plan and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_city_(Soria_design)
Linear city (Soria
design)

Extra links
● https://pediaa.com/difference-between-model-and-theory/
● https://www.geographycasestudy.com/urban-land-use-patterns-and-
models/#Model_versus_theory_what%E2%80%99s_the_difference?

Father of economics,
history and sociology
Wikipedia

Ibn Khaldun. Founder of
Sociology, Economics
and More
The first to develop “important theories of historical
analysis” according
to ,ictionary of -orld istory.
https://www.reddit.com/r/islam/comments/v75bii/ibn_khaldun_founder_of_sociology_economics_and/
https://www.academia.edu/13106532/Ibn_Khaldun_Lecture

Mugaddimah
http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/Muqaddimah/
● A comprehensive history of the world
● Laid out a remarkably innovative theory of human
civilization.
● Its heart lies a theory of cyclical social change based
on the concept of “asabiya.”
● The term asabiya connotes social cohesion, a group
feeling that constitutes the lifeforce of human
civilization.
● the Muqaddimah was a forerunner of several fields of
modern social science—including historiography,
sociology, and social psychology—to which it offered a
useful vocabulary of concepts.

Muqaddimah
http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/Muqaddimah/
● Ibn Khaldun highlights a dynamic tension between sedentary
and nomadic cultures.
● Nomadic groups experience a potent form of asabiya, as the
unforgiving environment of the desert demands mutual
responsibility and community-based social structures.
> Asabiya drives these groups towards power, leading them
to establish royal authority and statehood in urban settings.
> States require taxation to fill growing material needs and
support political institutions.
> After some generations, the society becomes enamored
with the coddling of sedentary life and descends into
decadence.
> As the pursuit of luxuries and personal glory increases,
people become alienated from the rulers and from one
another.
> The loss of cohesion in those societies makes way for a
new group with greater asabiya, and the cycle begins again.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gdTlMftEIhs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYu1-ijL_go

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
F6WDhv7FqfU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IudG9eGqUgI
Watch later

Extra links
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2UwnrZi_bFw
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1uJpUnxXXKs
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpL6Lqycvts
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1SCyLfR-ck8
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqvmMFJQtm0

Geographers have put together models of land use to
show how a 'typical' city is laid out
There are models that predict where different types of
activity will be found around the city.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3h7sg8/revision/2
https://www.geographycasestudy.com/urban-land-use-patterns-and-models/#Model_versus_theory_what%E2%80%99s_the_difference?
Models of urban structure

Models of urban structure
https://www.slideshare.net/notesmaster/urban-models-78933697

Two main types of models (urban land use models)
A. Monocentric: there is a single central point of the city (Chicago school)
B. Polycentric: there are multiple ‘centres’ of the city (Los Anglos school)

Who develops these models?
These models have been developed by groups of academics whose work can be
linked together by their beliefs about how cities grow. These groups of
academic researchers are known as ‘Schools’. They are not literally schools of
education, nor are they even made up of people who work in the same building.
Instead they are made up of academics who do research along similar lines and
have similar beliefs about their subject.

Who develops these models?
These models have been developed by groups of academics whose work can be
linked together by their beliefs about how cities grow. These groups of
academic researchers are known as ‘Schools’. They are not literally schools of
education, nor are they even made up of people who work in the same building.
Instead they are made up of academics who do research along similar lines and
have similar beliefs about their subject.
Therefore it Can
not be one model!

A. Monocentric models (Chicago School)
Monocentric models of urban land use became popular in the 1920s and 1930s, especially with
geographers and sociologists at the University of Chicago in the United States.
They were trying to find patterns in the types of people and economic activities across the city. All the
monocentric models assume that there is a single Central Business District in the city.
The most famous of these models are:
● Burgess’s ‘Concentric Zone Model’ (1925)
● Hoyt’s ‘Sector Model’ (1939)
● Harris and Ullman’s ‘Multiple Nuclei Model’ (1945)
These are examples of the ‘Chicago School of Urbanism’. It was a movement amongst social scientists
to understand how different social groups interacted in cities, and how different groups were attracted to
different parts of the city, resulting in variations in land use (Lutters and Ackerman, 1996).

A. Monocentric models (Chicago School)

A. Monocentric models (Chicago School) - (1)
Burgess’s Concentric Zone Model 1925
The Burgess Model was developed by
Ernest Burgess in 1925.
He identified a series of concentric rings
coming out from the centre of the city which
correspond to different types of land use.
In the centre was the Central Business
District; followed by an inner city area known
as the transition zone, with light
manufacturing; then a series of residential
zones gradually becoming wealthier towards
the edge of the city.
http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/landusemodels.html
concentric zone theory

● The CBD is in the middle because it is the central
location, and therefore easiest to get to. This
encourages businesses to be located there because
they can access the most customers.
● Low class residential (the ‘zone of working-men’s
homes’) is near the factory/transition zone because it is
an undesirable location (polluted and congested), and
because these people must walk or use public
transport to get to work in the factories
● People on low incomes cannot afford large houses,
so these areas become densely populated; the
population density on the outskirts is lower as the
house size is larger
● High class residential is around the outside because
these people can afford the private transport to get to
the city centre quickly and conveniently

However, the model is also criticised for many reasons:
● It is too specific to North American cities; it does
not fit more historic cities or those that have
recently grown
● It does not fit the modern age and is “a product of
its time” (Rodrigue, 2018) both in terms of the
wording used on the model and the way that the
model is organised
● There are many assumptions in the model that
mean it doesn’t fit other cities very well

The model is useful because it shows a heavily simplified version of reality that
could be applied to many cities. It doesn’t actually explain why these zones are in
those locations, but it is the basis for theories that do: the main one is bid-rent
theory.
Image: Dr. Sami Afifi’s lectures

In 1939 Homer Hoyt published “The Structure and Growth of
Residential Neighborhoods in American Cities” in which he
developed Burgess’s ideas further.
Hoyt studied 142 cities in the United States.
➔ He recognised that they were more complex than
simple rings of land use, and suggested that
industrial land use is linked to transport routes.
➔ He also suggested that the location of transport and
industry within the city affects the location of
residential districts.
This results in ‘sectors’ of the city with different land uses.
An extract from Hoyt’s work, showing the different rents
charged in different parts of cities across the United
States, which he called ‘sectors’. Source: Hoyt, 1939 p77.
Radial sector theory
A. Monocentric models (Chicago School) - (2) Hoyt’s
Sector Model (1939)

Following Burgess’s model, the CBD remains in the centre
This is based on the circles in the Burgess model, but adds
sectors of similar land uses concentrated in parts of the city.
Notice how some zones, eg the factory/industry zone, radiate out
from the CBD. This is usually following the line of a main road or a
railway.
However, there are important differences.
➔ The manufacturing zone is found along transport routes –
especially railways, but also highways and rivers or canals
– that link the city centre to other cities. The low class
residential land is found nearby, with the high class
residential the furthest away.
➔ The high class residential may also follow transport
routes, especially highways, as wealthier people have
private cars which they use to get to their jobs in the CBD.
Hoyt’s Sector Model. Source: Knights, 2008.
Sector Model (1939)

Sector Model (1939)
Limitations
➔ The theory is based on early twentieth-century rail
transport and does not make allowances for private cars
that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city
boundaries.
➔ The theory also does not take into account the new
concepts of edge cities and boomburbs, which began to
emerge in the 1980s, after the creation of the model.
➔ Since its creation, the traditional Central Business District
has diminished in importance as many retail and office
buildings have moved into the suburbs.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model
Hoyt’s Sector Model. Source: Knights, 2008.

A.Monocentric models (Chicago School) - (3)
Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model McKenzie 1933, Harris and
Ullmann 1945
In 1945, Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman
continued the work of Burgess and Hoyt by
publishing a new model of the city.
This model recognises that as cities grow, they
swallow up smaller settlements around the
edge. Meanwhile as the city becomes larger,
travel between the outskirts and CBD becomes
impractical and smaller centres grow
throughout the city.
Generalisations of internal structure of cities. Harris and
Ullman’s model is shown at the bottom left. Source:
Harris and Ullman, 1945.

The model has the advantage of being more
flexible than the earlier models, as it doesn’t have
a specific location for each zone.
Instead, the zones are recognised as existing
nearby to one another but can be in different
places depending on the city.
It also accounts for the development of the motor
car, with the CBD no longer necessarily the
easiest place to get to.
Better reflect the complex nature of urban areas,
especially those of larger size
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_nuclei_model
Ullmann 1945

The theory was formed based on the idea that
people have greater movement due to increased
car ownership.
The model assumes that:
● Land is not flat in all areas
● There is even Distribution of Resources
● There is even Distribution of people in
Residential areas
● There is even Transportation Costs
Ullmann 1945

(limitations) Like the other models of the Chicago
School, the Multiple Nuclei Model does not recognise
several key features of cities that could affect how the
model applies to reality (Planning Tank, 2016):
● High-rise buildings that could affect population
density are ignored
● Each zone is homogenous throughout (meaning
that there is no variation within each zone)
● Government policies are not considered, e.g.
planning laws
● The model is hard to apply to non-Western cities
● Even so, it is the balance between the flexibility
of the model and its simplicity that makes it still
useful today.
Ullmann 1945

B. Polycentric models and the Los Angeles School
● Although the Ullman and Harris Multiple Nuclei Model identifies more than one centre in
the city, it still identifies a core Central Business District.
● However, more recent scholars have argued that this is not the way modern cities
develop.
● The Los Angeles School of urbanism was a group of academics who were mostly based
in southern California in the 1980s to the 2000s.
● They formed the idea that large modern cities do not grow around a single Central Business
District, but in fact grow haphazardly “in a sprawling fashion, as a multiplicity of
commercial, industrial and residential areas spread outward without noticeable
pattern” (Florida, 2013).
● This means that rather than having a main CBD, there will be many centres, and instead of
having a similar mix of land use in those centres, they might have different functions.
● The school generally argues that the core of the city is in decline, while the periphery of
the city is expanding, an idea that relates closely to the issue of urban sprawl.

B. Polycentric models and the Los Angeles School
The work was based mainly on the study of
the US city of Los Angeles.
As the map shows, the land use in Los
Angeles has little clear structure to it.
Therefore it is difficult if not impossible to
model it in the way that the Chicago School
had done for cities earlier in the twentieth
century.
For this reason, there is no standard model
in the Los Angeles School, which is a key
difference to the Chicago School.
Land use across Greater Los Angeles. Source: The Nature
Conservancy, 2005, via the Natural History Museum Los Angeles
County.

C- The New York School
The New York School of urbanism is something of a halfway house between the
Chicago and LA School
● Proponents of the New York School claims that “most economically productive
districts and the most desirable residential areas are concentrated in and
around the city’s dense center;
● growth in the periphery is less patterned” (Florida, 2013).

In practice, all three schools
offer insights into the historical
and current development of
cities. None is so general that it
can be applied to all cities
everywhere, but equally they
are not so specific that they only
apply to the city which gave
them its name.
Book : https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.cttts735

D- Non-Western models of urban land use
A major criticism of all the models
presented so far is that they apply to cities
in the United States, and often North
America and Europe in general.
But cities that are not in Western countries
often have very different patterns of land
use.
Image: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South
World map showing a traditional definition of the
North–South divide (red countries in this map are
grouped as "Global South", blue countries as
"Global North")

D- Non-Western models of urban land use: 1. Latin
America
Latin America is the portion of North, Central
and South America south of the United
States, stretching from Mexico to Chile and
Argentina. Cities in Latin America have often
experienced rapid industrialisation and
population growth since 1950.
The core of many cities is a colonial-era
(approximately 1500-1939) centre which has
recently seen redevelopment, surrounded by
much newer urban development. This model
is often applied to Sao Paulo in Brazil.
https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Latin-
America/275385

America
The model in the figure was updated in 1996 from
the original version in 1980 published by Ernest
Griffin and Larry Ford. As with all models, it is a
simplified version of the common features of cities.
In the model:
● The CBD is the commercial heart of the city.
● The most historic part of the city surrounds
the CBD, and contains a mixture of old
colonial buildings along with more modern hi-
rise development.
● There is also a commercial ‘spine’ along
major roads , which extends the CBD
outwards from the centre towards edge-of-city
retail parks (‘malls’).

America
● The elite housing zone is the highest class residential
area, and it exists near to the commercial districts
because the time taken for journeys is generally very long
due to traffic congestion, so wealthy people avoid
travelling long distances between their homes and
work.
● The ‘periferico’ (or periphery – meaning ‘edge’) is a ring-
road that helps traffic move around the edge of the city
● The periferia is the home of the poorest people, who are
generally new migrants to the city. They settle on the
outer edges of the city because there is no space to
occupy in the middle of the city, and they are too poor to
afford the rent.
● These ‘zones of disamenity’ are squatter settlements
but they gradually improve into permanent residential
areas.

D- Non-Western models of urban land use: 2.
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asian cities often have a very well
developed colonial centre, although it has
often been redeveloped out of all recognition.
Most major cities in southeast Asia are port
cities, and were originally located on the coast
because they offered trading opportunities.
Therefore these cities are prevented from
expanding in all directions by the coastline,
so are not represented by rings around the
centre, but by a wedge or semi-circular shape
instead.
https://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/sou
theastasia/location.html
https://ro.pinterest.com/pin/31138176172
1204074/

Southeast Asia
Terry McGee developed the most influential model of a
southeast Asian city in his book The “Southeast Asian city: a
social geography of the primate cities of Southeast Asia”
published in 1967.
It has been updated to reflect the fast growth of population,
and therefore the expansion of the urban area, since then.
Especially important is the location of new industrial zones,
which are not on the coast but inland where there is plenty of
cheap land.
Note how similar it is to Hoyt’s Sector Model, but with
adaptations to suit the Asian experience.

D- Non-Western models of urban land use: 3. Sub-
Saharan Africa
Harm de Blij was a geographer who, among many other
interests, studied the urban development of cities in Sub-
Saharan Africa.
He recognised that there was frequently an old CBD with
colonial buildings and some redevelopment (especially tower
blocks).
However, he identified that cities often have an ‘open air market
zone’ in which informal economic activity takes place.
Residential areas are distinguished from one another not only by
household wealth (the poorest are often on the edge of the city,
because new migrants set up squatter settlements there) but
also by ethnicity.
Map: http://www2.harpercollege.edu/mhealy/mapquiz/ssa/ssamenu.html

D- Non-Western models of urban land use: 4. China
The modern Chinese city has developed according to the
planning principles of the Chinese government, which
maintains strict control over both internal migration and
construction.
Since the late 1980s, the Chinese government has
presided over the largest mass migration in history, with
over 80 million people permanently migrating from rural
areas in the centre and west to urban areas in the south and
east (and also some to the far west), and perhaps over 230
million moving for seasonal work while retaining a link with
their home (such as leaving their children there) (Roth,
2012).
https://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/china/location.html

D- Non-Western models of urban land use: 4. China
The result has been a planned expansion of both population
and urban footprint of many Chinese cities.
Some huge cities have resulted including the megacities of
Chongqing, Shanghai and Beijing.
In the 1990s, Piper Gaubatz, an urban geographer at the
University of Massachusetts (Gaubatz, 2018), studied the
general layout of these new cities and identified patterns of
urban planning, including the development of specific areas for
manufacturing and commerce.
The model shows the outcome; moreover, the pace of
development means many areas are very similar,
It is a shopping district in Chongqing, one of the largest cities in
China.
Model of a modern Chinese city. Source:
Gaubatz, 1998.

Mediterranean Europe (Spain, France, Italy, Greece)
and North Africa
Models can be even more specifc. The two models of
this region were sourced from the ‘Access to
Geography: Urban Settlement and Land Use’
textbook (Hill, 2005), but were not credited to any
specific author.
Both these models show how it is possible to be very
specific to a type of city. These very specific
models – going beyond a continental location and
down to a sub-region – provide an interesting
opportunity for further study and the creation of more
models for individual cities.
Gaubatz, 1998.

Mediterranean Europe (Spain, France, Italy, Greece)
and North Africa
Gaubatz, 1998.
Models can be even more specifc. The two models of
this region were sourced from the ‘Access to
Geography: Urban Settlement and Land Use’
textbook (Hill, 2005), but were not credited to any
specific author.
Both these models show how it is possible to be very
specific to a type of city. These very specific
models – going beyond a continental location and
down to a sub-region – provide an interesting
opportunity for further study and the creation of more
models for individual cities.

Other models: you can watch later
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5bpAw_OS-k

Extra Links
● https://newellta.weebly.com/urban-models.html
● https://www.owen.k12.ky.us/userfiles/257/Classes/17727/APHGModelsofUrb
anStructure.pdf
● https://www.google.com/search?q=urban+economic+theories+%22city+mode
ls%22&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi029mJ8pv7AhXUQzABHX9JArE4Ch
DSlAl6BAgMEAE&biw=1800&bih=787&dpr=1.6
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=172&v=EjMarOuFAps&featur
e=emb_title
● https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5161657_Monocentric_Versus_Poly
centric_Models_in_Urban_Economics
● https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26460176_Theories_models_and_u
rban_realities_From_New_York_to_Kathmandu

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