unit 1 all-Copy.pdf

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR
RAIPUR-492010, CHHATTISGARH
INDIA
Environment & Ecology

Course Introduction & Assessment Pattern
⚫ Course Name: Environment & Ecology
⚫ Course Code: CY10I008CY (Theory) & CY10I409CY (Lab)
⚫ Credit: 04 [03 (Theory) + 01 (Lab)]
⚫ Course Objectives
1. Aware of knowledge about Environment, Ecology, natural
resources, environmental pollution and control measures, and
Instrumental techniques for monitoring of pollutants for the
service of mankind
2. Learn about environmental impacts of all scientific and technology
based activities
3. Develop environment benign technology for the welfare of the
Society and Nation
4. Apply the knowledge of environmental science to improve the
existing technology in daily life and research
2
Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you.

Course Contents (Theory)---------
Unit-I: Fundamentals of Environment & Ecology
Definition, Components of Environment, Environmental Degradation,
Fundamentals of Ecology and Ecosystem, Components and
Classification of Ecosystem, Energy flow in Ecosystem: Tropic level,
Food Chain, Food Web, Ecological Pyramid, Environment Impact
Assessment & Sustainable Development
Unit – II Natural Resources
Material cycles- Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus and Water
Cycles. Mineral Resources, Energy Resources, Conventional and
Non-Conventional: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, Nuclear Fuel,
Hydro- Electric, Solar, Biomass, Wind, Tidal, Geothermal, and
Hydrogen as alternative future source of Energy
3

Continued------------
Unit – III Environmental Pollution and its Control
Air Pollution and control measures, Water Pollution, Land
Pollution, Noise Pollution. Global warming, Acid Rain,
Ozone-Layer Depletion, Photochemical Smog, Waste water
treatment, Solid waste management
Unit – IV Environment Quality Standards and
Instrumental Techniques for monitoring of Pollutants
Ambient air quality standards, Water quality parameter and standards:
pH, Turbidity, Hardness, Sulphate, Phosphates, Iron, Dissolved
Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand.
Instrumental Techniques: UV-Visible Spectroscopy, Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy, Nephelometry and Turbidimetry, Calibration and
Traceability
4

Assessment Pattern (Relative Grading)
Components Theory Lab
Mid-Semester Exam
(MSE)
30 Marks
[15 (Unit-I) + 15 (Unit-II)]
20 Marks
Teacher Assessment
(TA)
20 Marks 40 Marks
End-Semester Exam
(ESE)
50 Marks
[05 (Unit-I) + 05 (Unit-II) + 20 (Unit-III) + 20
(Unit-IV)]
40 Marks
Grand Total 100 Marks 100 Marks
5

Why it is important to learn Environmental
Science?
Study of Environmental Science provides you a wonderful
opportunity to develop creative (look at problems/situations from a
fresh perspective), reflective (ability to express your
understanding/experiences), and critical (ability to analyze the fact to
make a decision) thinking skills.
We live in an incredibly challenging era and facing a lot of various
global environmental challenges i.e. global warming, green house
effect, ozone layer depletion, water and soil pollution, etc.
By this course, we can learn how to live more sustainably by sharply
reducing the degradation of our life-support systems (i.e. water,
soil and air).
Instead of various challenges we are facing now a days, at
present we have better tools and knowledge than any
previous generation to do something to solve these
problems.
We hope this course will inspire you to think from new perspectives to
solve various problems associated with sustainability of life on this
planet.
6

Unit-I
Fundamentals of Environment & Ecology
Environment
⚫ The term Environment means surroundings.
Therefore, Environment may be defined as the sum
total of all the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
things, conditions and influences that affect the
growth and productivity of all living organism on
the earth.
7

8
⚫ The three basic components of environment
are classified as:-
Abiotic Components (All non-living things)
Biotic Components (All living things)
Energy Components
Components of Environment

9
Continued--------------

10
⚫ Medium--------------
⚫ Lithosphere (Soil): The lithosphere consists of the earth’s
intensely hot core, a thick mantle composed mostly of rock, and a thin
outer crust. Most of the lithosphere is located in the earth’s interior. Its
upper portion contains non-renewable fossil fuels and minerals that we
use, as well as renewable soil chemicals (nutrients) that organisms need
to live, grow, and reproduce.
⚫ Hydrosphere (Water): The hydrosphere consists of all of the
water on or near the earth’s surface. It is found as liquid water (on the
surface and underground), ice (polar ice, icebergs, and ice in frozen soil
layers called permafrost), and water vapor in the atmosphere. The
oceans, which cover about 71% of the globe, contain about 97% of the
earth’s water.
Abiotic Components of Environment

11
⚫ Atmosphere (Air): The atmosphere is a thin spherical envelope of gases
surrounding the earth’s surface. Atmosphere further may be classified as
Troposphere (upto 17 km above the sea level, contains N2, O2, CO2, CH4,
H2O vapours, etc.)
Stratosphere (extend in between 17 – 50 km, contains O3 layer which filter
UV radiations)
Mesosphere (extent in between 50-85 km)
Ionosphere or Thermosphere (above 85 km upto 500 km)
⚫ Biosphere: The biosphere consists of the parts of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere where life is found. If the earth were an apple, the
biosphere would be no thicker than the apple’s skin. The goal of ecology is to
understand the interactions that occur within this thin layer of air, water, soil,
and organisms.
Continued----------------

12
Continued----------------

13
⚫ Climate is the average weather in a specific area over a longer period of time
(~30 Years). Some important climatic components are discussed below:
Climate---------------

14
⚫ The biotic components of environment includes all the living organism of
biosphere. Further classification of biotic components are based on relationship among
them which may influence its distribution and population. There are two types of
relationship present in between the biotic components:-
1. Intraspecific Relationship: Relationship in which two or more than two organisms
from same species come in relationship for their better survival is termed as intraspecific
relationship. Intraspecific relationship form the basis of social organizations i.e. living in
groups, colonies, communities, societies, etc.
2. Interspecific Relationship: Relationship in which two or more than two organisms
from different species come in relationship for their better survival is termed as
interspecific relationship. Such relationship either may be benefited or may be harmful.
a) Symbiotic Relationship: When one or both partners are benefited. When only
one partner is benefited without harming other one is termed as Commensalism.
Examples are algae grow on turtle shell, spider make web on tree, etc. When only both
partners are benefited is termed as Mutualism. Examples are lichen, N2 fixing bacteria
live in the root of legume family plants, etc.
b) Antagonism: When one or both partners are harmed. The relationship of
antagonism includes parasitism, predation, competition, etc.
Biotic Components of Environment

15
Energy Components of Environment

ENVIRONMENT &
ECOLOGY
Department of Chemistry
National Institute of Technology Raipur
Raipur-492010, Chhattisgarh
India

Environmental Degradation
2
◻ Environmental degradation has become a “common
concern” for humankind over the past few decades.
◻ Environmental degradation is the undesirable change in
natural quality and quantity of natural resources i.e. air,
water and soil.
◻ Mindless consumerism and economic growth have
started to demonstrate pernicious effects on Mother
Nature.
◻ In spite of this, the pace and desire for economic
development have never ceased. It is economics that
has dictated environmental policy.
Nature provides enough to satisfy person's need but not every person's greed.

Continued-----
3
◻ Emphasis has been placed on the role of science
and technology as a catalyst for integrating
ecology with economics. In this process,
sustainable development became a buzzword.

Continued-----
4

Consequences of Environmental Degradation
5
◻ Pollution (Air, Water and Soil)
◻ Water scarcity
◻ Loss of bio-diversity
◻ Deforestation
◻ Energy crisis
◻ Climatic change

Major Causes of Environmental Degradation
6
◻ Population Explosion
◻ Poverty
◻ Affluence
◻ Urbanization and Industrialization
◻ Illiteracy and Ignorance
◻ Inequality in income and wealth between humans
◻ Lack of environment friendly technologies
◻ Unsustainable living style
◻ Technology i.e. mining, agriculture, transportation, etc.

7
Impact of major technological development on environment

8
This open-pit mine, located near the city of Kalgoolie in the
outback of western Australia, is the world’s largest gold mine
(Core Case Study)
Should governments require mining companies to fill in
and restore such sites once their ore is depleted?

9
◻ The present and the future generation have the
equal right to enjoy the natural resources and
the environment that is conducive to health.
◻ It is need of present to realize the importance of
natural resources and their conservation.

10
Fundamentals of Ecology
◻ Ecology: In Greek, ecology means “house” or “place to live”.
◻ Fundamental ecology is the basis for understanding our complex
biological world
◻ Ecology is the branch of science which deals with the study of the
inter relationship between living organisms with respect to each
other and to their surroundings.
◻ In other words, study of interaction and inter relationship between
the biotic and abiotic components is known as Ecology.
◻ Ecology, the biological science that studies how organisms, or
living things, interact with one another and with their environment.
◻ The goal of ecology is to understand the interactions that occur
within this thin layer of air, water, soil, and organisms.

11
Inter relationship between the biotic and
abiotic components

12
Ecological Principles

13

14
Ecosystem
◻ Ecosystem is the study of home. An ecosystem is a group of biotic
communities of species interacting with one another and with
their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter. Now
ecology is often defined as “the study of ecosystems”.
◻ Ecosystems show large variations in their size, structure,
composition etc. However, all the ecosystems are characterized
by certain basic structural (biotic and abiotic components) and
functional features (energy flow) which are common.
◻ Examples:
1) A drop of water is complete ecosystem (home) for Amoeba.
2) Many miles of land (forest) over which the Lion searches its
food is a complete ecosystem for Lion.
3) Other examples are pond, lake, river, ocean, dam, garden, city,
aquarium, etc.

15
How Ecosystem Works?
◻ Ecosystem is a self regulating and self sustaining
system. Working of ecosystem depends on the flow of
energy and cyclization of materials.
◻ An ecosystem is an integrated unit consisting of
interacting plants, animals and microorganisms whose
survival depends upon the maintenance and
regulation of their biotic and abiotic structures and
functions. The ecosystem is thus, a unit or a system
which is composed of a number of subunits, that are all
directly or indirectly linked with each other. They may
be freely exchanging energy and matter from outside-
an open ecosystem or may be isolated from outside - a
closed ecosystem.

16
Classification of Ecosystem
◻ Depending on the species, diversity
and the manner in which they are
organized, Ecosystem are classified
as given below:-

17
Classification of Ecosystem

Components of an Ecosystem
18
◻ Ecosystems show large variations in their size,
structure, composition, etc. etc. However, all the
ecosystems are characterized by certain basic
structural and functional components which are
common.
◻ Composition and organization of biological
communities (biotic components) and abiotic
components constitute the structural components of
an ecosystem.
◻ Energy flow in an ecosystem constitute the functional
component of an ecosystem.

Continued----------
19
The main components of an ecosystem are energy, chemicals, and organisms.
Nutrient/material cycling and the flow of energy—first from the sun, then through
organisms, and finally into the environment as low-quality heat—link these components.

20
Components of an Ecosystem
Energy
Flow

21
Schematic representation of various components of
an ecosystem

22
Structural Components of
Ecosystem
◻ Structural components of an
ecosystem includes:
1) Abiotic Components
2) Biotic Components

23
Abiotic Components of
Ecosystem
◻ It includes non-living substances of environment. Followings
are constitute the abiotic components of the ecosystem:
1) Chemical Components: These include major essential
nutrients like C, N, P, K, H2
, O2
, S etc. and micronutrients like
Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu etc., salts and toxic substances like pesticides.
Availability of major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, level
of toxic substances, salts causing salinity and various organic
substances (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, biomass, etc)
present in the soil or water largely influence the functioning
of the ecosystem.

24
Abiotic Components of
Ecosystem
2) Climatic Factors/Components: The entire ecosystem functions under the
influence of many climatic factors i.e. rain, light, wind, temperature,
humidity, etc. These include sunlight, solar intensity, rainfall, temperature,
wind speed and direction, water availability, soil texture etc. The sunlight
and shade, intensity of solar flux, duration of sun hours, average
temperature, maximum-minimum temperature, annual rainfall, wind,
latitude and altitude, soil type, water availability, water currents etc. are
some of the important physical features which have a strong influence on
the ecosystem.
We can clearly see the striking differences in solar flux, temperature and
precipitation (rainfall, snow etc.) pattern in a desert ecosystem, in a
tropical rainforest and in tundra ecosystem

25
Biotic Components

26
Continued------

27
Functional Component: Energy Flow

28
Continued----------
Nutrient cycling and energy flow mediated through food chain. The flow of
energy is unidirectional while the nutrients move in a cyclic manner from the
abiotic to biotic (food chain) to abiotic and so on.

ENERGY FLOW IN
ECOSYSTEM
Department of Chemistry
National Institute of Technology Raipur
Raipur-492010, Chhattisgarh
India

Energy Flow------------Why?
2
Science is an attempt to discover how nature works and to use that knowledge to make predictions
about what is likely to happen in nature.
◻ Due to unidirectional flow of energy, the behaviour of energy in
ecosystem is called Energy Flow.
◻ From the energetics point of view, energy flow is explained as under:
(i) The efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of solar
energy
(ii) The use of the above said converted chemical form of energy by the
consumers.
(iii) The total input of energy in form of food and its efficiency of
assimilation.
(iv) The loss caused through respiration, heat, excretion etc.
(v) The gross, net production.

3
◻ Sun is ultimate source of energy in an Ecosystem.
◻ Only about 1% of the total sunlight falling on the green
plants is utilized in photosynthesis. This is sufficient to
sustain all the living organism.
◻ 34% of total sunlight reaching the atmosphere is
reflected back into its atmosphere. 10% held by ozone
layer and water vapours. Rest 56% reaches on earth
surface. Out of which 1-5% is only used in
photosynthesis process.
6CO2
+ 6H2
O C 6
H12
O6
+ 6O2
◻ Rest is absorbed as heat by ground vegetation or water.
◻ There is unidirectional flow of energy from Sun to the
producers and then various types of consumers.
Therefore, behaviour of energy in Ecosystem can be
termed “Energy Flow”.
◻ There is loss of 90% energy at each trophic levels, only
10% is transmitted from one trophic level to the
another one. This is known as 10% rule of energy flow in
an ecosystem
hv
Chlorophyll

Continued-------------------
4
◻ Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food
chain and food web. The most important feature of energy
flow is that it is unidirectional or one-way flow. Unlike the
nutrients/materials (like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus etc.)
which move in a cyclic manner and are reused by the
producers after flowing through the food chain, energy is not
reused in the food chain.
◻ Also, the flow of energy follows the two laws of
Thermodynamics:

5
(10 %
Rule).

Trophic Levels
6
◻ The flow of energy is mediated through a series of
feeding relation-ships in a definite sequence or pattern
which is known as food chain. Nutrients too move along
the food chain. The producers and consumers are
arranged in the ecosystem in a definite manner and their
interaction along with population size are expressed
together as trophic structure. Each food level is known
as a trophic level (T).
◻ Trophic levels provide a structure for understanding food
chains and how energy flows through an ecosystem.

Food Chain
7
◻ The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is
known as food chain.
◻ All organisms, living or dead, are potential food for some
other organism and thus, there is essentially no waste in the
functioning of a natural ecosystem. A caterpillar eats a plant
leaf, a sparrow eats the caterpillar, a cat or a hawk eats the
sparrow and when they all die, they are all consumed by
microorganisms like bacteria or fungi (decomposers) which
break down the organic matter and convert it into simple
inorganic substances that can again be used by the plants-the
primary producers.

Characteristics of Food Chain
8
◻ Characteristics of Food Chain:
1) Number of trophic levels in food chain is restricted usually to 4 or
5.
2) Trophic level refers to the successive levels of energy flow.
3) The usable energy decreases with each trophic levels.
4) Due to the rapid decrease in the amount of usable energy, the
size/length of the food chain is usually limited to a maximum of
four to five trophic levels.

Examples of Food Chain
9

Types of Food Chain
10
In nature, we come across two major types of food chains:
1) Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants (primary producers) and culminates in
carnivores. Examples:-

Continued-------
11
2) Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter (detritus) which the
detritivores and decomposers consume. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and
even the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their predators. An example of
the detritus food chain is seen in a Mangrove (estuary).Examples:-

12
Food Web
◻ Food chains in ecosystems are rarely found to operate as
isolated linear sequences.
◻ Rather, they are found to be interconnected and usually
form a complex network with several linkages and are
known as food webs.
◻ Thus, food web is a network of food chains where different
types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels,
so that there are a number of options of eating and being
eaten at each trophic level.

13
Continued--------------
Food Web

14
Continued--------------
Why nature has evolved food
webs in ecosystems instead of
simple linear food chains?

15
Continued--------------
◻ This is because food webs give greater stability to
the ecosystem. In a linear food chain, if one species
becomes extinct or one species suffers then the
species in the subsequent trophic levels are also
affected. In a food web, on the other hand, there are
a number of options available at each trophic level.
So if one species is affected, it does not affect other
trophic levels so seriously.

16
Significance of food chains and food webs
◻ Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the two
most important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.
◻ Food chain are important for maintaining as well as regulating the population size of
different living organisms and thus helps to maintain the ecological balance.
◻ As tertiary/quaternary consumers are at the top of the food chain, they receive less
energy from the food they eat compared to those at bottom. Because of this, the
population of top consumers are usually the smallest out of the population in food chain.
◻ Food chains show a unique properties of accumulation of certain toxic/harmful chemicals
i.e. pesticides or heavy metals. They keep on passing these chemicals from one tropic
level to another and at each successive level, concentration of toxic chemicals are going
to increases. This phenomenon is known as Biomagnification or Biological Magnification.
Examples: Effect of DDT on Osprey, effect of diclofenac on Vulture (efficient
scavenger-An extinct or critically endangered bird)
◻ Saving the scavenger bird(Hindi)-YouTube link https://youtu.be/yyW0Aabh7m8

17
Case Study

18
◻ Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an
ecosystem, starting with producers at the base and successive
trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an ecological pyramid.
◻ At the base of the pyramid are the producers, who use
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make their own food.
Herbivores or primary consumers, make up the second level.
Secondary and tertiary consumers, omnivores and carnivores,
follow in the subsequent sections of the pyramid. At each step up
the food chain, only 10 percent of the energy is passed on to the
next level, while approximately 90 percent of the energy is lost as
heat.
◻ Ecological pyramids are of three types:
Ecological Pyramids

19
1) Number Pyramid
◻ Pyramid of numbers: It represents the number of individual
organisms at each trophic level. We may have upright or inverted
pyramid of numbers, depending upon the type of ecosystem and
food chain. The grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show
an upright pyramid of numbers. Parasitic food chain shows an
inverted pyramid of number.
Grassland Food
Chain
Forest Food
Chain
Parasite Food
Chain

20
2) Biomass Pyramid
◻ Pyramid of biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry
matter) at each trophic level in a food chain. The pyramid of
biomass can also be upright or inverted. The pyramid of
biomass in a grassland is upright in contrast to its pyramid of
numbers. The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of
biomass.
Grassland Food
Chain
Pond Food
Chain

21
3) Energy Pyramid
◻ Pyramid of Energy: The amount of energy present at each
trophic level is considered for this type of pyramid. Pyramid
of energy gives the best representation of the trophic
relationships and it is always upright (due to 10% rule).

UNIT-1
Environmental Impact Assessment
&
Sustainable Development
1

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):- A
tool for sustainable development
• Definition: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a procedure
to plan some developmental activity with well defined
environmental goals so that damage due to the activity both
during developmental stage and production stage have minimum
impact on the natural system and the population in the area.
• As a decision making tool, EIA compares various alternatives for a
project and seeks to identify the one which represents the best
combination of economic and environmental costs and benefits.
• EIA is defined as tool to predict the effect of a proposed
project/plan/action on the environment
• EIA is a useful tool for promoting sustainable development
because it includes many components that can help facilitate
intra-generational and inter-generational equity.
2

EIA: Introduction
• EIA systematically examines both beneficial and adverse consequences of
the project and ensures that these effects are taken into account during
project design.
• It helps to identify possible environmental effects of the proposed project,
proposes measures to mitigate adverse effects and predicts whether there
will be significant adverse environmental effects, even after the mitigation
is implemented.
• By considering the environmental effects of the project and their
mitigation early in the project planning cycle, environmental assessment
has many benefits, such as protection of environment, optimum utilization
of resources and saving of time and cost of the project.
• Properly conducted EIA also lessens conflicts by promoting community
participation, informing decision makers, and helping lay the base for
environmentally sound projects.
• Benefits of integrating EIA have been observed in all stages of a project,
from exploration and planning, through construction, operations,
decommissioning, and beyond site closure.
3

EIA: Introduction
• EIA is a valuable decision making tool indicating
the:
1) Alternative routes of development
2) Alternate project sites
3) Alternate process technologies
4) Carrying capacity of the specific ecosystem
5) Quality of the environment before, during, and
after the proposed development activity/plan
4

EIA: Historical Background
• EIA is one of the successful policy innovations of the 20th Century for environmental
conservation.
• Thirty-seven years ago, there was no EIA but today, it is a formal process in many
countries and is currently practiced in more than 100 countries.
• EIA as a mandatory regulatory procedure originated in the early 1970s, with the
implementation of the National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 in the US.
• A large part of the initial development took place in a few high-income countries,
like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (1973-74).
• However, there were some developing countries as well, which introduced EIA
relatively early - Columbia (1974), Philippines (1978).
• The EIA process really took off after the mid-1980s. In 1989, the World Bank adopted
EIA for major development projects, in which a borrower country had to undertake
an EIA under the Bank's supervision.
• The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also known as
Rio 92 or Earth Summit 1992) was a landmark gathering concerning the
international consolidation and acknowledgement of environmental impact
assessment (EIA) as a universal approach to inform and influence decision-making on
crucial socio-environmental matters.
• In India, the gazette notification on EIA was issued in 1994 vide which the Ministry
of Environment and Forests provided guidelines for project proponents to have EIA
and prepare an Environmental Impact Statement prior to clearance of the project.
5

Goals of EIA
• To fulfill the responsibilities towards the coming
generations as trustees of environment.
• To assure safe, healthy, productive, aesthetically as
well as culturally pleasing surroundings.
• To provide widest range of beneficial uses of
environment without degradation or risk to health.
• To preserve historical, cultural and natural heritage.
• To achieve a balance between population and
resource use for a good standard of living.
• To ensure sustainable development with minimal
environmental degradation.
6

Elements of EIA
• Description of the proposed plant/project
• Analysis of site selection procedure and alternate sites
• Description of the positive and negative impacts on
environment, society, economy and culture
• Mitigation plans
• Monitoring plans
• Identification of issues related to human health
• Waste minimization and recycling plans
• Consultation with public
• Plan to minimize the release of hazardous substances
• Any other informations
7

Participants of EIA
• The following persons/groups/agencies usually are involved in
EIA process:
(1) Proponent: Government or Private Agency which initiates the
project.
(2) Decision Maker: Designated individual or Group or Body.
(3) Assessor: Individual or Agency responsible for the preparation of
EIS.
(4) Reviewer: Individual/Agency/Board entrusted with the
responsibility for reviewing the EIS and assuring compliance with
the relevant guidelines/regulations.
(5) Other Government Agencies having special interest in the
project.
(6) Expert advisers.
(7) Media and Public at large.
(8) Special interest groups: Environmental Organizations,
Professional Societies, Labor Union), Local Associations
8

Methodology of EIA
• Although detailed steps in the EIA process vary from country to country,
there are a number of generic steps which are followed internationally.
• Common steps involved in EIA process are:-
1) Screening
2) Scoping
3) Baseline Data
4) Impact Identification
5) Impact Prediction
6) Impact Evaluation
8) Mitigation
9) Decision Analysis
10) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
11) Environmental Audit & Feedback
9

Description of steps involved in EIA process
11
• Screening is done to see whether the project needs an EIA for
clearance or not. Further, there are some prohibited areas where
generally development projects are not allowed e.g., Coastal
Regulation Zone (CRZ), Dahanu Taluka in Maharashtra, Aravalli
range, Reserve forests etc.
• Scoping involves determination of the extent of EIA required for
the project. Depending upon the project, basically two types of
EIA may be carried out. When the EIA report is based on a single
season data (other than monsoon period), it is called rapid EIA.
When the EIA report is based on detailed seasonal data, it is called
comprehensive EIA.
• Baseline data gives a holistic picture of the overall environmental
setting of the project location showing any significant
environmental items prior to initiation of the action; any
potentially critical environmental changes and information about
the site to the decision makers and reviewers, who might be
unfamiliar with the general location of the project area.

12
• The following environmental parameters are usually considered
while preparing the baseline data:
• (a) Site location and topography.
• (b) Regional demography – population distribution within 10 and
50 kilometer radius; land-use and water-use pattern.
• (c) Regional landmarks like historical and cultural heritage in the
area. For this archaeological or state register can be checked.
• (d) Geology – Groundwater and surface water resources are
quantified; water, quality, pollution sources etc. are studied.
• (e) Hydrology – Groundwater and surface water resources are
quantified; water, quality, pollution sources etc. are studied.
• (f) Meteorology – Temperature extremes, wind speed and
direction, dew point, atmospheric stability, rainfall, storms etc. are
recorded.
• (g) Ecology – The flora, fauna, endangered species, successional
stage etc. are enlisted.
• For a particular project, some of the parameters may be important
while for others, some other parameters could be important.

13
• Impact identification: It includes the details of project characters and
baseline environmental characteristics to ensure the identification of full
range of environmental impacts. During identification process, the positive
and negative, direct and indirect significant and insignificant impacts are
considered.
• Impact prediction: Here magnitude of changes going to occur due to the
project are predicted by using mathematical models or mass balance
models.
• Impact evaluation: Impact evaluation is done by considering the costs
and benefits of the project. Long-term effects and side-effects of the
project are also evaluated. Indirect valuation of environmental parameters
are also done. e.g. loss of a rare species, degradation of a lake etc.
• Mitigation: Once the impacts are predicted and evaluated, mitigation
measures are to be suggested to avoid, reduce or rectify the adverse
changes due to the project.
• Review and a draft impact statement is prepared at this stage.
• Decision analysis: Public participation is involved by arranging group
discussion or by adopting questionnaire method to arrive at a decision
about the project and its evaluation.

14
• Environmental impact statement (EIS): Based on the
data obtained and review suggestions a final EIS is
prepared as per the format provided by the Ministry
of Environment and Forests in our country. The EIS
clearly mentions the objectives of the project, its
environmental impacts, impacts that are unavoidable,
mitigation measures to minimize the impacts,
alternatives to the proposed action etc.
• The EIS is prepared by the project proponents at the
time of submission of the proposal, which is known as
the draft EIS. After evaluation and review by the
Impact Assessment Agency, the final EIS is prepared.

15
• The following points are usually incorporated while preparing the
EIS:
• Effect on land including land degradation and subsistence.
• Deforestation and compensatory afforestation.
• Air pollution and dispersion along with possible health effects.
• Water pollution including surface water and ground water
pollution.
• Noise pollution due to the project.
• Loss of flora and fauna due to the project during construction.
• Socio-economic impacts including displacement of native people,
cultural loss and health aspects.
• Risk analysis and disaster management plan.
• Recycling and reduction of waste.
• Efficient use of inputs including energy and matter.

16
• Environmental audit: It compares the impacts
predicted in EIS before the project was
started and actual impacts after
implementation of the project.

Conclusion
17
• EIA is done with an aim to select the best alternative through which
adverse impact on the environment can be nullified or minimized without
compromising with the economic and social benefits of the developmental
project.
• Four types of alternatives are considered:
(i) Alternative technologies providing options with maximum energy
efficiency and minimal wastage.
(ii) Alternative mitigating or controlling mechanisms through which
recycling of by-products or reduction of emissions can take place.
(iii) Alternate phasing to work out if phasing of the project is possible
instead of one stroke development to avoid drastic impact.
(iv) Alternate site for the proposed project.
• However, the most important alternative taken into consideration in EIA is
the impact assessment at alternative sites i.e., which of the site I or II or III
located in different natural area would have the least impact of the
development project, and that site is selected for the development
project.
• Thus, the main purpose of EIA is precisely to estimate the type and level
of damage caused to natural environment in a well-defined time scale so
that remedial measures can be initiated on those aspects requiring
action at the right time.

18
• Human beings live in both natural and social world. Our
technological development has strong impacts on the natural as
well as the social components.
• When we talk of development, it cannot be perceived as
development only for a privileged few who would have a high
standard of living and would derive all the benefits.
• Development also does not mean an increase in the GNP (Gross
National Product) and GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of a few
affluent nations.
• Development has to be visualized in a holistic manner, where it
brings benefits to all, not only for the present generation, but also
for the future generations.
• There is an urgent need to inter-link the social aspects with
development and environment. In this section, we shall discuss
various social issues in relation to environment.

19
• Sustainable development is defined as “meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.”
• This definition was given in Brundtland Commission Report, ‘‘Our
Common Future’’, by the Norwegian Prime Minister, G.H. Brundtland, who
was also the Director of World Health Organisation (WHO).
• Today sustainable development has become a buzz word and hundreds of
programmes have been initiated in the name of sustainable
development.
• If you want to test whether or not a proposal will achieve the goals of
sustainability just try to find out the answer of followings:
– Does it protect our biodiversity?
– Does it prevent soil erosion?
– Does it slow down population growth?
– Does it increase forest cover?
– Does it cut off the emissions of CFC, SOx, NOx and CO2?
– Does it reduce waste generation and does it bring benefits to all?
• These are only a few parameters for achieving sustainable growth.

20
• Until now development has been human-oriented, that too
mainly, for a few rich nations.
• They have touched the greatest heights of scientific and
technological development, but at what cost?
• The air we breathe, the water we drink and the food we eat
have all been badly polluted.
• Our natural resources are just dwindling due to over
exploitation.
• If growth continues in the same way, very soon we will be
facing a “doom’s day”—as suggested by Meadows and
co-workers in their world famous academic report “The
Limits to Growth”.
• This is unsustainable development which will lead to a
collapse of the inter-related systems of this earth.

21
• Although the fears about such unsustainable growth and development started in 1970’s,
yet a clear discussion on sustainable development emerged on an international level in
1992, in the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), popularly
known as The Earth Summit, held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Rio Declaration aims at “a
new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation
among states ….” Out of its five significant agreements Agenda-21 proposes a global
programme of action on sustainable development in social, economic and political
context for the 21st century.
• This was followed by UN World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in
Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002 which emphasized on national strategies for
sustainable development.
• The key aspects for sustainable development are:
(a) Inter-generational equity: This emphasizes that we should minimize any adverse
impacts on resources and environment for future generations i.e. we should hand over a
safe, healthy and resourceful environment to our future generations. This can be
possible only if we stop over-exploitation of resources, reduce waste discharge and
emissions and maintain ecological balance.
(b) Intra-generational equity: This emphasizes that the development processes should
seek to minimize the wealth gaps within and between nations. The Human Development
Report of United Nations (2001) emphasizes that the benefits of technology should seek
to achieve the goals of intra-generational equity. The technology should address the
problems of the developing countries, producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain
climates, vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuels for domestic and industrial use. This
type of technological development will support the economic growth of the poor
countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

22
• Measures for Sustainable Development: Some of the
important measures for sustainable development are as
follows:
(i) Using appropriate technology is one which is locally adaptable,
eco-friendly, resource efficient and culturally suitable. It mostly involves
local resources and local labour. Indigenous technologies are more useful,
cost-effective and sustainable. Nature is often taken as a model, using the
natural conditions of that region as its components. This concept is known
as “design with nature”. The technology should use less of resources and
should produce minimum waste.
(ii) Reduce, Reuse, Recycle approach: The 3-R approach advocating
minimization of resource use, using them again and again instead of
passing it on to the waste stream and recycling the materials goes a long
way in achieving the goals of sustainability. It reduces pressure on our
resources as well as reduces waste generation and pollution.
(iii) Promoting environmental education and awareness: Making
environmental education the centre of all learning process will greatly
help in changing the thinking pattern and attitude of people towards our
earth and the environment. Introducing subject right from the school
stage will inculcate a feeling of belongingness to earth in small children.
‘Earth thinking’ will gradually get incorporated in our thinking and action
which will greatly help in transforming our lifestyles to sustainable ones.

23
(iv) Resource utilization as per carrying capacity: Any system can sustain a
limited number of organisms on a long-term basis which is known as its
carrying capacity. In case of human beings, the carrying capacity concept
becomes all the more complex. It is because unlike other animals, human
beings, not only need food to live, but need so many other things to
maintain the quality of life.
• Sustainability of a system depends largely upon the carrying capacity of
the system. If the carrying capacity of a system is crossed (say, by over
exploitation of a resource), environmental degradation starts and
continues till it reaches a point of no return.
• Carrying capacity has two basic components:
a) Supporting capacity i.e. the capacity to regenerate
b) Assimilative capacity i.e. the capacity to tolerate different stresses.
• In order to attain sustainability it is very important to utilize the resources
based upon the above two properties of the system. Consumption should
not exceed regeneration and changes should not be allowed to occur
beyond the tolerance capacity of the system.

24
(v) Improving quality of life including social, cultural and
economic dimensions: Development should not focus just on
one section of already affluent people. Rather it should include
sharing of benefits between the rich and the poor. The tribal,
ethnic people and their cultural heritage should also be
conserved. Strong community participation should be there in
policy and practice. Population growth should be stabilized.
• Sustainable development is possible by considering the earth
and its resources as common for all. Participatory role of
public and different nations for evolving technological
innovations and conservationist life style is equally important
to achieve economic growth, ecological balance, equity and
resource conservation.

25
• Thus sustainable development can occur by integrating social, scientific and
ecological dimensions at regional and global level, as illustrated here:-
Multidimensional model for Sustainable Development

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