two ways that learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement1. obser.docx

two ways that learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement
1. observational learning
2. vicarious conditioning
-observing someone engage in complex sequence of
behavior, and being reinforced for doing so. This is the
definition of vicarious reinforcement. it is as if I performed the
behavior and I was reinforced.
Bandura proposes Cognitive Meditational Model
Mediation Model:
- meditation model contrasts with Skinnerian Black Box
- skinner: you produce behavior, reinforced by environment,
that maintains the behavior.
- skinner: don’t need to know what goes on in black box;
epiphenomenal, no causal properties, no necessary
- skinner realizes that the stimulus conditions DO matter to
what you learn. if the situation
-imported stimulus based on evidence that he obtained.
- stimulus conditions matter EVEN MORE for a punishment,
tightly tied together.
BANDURA is arguing that SKINNER is WRONG.
- what happens in the mind DOES matter.
- its not that you just receive a stimulus as if you haven’t
learned anything before!
- the context of what you ALREADY KNOW is very important.
- the interpretive spin you put on what you’ve just seen will
impact the behavior you choose to engage in next.
Banduras model looks like this:
B—>E and E—>B
Bandura makes a VERY parsimonious change. He adds “P” to

the model for person.
- how does my INTERPRETATION of the
framing/environment/my behavior impact the situation?
- CRITICAL IDEA: expectancy.
-formulate set of expectancies that involve
interpretations/beliefs/etc.
- most pertinent: there is a CAUSAL linkage, an expectancy,
which alters the meaning of this behavior. Changes how I
think about this behavior, and then it changes the behavior.
- If I believe that I cannot ride a bicycle, it decreases the
probability that I will ever get on and try to ride a bicycle.
- LOW SELF EFFICACY expectation.
- self efficacy is not the same as self-esteem, self-
competence, self-confidence, global happiness, capability, etc.
- self efficacy is about a specific behavior and regards
expectancy of CAN or CANNOT do the behavior.
- the expectancy that I CAN do the behavior it equivalent to
my having done the behavior and gotten reinforced for the
behavior, this would increase the probability of the behavior
happening again.
- now, THIS FICTION that I just MADE UP is equivalent to
having done this thing and it being reinforced.
- if I believe I can do it, i am more likely to try to do it.
- the act of having done it AT ALL increases my
expectation that I could do it again
- engaging in the behavior increases self efficacy, which
is SELF REINFORCING
- if I ‘can’t’ engage in the behavior, this feeds into my
low self efficacy expectation, decreasing the probability of the
behavior
Another big story: what about the environment?
Its essentially the same basic story.
- If I believe the reinforcers exists in the environment, then I
am MORE LIKELY to engage in the behavior I believe will lead

to that reinforcer.
- If I believe I can get an A and I study really hard in a
particular way, then I will study since that is my expectancy.
OUTCOME EXPECTANCY:
Watch someone else burglarize a house:
Vicariously conditioned +outcome expectancy increased.
P(B)=F(Self Efficacy Expectation*Outcome
Expectancy(behavior and reinforcement)
Turns out there is a little bit more than this.
EXAMPLE:
phobia of spiders
If self efficacy expectation about being able to approach spider
DOES NOT Increase by virtue of intervention, suddenly, even
though you changed their behavior in the treatment, their
behavior will not ultimately be changed.
- the self efficacy IS the core of the issue. Just changing the
behavior in the simplest form won’t be enough.
- low self-efficacy expectations about being able to do those
behaviors and low outcome expectations about being able to
achieve outcomes by engaging in that behavior.
- do intervention with women/minorities
-Jacklyn Eccles
- yes, it really matters! changing efficacy
expectation/outcome expectations—> both of these are a GOOD
thing.
- however, lots of people will not be impacted by the
intervention, even if outcome expectancy and self-efficacy
improved!
- ANOTHER variable needed to be added to this question!
- OUTCOME VALUE— to what extent do I VALUE the

outcome?
- if the intervention does not alter, the value i ascribe to
attaining the outcome, then we have a big problem. That is a lot
harder to do!!
- by now, lots of research has replicated this finding.
- need to be able to measure outcome value, and need to find
a way that it does not feel to the subject that they are paying a
tremendous price.
ABC of Cog-behavioral assessment (post Bandura). Triggering
cues might now be a set of thoughts (cognitions)
Overt
Cognitions/Thoughts
Feelings
physiological
Antecedent
Behavior
overt behavior
set of bad thinking habits (rumination)
set of negative feelings (sink into depression no hope no
energy)
Consequences
good thoughts are reinforcement enough
What is the best tool to help tackle a phobia according to

Bandura?
- Modeling: bumps up self-efficacy by learning from
observation
- Now, you need to GIVE IT A WHIRL.
- Have to find the increments that will work and not send the
person into a total panic
- PARTICIPANT MODELING, or modeling with guided
participation
Freud: symptom substitution. If I change your behavior,
now you are supposed to acquire other symptoms that will now
harm you because i have no, according to freud, treated the
cause of the problem which is the festering psychosexual
conflict.
- little evidence to support this!!
Did not DO what I said I was going to do!!
3 ways of being abnormal:
1. X you want to do, and you don’t know how
-model behavior/teach pt how to do the behavior/have them
practice
2. X you want to do, DO know how, but you can’t/won’t/don’t
-change reinforcement contingencies in the environment or
in your OWN MIND.
3. Y you don’t want to do/need to stop, but you keep doing it.
- unlearn the behavior
- punish it? No.
- replace the behavior with a better one, make sure
contingencies allow for practice of new behavior.
Dr. Susan Andersen
Personality Psychology
Office Hours: Monday 3pm-5pm, 403 Meyer

What is Personality? What do we mean when we refer to
personality with regard to the academic discipline of
psychology and the way that lay people speak about
psychology.
When we talk about personality in the academic sense, we don’t
mean the conventional meaning. WE are not referring to
anything valenced.
Personality: What am I like as a person? Am I the same person
now that I was in 9th grade?
Values, beliefs, what Ive been exposed to, lots of things have
changed.
Are these deep and profound changes? Does it mean that I had
one personality before, and a different personality now?
Do I look like the same person, do I feel like the same person in
this class as I do at a romantic dinner with someone I love? Am
I acting the same was as I would at a party? What if I were at a
family gathering?
Variability in 1. How I feel 2. How I think 3. How I behave 4.
what I want
Some people study personality as if it is a FIXED entity. As a
researcher, the goal is to identify what are the FIXED
characteristics that one has that define one across situations and
across most of your life. This is an interesting question to
assume that there is a stable tendency that ought not be
variable.
But what about CHANGES OVER TIME? Then, is this the same
as developmental psychology?

A lot of the early clinical theorists (eg. Freud), most of those
people are writing about things experienced in early childhood
and how those influence who we are right at this moment. Well,
then there is an overlap with abnormal psychology.
Variability Across situations: how one varies across situational
circumstance. Is this like social psychology? Yes. Personality
psychology has a lot in common with Social Psychology.
First half of course:
Freud, Neo-Freudians, Behaviors, Cognitive Behaviorists,
Existential Folks, etc.
Second half of course: Personality as a research domain
In order to do the latter portion of things, what we are doing is
not talking about theories of human nature, but more isolated
mini-theories
3 SOURCES of INFORMATION:
1. Textbook
2. Lectures
3. Set of readings that are posted on Classes (not assigned until
later in the course)
Need to take good, careful, studiable notes.
FREUD:
Influential way of thinking about personality: idea that people
DO NOT HAVE CONTROL over anything about yourself.
You are driven by forces that are unconscious, not appealing,
you know nothing about them, and even if you did you could do
nothing about this. Your development is uncontrollable.
- this is the nub of freudian theory. These are defined primarily

by infantile sexual urges and the like, and they are pushing you
in a particular direction, as they are trying to be released. As
you go through development, you acquire barriers against those
forces that lead to internal conflict. Ultimately, your self and
life is defined by INTERNAL Psychosexual conflict about urges
that are utterly and completely unacceptable, about which you
know almost nothing.
Main point: you are determined by the inner surge of
unconcious, instinctual pressure.
BEHAVIORISM (SKINNER, PAVLOV):
Everything about you is determined by your environment.
Tabula Rasa: you are a blank slate and influences from the
environment will shape you and your tendencies in ways in
which you have little or no control.
FREUD and BEHAVIORISM are both arguing that you are
completed determined.
- Freud and behaviorists are both advocates of determinism over
free will
- In 50’s and 60’s, we encounter rebellion against this thread.
At this time, the only choice was either psychoanalysis (no
science) or behaviorism (studying animals only)…
THIRD WAVE: Humanistic/Existential
What about agency? Desire? Choice? Self directed behavior?
Options?
- what these folks want to argue is that one of the most
important parts of human existence is for choice, intention, and
planning
- THE THIRD WAVE: the humanistic psychologists (a subset of
these are existential psychologists)
this is the set of people who want to restore human ability for
self regulation
- ex. adhere to plan despite temptation

ASSUMPTIONS OF EACH THEORY: MOTIVATION
1. Vary greatly with regard to their attitude to MOTIVATION
a. what fundamental human needs are
b. what fundamental human drives are
· Freud: drive for sexual gratification/release
· Behaviorists: Refuse to assume anything about motivation,
but in the end they assume a few things.
· Humanists: end up making a lot of assumptions
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN NEEDS
1. Connection- warmth, tenderness, belonging
Evidence: human beings are highly responsive to an absence of
parenting, touching, as they are growing up. Harry Harlow
studies: monkeys that were separated from their mothers. Two
choices: soft mommy monkey vs. wirey monkey with a bottle
that can feed them. Results: monkey babies preferred the soft
monkey and gravitated to cuddling instead of feeding. Just
being able to feed yourself is not enough.
2. Autonomy- freedom, lack of constraint,
Evidence 1: Intrinsic Motivation:
Kids that are already performing a particular task, and then
someone comes along to give you an external reward for a task
you are already doing. When rewards are removed, you are no
longer pursuing the task as much, you diminish the degree to
which you are pursuing the task, you will report less interest
and excitement about the task.
If I provide you with reinforcement or reward that follows upon
a behavior, and we have other evidence that it is rewarding for
you, when you I provide it to you about a behavior you are
already doing, it will have the opposite effect than what is
predicted. It looks like there is intrinsic motivation that
REALLY MATTERS.
Evidence 2: Reactance (Jack Brehm):

If someone tells you that you will not be able to do something,
and there is prohibition, there is a tweak that you will want to
do that thing even if you didn’t want to do it before.
3. Control over environment, control over own actions, mastery,
competence in a domain
Evidence: Learned Helplessness
If you are repeatedly exposed to circumstances or cues or
feedback that say to you that your actions are irrelevant, then
this causes a huge problem for human beings. If I am doing this
thing repeatedly in order to get a food pellet, or escape a cage,
and then no matter what I do, it makes no difference, I will
learn to stop trying. This is learned helplessness.
When test for consequences of behavior, emotional state,
concentration, the organism will simply give up. The behavior
will go away, and it will be as if the only reason to do this thing
is to gain whatever mastery or control in that environment
might be.
4. Comprehension of what is happening around us and within
us. Sense of meaning in life, situating it in a broader context.
- exigency to make meaning of a terrible loss, to come to terms
with what your life is about or will be about now that a trauma
or negative experience has occurred.
Every single cognitive or cognitive behavioral model assumes
that what the mind is trying to do is bring together the stimuli
that it is encountering into a meaningful, coherent whole. The
mind is busy filling in the blanks in what it sees using prior
knowledge: make sense of what is out there in terms of what
you already know. Make meaning from an otherwise
meaningLESS set of stimuli.
Evidence: Terror Management Theory
Each one of us holds particular kinds of world views in which

we are deeply invested (political.cultural/societal/artistic)—
what reality is, what constitutes something great or bad. When a
threatening force comes along, and someone insults an aspect of
your identity, the response of a person is NOT to just fall down,
but to bolster the world view. Internally, I am internally holding
more tightly to it than I was before. When meaning is
challenged, people desperately hold on to it.
5.Security or Safety
A sense that I will be ok, or that this is going to be ok. Being
able to feel that one is protected and OK so that you are not
riveted by anxiety at every moment of existence. there are a
million theories in psychology.
1. Ego defensive biases
2. Self enhancement tendencies- say something that is a threat
to me or mine, then i am not only angry at you for insulting my
mother, but I will also puff my mother up more than I ever have
in response to criticism.
One of the things to do: gauge theories in terms of WHAT
THEY ASSUMED about each one of these things.
Feel for OVERALL TOPICS:
mini-theories in various domains
How do people make sense of other peoples in their
environment? Use mental assumptions and categories to make
interpretations about people.
Social Cognition is about how do I look at you, your behavior,
and what you are doing and INTERPRET it. Do I take into
account the situation? When do I do it, how do i do it?
Attribution Theory: how do i make sense of you, how do you
make sense of me, how do i make sense of myself? Prior
knowledge is key here.

Nature of the Self: where does our sense of self come from?
what is our sense of self? what is the source of believing that I
have certain characteristics and not others?
General Area of Mood and emotion as it relates to cognition,
memory: Does your mood affect the nature of your memory?
Does it effect what you can retrieve from your recent past or
your long ago past? Does it effect how you make sense of an
remember new information? How does cognition affect
emotion?
Anxiety and Stress, Anxiety Disorders, and Depression. What is
depression, where does it come from? How is it related to
cognition and emotion? What are its impacts on behavior? How
can it be remediated?
when you manage to effectively regulate yourself, and develop
mastery over these various kinds of emotional vicissitudes, and
you manage to control your emotions, WHAT IS IT THAT YOU
ARE DOING?
Psychological Defense
Aggression
Empathy
Two exams, both are multiple choice
Final Exam IS CUMULATIVE.
There is also a take home exam, which will be after the in class
mid-term, that will allow you to boost your performance
relative to feeling disappointed with multiple choice exam.
WHAT HAVE I LEARNED from the textbook and what have I
learned from lecture, and what have I learned from the
readings?

- need to remember that these are three semi-independent
sources of information, and take them all into account.
My experience in my own life, the way the world works,
products and rituals in society. Connect what we are learning
about with parts of our own experience.
Kind of experiential learning in the context of the recitations
Think of a time when there was someone around you that was
really suffering in some way, and where you might have chosen
to do something. What was that moment? and what was I feeling
while I was watching this or indirectl
In the 50s, you could either go into clinical psych and study
freud, or you could go into experimental psychology, and that
meant studying animal behavior.
Humanistic Psychologists:
Human Choice, Human Purpose, the Idea that you might have a
goal, you might have a plan. If you have a goal and a plan to
achieve that goal, you will orient your life with that goal that
you care very deeply about.
Even though you are tempted by the things that people pop up,
somehow the purpose notion, which is nothing but a fiction
(internal state)

The idea that you might be capable of being in hot pursuit of
some set of goals, aims, dreams, wishes and that you might use
that to navigate your own life— this idea was COMPLETELY
absent from psychology until the ‘new wave’ folks came along.
Primary thing they want to be talking about IS phenomenology.
Phenomenology: idea that you have conscious ideas,
perceptions, interpretations of reality, characterizations of
reality, and these ARE the reality that you are responding to
reality did not have a power of its own
what’s really crucial are the conscious contents you come to
bear on reality, the categories you apply, the idea that this is
where the action is in human behavior, that was a VERY strange
idea.
Abe Maslow
Carl Rogers
Existentialists
All agreed on the idea that how people construe and make sense
of what is around them is important.
What’s the story with humanistic psychology? What are they
doing beyond being phenomenological?
As you are being socialized by everyone in your life, you
become progressively OUT OF TOUCH with your feelings,
which is to say out of touch with yourself and who you are
because you are BUSY enacting CULTURAL/FAMILIAL norms
that you have been trained to engage in.
Rogers:
stereotype that he only did psychotherapy, but actually he
proposed a WHOLE THEORY of personality.

Both were interested in psychologically well- how does one get
from normal to extraordinary?
Puzzle 1: Carl Rogers proposed that there are certain
circumstances under which the likelihood is MUCH higher that
you will be able to be exceptional. conditions under which you
will be able to thrive.
1a. what are these conditions?
1b. what happens to the nature of the mind that allows that
better functioning to occur?
1a’. What are the circumstances under which you suffer?
1b’. What does that imply about the nature of the mind that sets
the stage for suffering?
Despite the stereotype that the main thing Roger’s said was
something silly about psychotherapy,
Rogers DID propose that there is something especially
important in treatment that really matter.
2a. What is that one thing?
2b. What if Carl Rogers was right about that one thing that is
the causal curative property in therapy?
- this particular thing in psychotherapy does NOT require a
great deal of training. It does not require extensive amounts of
school. those things, he argues, can make you an even WORSE
therapist.
Humanistic approaches, which are very tender and kind in
nature, are highly stereotyped. These are lots of ways it has
played out to break through the barriers of our self imposed
restrictions.

Existentialism:
Existential approaches are NOT soft like Humanistic
approaches.
they are pointing to some of the more difficult aspects of life,
such as death, dying. The shortness of the little visit that we pay
to this planet.
Probability is we probably have about 60 years ahead. The idea
of death as NOT front and center leads to certain kinds of
things.
Existential approaches are VERY oriented toward helping a
person face what actually this life consists of. ITs shortness,
and therefore, the exigencies (demands/requirements) of one to
LIVE NOW.
Each moment of what you choose is expensive, it has
consequences.Certain choices can cost you everything else.
Choosing IS intense. The existential folks are not interested in
pretending that IT IS OTHERWISE. They want each person to
see that actually, these are your choices and YOU ARE
RESPONSIBLE FOR THEM, for having made them, for the
consequences of them, etc. A lot people spend a great deal of
time blaming their parents for everything that they are doing.
There are CHOICES, they really are. There is no HAVE TO in
this model.
- this is just a fiction.
If you don’t want to do it, do something else.
Existential therapy is focused on taking responsibility and
making ‘the hard choice.'

Existentialism grew up as a philosophical framework that had a
large impact on MANY fields, including psychology.
- deconstructionism
Existentialism:
- pre and post WWII
- shocking idea of how readily people can shut themselves
off to the agony/suffering/death/murder/degradation of other
human beings
- there is musis, art, history, etc.
- something happened, but people were able to look right at
another human being who was either dead or dying, and have
NO RESPONSE.
- people took no action, but could be internally suffering—>
- OR they looked at it directly, and felt no emotions.
Idea in existentialism: all of us are capable of shutting
ourselves off.
- we shut out people’s suffering and pretend it is not
happening
- ex: walking by homeless people on the street.
One should be engaged with existence, because it is ripped
away.
the point is NOT to say what you should/shouldn’t do.
POINT: life is ephemeral, not going to continue, and it has a
vulnerable quality, and it is changing all the time, and it is
going to KEEP changing.
human capability to become a monster.
Despite the fact that we can make up, and in our societies and
cultures there may be an understanding that there is a god, and
that god is represented by a religious framework.
Persona:

Sartre/Heidegger
Despite the fact that we make assumptions about the idea that
there is someone who has direct access to the truth,
existentialism makes the assumption that:
1. there is no absolute truth
2. there is no truth about how you must/should behave, think,
feel
3. if you face this, it is petrifying.
- who do I ask? there is no one to ask.
4. we are all, relatively pathetic, creatures with big brains who
need to make sense of life, must find a way of grasping what is
going on
- so if there is no truth, that is SCARY.
- i have to figure it out myself? YES. and you have to act
upon it. It if your job to take responsibility for what you
chose to be/feel/think.
- anxiety associated with not knowing
Sartre: to escape freedom, escape the job of needing to figure
out what is real enough to you, and how to live. temptation to
ESCAPE is gargantuan. To escape this, you throw yourself into
something: religion/work/relationship= bad faith. THIS is how
people cut themselves off from their own humanity, which
requires that we use the brain that we have and decide what we
believe, and to consciously/critically evaluate that which is in
front of us.
If I do look at this ideology, and if I consciously and critically
evaluate it, and I decide I agree with, for example, nazi
ideology, one could argue, that within this framework, that is
ok/explainable/understandable. One could argue that this
framework gives the impression that that is ok.
If there is not absolute truth, everything is nothing, and
anything goes!

when one wants to import this stuff in psychology, #1 GETS
ALTERED.
Rollo May:
1A: humans are born with empathy, empathic capacity that it is
your ability to choose
B: No absolute Truth, but there is absolute truth== you are born
with the capacity for empathy.
C: though you face the idea of not knowing how to formulate a
moral framework, and that is scary.
D: because you have inherent sense of empathy, I can feel what
kind of pain you ARE IN, or WOULD BE IN if I treated you as
a cockroach.
E: If my beating heart tells me that
pain/embarassment/subjugation would be agony for you, than
such a religious framework cannot stand. By violating your
humanity, I violate my OWN humanity.
Details:
Born with a certain degree of existential anxiety
Ontological anxiety- anxiety about future choices. recognize
variety of version of yourself that you might be able to come,
and that you might attain at least a modicum of happiness in a
variety of all these different versions of yourself. I gotta look at
this, and I actually have to come of with WHAT MATTERS TO
ME IN THIS SHORT, LITTLE EXISTENCE.
USE MY MIND
USE MY EMPATHY.
- NOT fear of making the wrong choice.
- tendency to engage in SHRINKING of consciousness (similar
to bad faith)
- rolling along on automatic, quasi comatose, and at some
point, you WAKE up and you go, Oh my god! what have i been
doing, how did I get here, and as you do that you have:

- ONTOLOGICAL GUILT: look backward at your life, and say
what have i been doing? How did all of this happen? All thing
time has gone by and its been as if I’ve been asleep. Realization
sinks in that THOSE WERE MY CHOICES and what I did each
time was abrogate my responsibility to choose, gave it away to
someone else so that I could choose not to choose.
- looking at your failure to act upon the DEMANDS of what is
required to be a human being. Being a human is not a fact, but a
task to remain human.
- the devices create a problem for this TOO!
Paradox: I am not going to hand you the answer, you are going
to have to figure it out.
Clarifications:
From the book:
When you are a tiny infant, when you are in the oral stage, until
the beginning of the 2-3 period, one thing that is going on is
that whoever you are, if you are a boy or a girl, the point is that
you are “identified” with the mom.
Term that Freud used for that ends up to be important-
Anaclitic identification: primordial, simple process whereby the
infant cannot distinguish the parenting figure from itself. The
infant feels all one with the mom.
In Anaclitic Identification- both girls and boy are taking
satisfaction from interchange with mom. In oral stage, this is
infant gratification. Gain psychosexual gratification regardless
of physical gender. This is important because it specifies ways
in which the development of boys is complicated, which is
different than for girls.
For boys: gaining satisfaction, but there is also a merging
between her and the boy because there is no merging. The

external world cannot be separated from the internal world.
When boys arrive to anal phase, they develop an ego, and then
in the phallic stage, this process becomes the Oedipal complex
(castration anxiety) and as a boy you cannot possess your
mother sexually, because you are too small, too weak, and there
are competitors for that position. Instead of merging, you switch
your identification to be with your father (the aggressor). This
step allows formation of the super-ego, but also defines what
you aspire to as a young boy and what you fear.
In phallic stage, switches identification to opposite sex
antagonist in order to possess the mom indirectly, symbolically,
by becoming the kind of man who could possess her. The
satisfaction is still associated with mom, but the identication of
who I am becomes different.
For the GIRL:
Anaclitic Identification
Penis Envy, want to possess the father. Continues to identify
with mom, but in a much more conflict filled way.
Then, pass through anal stage, develop ego: have an ego- I am
too small, I am too miniature, and there is a major competitor.
Tension and Anxiety about being punished. In the end, you want
to possess your father sexually, but you identify with the
aggressor (the mom) and you develop a superego so that you
become, in principle, the kind of person, who your father could
have sex with so that you could become impregnated, and have
a son, and then possess a penis of your own.
Libido directed toward a different object.
Second Clarification:
Drive-Structure Model= Freudian Theory (Second iteration)
Tri-partite model of the mind: Id, Ego, Superego.
all the structures come from drive. Drive is libido. Libido is
infantile psychosexual instinct.

Psychosexual conflict that is very intense, and huge pressures
(including reality) are all pushing on the ego. The ego is
shoved, crushed, and ordered around. The ego is trying to come
up with compromised position which all of the forces will hate
because they all want it their way and no other way. The only
thing you will ever have is the inadequate, compromised
position. Id gets a bit, superego gets a bit, and reality gets a
bit.
Conflict, pressure, and tension define Identity. It is all virtually
totally unconscious.
What is psychic system doing?
Because libido is the strongest force, means that you are
seeking gratification and you are not going to get it in its direct
form.
In the end, psychic system is driving you toward gratification.
There will be some degree of gratification. One way or another,
you will find a compromised position that gives you the
opportunity to inadequately gratify these instincts. Once there is
gratification, tension is reduced.
Contradiction in the model:
Constancy Principle: psychic system aims to bring all tension to
0. (tension reduction)
What is the circumstance in which you will have the least
tension? Death.
Thantos: the death instinct. He mentions it, but he never talks
about it again.
Critiques begin to grate on him after 1910, and he starts trying
to answer the critiques. (Accommodation phase, trying to
response to critics). In the end, he never changes the tripartite

model, it never changes. He DOES make some assumptions
around the edges that sound like he is starting to change it, but
he never does.
Civilization’s Discontents:
What is one of the reasons that psychological defense can be
problematic?
Makes it difficult to engage with anything external to you
because defense mechanisms require psychic energy to
MAINTAIN.
Ego is using psychic energy to engage in defense mechanisms,
which makes it difficult to engage with reality. Ego cannot
engage with reality.
However, it is inevitable that you will engage in some defense
mechanisms.
Biological Drive causes libido, but also creates civilization. The
products you produce are the result. Culture is created from
drive, but so is defense mechanisms. He came to the
understanding in part by trying to fight of Adler and Jung who
wanted to take reality into account much more than he ever
wanted to. When libido creates society, it creates niches within
which you can express your impulses in a somewhat less sullied
way, albeit compromised, but society provides 1. marriage 2.
war (allows killing). Civilization= socially validated expression
or otherwise restricted impulses. more defenses are operating,
the more screwed up you are going to be.
Sublimation: Express instincts through societal vehicles, and it
looks like a defense mechanism, except that it does not take
psychic energy to maintain. Rather, society provides you with
all of that stuff.
Freud concedes that there is one thing that can, sort of, modify
drive, can modify defensive maneuver. If expressing drive in
the context of war, or in the context of marriage, or in the
workplace, this does not require psychic energy to maintain.

This is a response
Engaging with reality in a way that matters—> Reality
principle.
Need to know psychological defense mechanisms and how they
function.
Repression- the most basic defense mechanism.
Why?
completely subconscious
ALL defense mechanisms rely upon repression.
The other defense mechanisms have the result of making a
biological, instinctual story hidden from awareness and
ensuring distorted awareness
Projection: urge to have sex with my mother, and now I accuse
my brother of wanting to have sex with my mother. Imply that I
don’t have it—> shove it away from my own awareness.
Denial- even easier than repression. Denial is one of the first
thing that kids do out loud.
Very irrational, but clearly emerges early.
Denial requires that there is a notion in consciousness that I
should not have. There has to be some little bit of awareness of
something, but it will not be awareness directly of libidinous
impulse.
Displacement: Have a libidinous urge, and because that would
be too unacceptable for you to be aware of, you enact that urge
toward someone or something else. Kick the dog (instead of
your boss). Fighting off castration effort of your father, and you
beat up your son.
For a freudian shrink, whatever it is that you are saying, doing,
feeling, saying that you are feeling, expressing, is a disguised
representation of psychosexual conflict which is producing your

symptoms. I use your behavior as a sign of your underlying,
unconscious person. Job is to look at manifestation and infer
what is the underlying, invisible psychosexual conflict at the
heart of these symptoms and signs. Therefore, if you are
expressing these things, and if I think this is a disguised
manifestation of infantile psychosexual experience. When I
eventually offer you this story, you reject it. RESISTANCE-
resisting what I consider to be a fact. The more the patient
resists, the more sure the therapist can be about the fact that
they are touching on a sensitive story.
Job of analyst is to make inference about underlying conflict
that produced the signs and symptoms.
From Last Lecture:
under or over gratification leads to fixation OR partial fixation.
ex: undergratification at oral stage. You are very needy, and
your oral gratification is not satisfying enough. This causes
fixation at the oral stage.
Psychosexual conflict that is profound AND repressed, and it is
like a ticking time bomb, or virus, waiting to infect you. Like a
disease entity. Waiting for proper conditions to completely take
over your psyche.
Originally, revealed with no symptoms, dormant.
Then, something happens.
· reality
· experiential response (bad trip)
· causes regression to the way of handling things, experiencing
conflict the way you did in the oral stage.
· produces symptoms.
Freud’s notion of depression:
In order to become clinically depressed, you are fixated at the

oral stage.
This is caused by over or under regression at the oral stage.
What leads to symptoms?
- loss of someone (a parent, maybe) to death
- maybe its divorce, lose a job, fail a course, breakup
- could also just be subjective experience of having lost
something
- self respect, esteem,
- the loss will precipitate regression back to the oral stage.
- what am I regressing to?
- oral stage
- psychosexual conflict at that stage
- about the issue of oral gratification, having something or
someone around i can
gain oral gratification
- cathected- attach libidinous energy to that object
- allows for libidinous gratification in the oral stage
- likely to involve anaclitic identification
- going to be abandoned, not have everything you need
- when she comes back, you might be smothered.
- either a total explosion of anxiety, or you will defect to
a primitive mental
maneuver- form mental image of the cathected object
(mom or pinky). Can use
the mental image, which is slightly soothing. I am still
having fish, but I have
gained some degree of satisfaction by doing this.
ex: lost brother to death. Response: form a mental image of my
brother as a self-soothing story. It will be quasi-gratifying.
I am pissed at my brother for leaving me!!
When I am angry with my brother, this is conundrum, because
my brother is inside me.
This becomes anger directed toward the self—> depression.
Depression is ANGER directed towards the self.
This is a form of FIXATION.

This is the theory of the MAJOR DISORDERS:
Under/over gratification—> Fixation—> Loss (actual or
perceived) —> Regression—> Mental Disorder
Partial Fixation—> Personality Disorders (depends on the kind
of
Low level, but painful, or annoying, conflict that ends up
influencing your whole personality in subtle, relatively small
ways. Regression
Oral- taking in, sucking, acquiring, keeping, not having enough,
concerns about having too much, clinging, wanting more,
needing more
- dependent personality disorder (highly needy)
- trouble with separation, issues surrounding trust
Anal- triad- control, cleanliness, orderliness
- compulsive personality disorder, whole life is defined by
orderliness (at a low level)
Phallic- conflicts concerning masculinity and femininity, retreat
out of fear
- narcissism- proving virility, or succumbing to the fact that
you are less than, and for the woman I am the
Madonna, tension and conflict about how to want attention and
also be a perfect marrying mom and a seductress.
- avoidant personality disorder
Need to be able to RECALL the information even though the
test is multiple choice. Need to know the information back and
front. Don’t cram.
Be attentive to object relations people in the book!!
Kohut- text explains as much as you will need to know.
Same with behaviorism: smaller experiments that will not be
covered in lecture.
Adler: Heavily focused on reality
Interested in mastery/power

Security
Organ Inferiority:
Completely dependent when you are born
physiologically inferior at time of birth to everything around
you
you can tell that children want to be better, they want to gain
mastery because they talk about “big boy” behavior and puffing
themselves up as well as becoming better at things.
First person to examine birth order. When you are younger, you
will feel more inferior to your older siblings. You are
surrounded by more people who are better than you, but similar
to you in age. The comparison will be that you are just even
more inferior.
If you are a younger child and your sibling is running for
snacks, and your sibling knocks you out of the way, you will
immediately think this person is so much better than me. This
can lead to INFERIORITY COMPLEX. I am less capable of
doing things than these people are. When oldest, you are
primarily surrounded by caregivers only.
Striving for COMPETENCY OVER ENVIRONMENT.
Reminder: Jung’s shadow aspect—> side of yourself that you
reject/don’t accept.
Masculine/Feminine thing—>
Adler start from a place of masculinity, but moves to focusing
on MASTERY.
Social Relatedness- need a degree of connected with other
people in order to aid you in mastering your environment. Not
all going to be physically the best, emotionally, intellectually
the best, but we can compensate by befriending other people
with strengths.

Goals: He is really focused on human suffering, what causes it.
- is it because you have goals that are unrealistic?
- or, are goals too easily attainable? Not satisfying?
Is fixation over gratification or under gratification in a certain
stage? It can be caused by EITHER.
With Goals: Fictional Finalist
- act as if the goals are accomplished, need to envision what it
would be like to accomplish that goal
- feeling as if I have accomplished that goal
- need to imagine process of completing the goal
-imagine all steps you can go through to get an A in the
class
- by this amount before the test, I am going to have to have
reviewed a certain amount of material.
- if its INCREDIBLY out of your reach, you may not even
imagine doing it.
- just like under/over gratification (FREUD), neuroses come
from having unrealistic life goals, or unrealistic strategies for
achieving the goals
ALFRED ADLER: A little vagary.
Using same terminology completely differently
or coming up with own theories
SULLIVAN:
1. Satisfaction
1a. expression
1b. integration tendencies
2. Security/Safety
you feel happy when your significant other is HAPPY. What
this person does, how you feel, what you were doing when you
felt that. You feel because they are feeling.

In doing this, you acquire a sense of self. A sense of good/bad.
- what I do that makes this person happy
- what I do that makes this person sad
- when mom is happy, I am happy. This is the good mom.
- bad mom—> angry and upset, that makes me angry and upset,
that’s the part of me that is bad.
-log into memory about bad me, brings out bad mom.
- Not me: abusive parent who is horrible to you, but is angry at
you for no reason, makes you feel bad about yourself. You don’t
know anything beyond the contingency in the prototaxic phase
Personifications:
a bundle of memories of good mom/bad mom
Connect what you are learning to a person, and you form
CONTINGENCIES—>
bad mom= bundle of knowledge of what bad mom looks like,
what bad mom looks like
Dynamisms:
how I elicit the personification I am familiar with
about the relationship between the significant other and the
self.
Self-System: The not me is not part of the self system. I am not
aware of it.
THE NOT ME:
where does it come from?
· Stuff that makes you feel bad, but separates itself from the
‘bad me’
· Example: Come home crying, feeling sad, feeling like a mess,
got beat up, hate everything. Instead of mom soothing you, she
says you are weak and dumb, not masculine, who don’t you
have a spine, and then you get weak.
· Take all these feelings of inadequacy and you push them into
the 'not me’ because of the traumatic experience.

· The slapping across the face is that it actually has to be
traumatic. Not just about meanness.
· When I am inadequate, this is the mom I get, and this is
horrible. I am going to shove this out of my awareness.
where does it go?
- shoved into unconcious, shoved out of self-system in terms of
AWARENESS
How does it form who I am?
I am largely defined by what is NOT ME since the not me is
traumatic.
This is sort of like REACTION FORMATION—> reflect
opposite in a very EXTREME way.
Security Operations: Sullivan’s word that is analogous to
Defense Mechanisms
- basically, directs attention so that you see things that are more
likely to keep in line the view of yourself that will keep you
that way. You are more likely to pay attention to the moments
in which you are exemplifying the characteristics of yourself
you identify with, so you ignore aspects of yourself that are
maybe part of your bad me.
Security operations cherry pick for you parts of yourself.
You have as many personalities as you do significant others.
Projection vs. Displacement:
Projection: I’m not angry, you’re angry.
displacement: I’m angry at you, so I am going to kick this dog,
I’m angry.
- Displacement is PART of TRANSFERENCE.
Prototaxic, Parataxic, Syntaxic

Prototaxic: Raw feel of life, no adult thoughts. There is not a lot
conscious.
You are a lot of feelings- raw feelings and responses to them.
Parataxic:
· babytalk and responsiveness from caregiver.
· Trying to verbally communicate things about your
environment, and your internal states.
· Formulating IDIOSYNCRATIC expressions, pretty much only
my primary caregiver can understand me.
· nanny, dad sibling. people who spend a lot of time with you,
your significant others.
· have some degree of consciousness about it.
· this is helpful in some way.
Syntaxic
Now I can talk. other people can understand me.
CONSENSUAL VALIDATION: someone responds to you.
When I get older and better at things, I acquire consciousness.
Difference from Freud: NOT acquiring consciousness.
3 stages= 3 ways of experiencing the world. These are
MODALITIES, not actually stages, but capabilities of sensing
and communicating.
Parataxic Distortion: Sullivan’s conception of transference.
Self connected in memory with A specific SIGNIFICANT
OTHER
SEE new person as if they are your significant other, then you
will take your fund of knowledge and SUPERIMPOSE it on to
this other person.
Freud thinks you are walking around doing this all the time.
Oh, you look like my sister, sound like my sister, etc.
Relationship you have with anyone close to you is in play and
you will experience it with other people when that ‘schema is
activated’

Illusory two person group: place notion of your sister onto this
other person
Results in relationship dynamics that will probably mirror those
that you have with your sister.
Therapy:
take approach of humility
Freud: Resistance
observing participants, and participant observation.
But, like Freud, want to gain insight into relationship dynamics
rather than psychosexual urges.
LEARNING:
Klein
Bowlby -
Ainsworth - the strange situation.
mom walks out of the room, what happens to kid
3 types of attachment
how translates to adulthood.
Kohut
How is Sullivan different from Freud?
More interested in emotions
More interested in reality
Sullivan did not talk so much about consciousness—> just
avoided it.
Sullivan ignores the libido. No psychosexual urge. Not a core
part of personality.
Sullivan much more interested in
The ID- two kinds of instincts
Life Instincts- Eros
drives and passions that push for reproduction, survival

Libido- finite amount of energy within each person
Death Instincts- Thanatos
human desire to return to the inanimate state
humans are driven by death instincts- combination of desire to
die and knowledge that we will eventually die.
Pleasure principle: the drive of the Id to release unwanted
tension regardless of the consequences.
Primary Process Thinking: To discharge tension, the id forms an
internal image of the desired object. This is the purpose of
dreams. this is not enough to soothe the Id and release tension,
giving rise to the EGO
EGO: Reality, Reason, and Order
Ego- direct outgrowth of the ID.
· reality testing
· making decisions about various courses of action
Each of the structures of the mind is fueled by/created by
drive (psychosexual instinct). That is why those structures
characterize your entire personality.
Born with drive.
Ages 0-2: Id, primary process thinking, fundamental
human motivation is sexuality, libido. Id is the repository of
psycho sexual of earth. Primary Process thinking is the modality
of thinking of the id and it is illogical, irrational, and not linear.
Jumble of symbolic concerns and wishes towards achieving
psychosexual gratification, referred to as the pleasure principle.
Oral Stage, these urges migrate from part of the body to another
part of the body to another part, etc. Sense of pleasure is
located in and around the mouth. This is not matured sexual
pleasure but it does have to do with build up of tension and
release. Teething, it’s painful but they also like it. Pleasure

mixed with a bit of pain.
Ages 2-3: Libidinous instinct moves towards the anal
cavity. Child is going to take pleasure in the build up of tension
and release of feces/fart etc. Anal stage. Somewhere during this
period, there is going to be a battle you are going to lose (potty
training). You are not going to be able to defecate where you’d
like. You are going to acquire the ability of regulating when and
where you poop. You then acquire the ego. You have some
capacity to perceive and engage the pressures of external
reality. You can also engage in secondary process thinking, you
having the capacity to plan in advance and grasp that this is not
a toilet I’m gonna go where there is one, some linearity in
thinking.
Ages 3-5: Not called the genital stage. (Boys) Little boy
is understanding/learning about his penis and is proud, enjoying
his appendage. It’s AS IF looks over and sees naked little girl,
and wonders what’s going on and she’s been ruined. What could
happen to me? This is happening when the child is libidinously
is wanting to posses his mother sexually, and having the urge to
have sexual intercourse with his mother but understands,
because they have developed the ego, that it makes no sense and
I will piss off other adult males. I will be castrated if I keep
having this urge; he’s already ruined her. That struggle is
extremely intense and terrifying. Castration anxiety. It is so
huge that he finds a way to mentally distort himself and identify
with/become similar to this adult male then I can eventually
copulate with somebody like my mother. This is the Oedipus
complex, and engaging in this process [Identification with the
Agressor, the defensive process through which…], …I acquire
the superego. Create “ego ideals, conscience.” Seeking
perfection. (Girl) Although it is true children are extremely
egocentric and believe their life is the natural state of affairs,
girl looks down uninterested, then looks over and is extremely
interested in male penis. Where did mine go? I’m ruined,
defaced, harmed. Mom took it as some sort of revenge against
me because I want to posses my father/adult male figure, so that

I can possess a penis in that way. Wants to copulate with father,
and impregnated by them, and they want it to be a penis. If they
have boy, they have their own penis. Penis Envy. This is
occurring when I am first having inklings of sexual urge but
there is the anxiety that I have a competitor and could be further
harmed. What I’m going to do instead of trying to copulate with
adult male, I am going to identify with huge adversary and
acquire her capabilities such that I can later in principle possess
somebody like my father. The Elektra Complex. When she
identifies with mother, she is identifying with the aggressor and
forms a superego. Because she is born without this member and
feels already defaced, she experiences a narcissistic
vulnerability early on. Physically inadequate and unappealing.
No goodies. The implication of that is you grow accustomed to
this idea and have an inherent masochism. Anxiety of girl is a
lot less than that of a boy because she’s already been ruined.
Urgency of identifying with aggressor was less intense so
superego is going to be weaker. Girl and women are thus less
moral/ethical than boys and men. Phallic Stage. Once you get to
the end of the phallic stage, everything about your personality
has finished developing. You are now you, set in stone. All
development stops.
All psychological disorder begins with libido/drive. Everything
is ultimately the strength of your libidinous instinct. They set
everything in motion. The strength of drive tells us whether you
end up over gratified or under gratified. Eg. If you are born
with huge drive states, then no mater what you are exposed to,
it is never going to be enough to satisfy you. If libidinous drive
is really weak, then everything you encounter is like an assault,
too much. Over and under gratification can lead to fixation or
partial fixation. The conflict associate with lack of gratification
is profound then you are going to have a fixation at a particular
stage at which that conflict happened. If the conflict is not
huge, then you will have a partial fixation.
1. Will carl rogers be on the test?
- is he considered a neo-freudian?

- how could he employ his model to work with severe mental
illness e.g. schizophrenia?
-
- Journals should be 2 pages double spaced.
- Jung and retrospective analysis:
- he does do some of this, but doesn’t it find it to be curative
- he is more concerned with self-realization, so it
retrospective dream analysis is not critical
- Freud: Development of Clinical Depression
- fixated at oral stage
- something in your mind that helps you gain oral
satisfaction.
-“Cathected object" (cathexis)
- connected to object as source of oral gratification, but you
cannot always access the object
- since you cannot always access the object, you create an
image of the object in your mind, which allows you to delay
your gratification
- the same way you have an internal mental image of the
object in the oral stage, you have an internal representation
- representation in your mind of your mother
- have representation of your brother in your brain.
- hate your brother for dying
why is loss an important part of this trigger?
- have this thing, put it in your mind so that you can self soothe
- when you lose the thing, you go back to the way you could
have
- the way you dealt with things in the oral stage is the way that
you will deal with them when you regress.
- i will deal with the loss of my brother/mother/job by
creating mental representation of that person
- still upset with that person for leaving you and for
abandonment
-doesn’t mean you hate them, but they are the target of your

upset about the loss
- we use this mechanism, but we put it in our mind, and then
it becomes self-directed anger
Depression: anger directed at something inside of you
For Freud, symptoms come first. He is looking at symptoms and
then deducing what stage you are fixated in. The SYMPTOMS
for him, are very important. They lead him, solely, to his
diagnosis.
Freud doesn’t have ANY outside sources. He doesn’t care about
the perspective of the mother, etc. He just has you as the source
of information.
Primary Process Thinking: Illogical. Symbols in dreams that are
soothing to us. We don’t really care whether this is symbolic or
an actual representation.
TERMS TO KNOW:
Cathected Object, Cathexis
Self-Directed Anger
Fixation
Strong Fixation: now referred to as a vulnerability
something that makes you vulnerable to depression—> now, we
would say that experiencing a traumatic experience is a
vulnerability, makes you more likely to develop depression.
Fixation-
-over or under gratification of libidinous urges in psychosexual
phase of development
Oral Stage: about taking in, acquiring. Serious conflict, leads to
clinical depression.

When you have traumatic experience, you go back to how you
coped in the infantile stage
Partial Fixation:
-Not as profound, but you have an underlying issue. This is a
low level underlying problem that colors your everyday life.
-When you are looking at these things, remember that OCPD
and OCD are not interchangeable.
oral stage: dependent personality
phallic stage: partial fixation= narcissistic personality disorder.
anal: partial fixation= compulsive personality disorder.
Defense Mechanisms:
sublimation:
doing something societally acceptable to that is satisfying your
urge.
I want to kill people, so I am going to become a surgeon.
- unconscious in the sense that they have libidinous drive to
seek gratification via aggression
- requires less psychic energies because it does not require
suppressing the activity, even though you are transmuting it.
repression- most basic mechanism. needed for all other defense
mechanisms.
denial: convincing yourself that something did not happen or
does not exist. Lying.
displacement: take out feelings on someone ELSE as though
they were the object of my anger.
transference
resistance: kind of a broad term for ANY defense mechanism.
projection: you take your feeling and project it onto someone
else.
- projection and displacement seem similar, but they aren’t
the same.

reaction formation- that’s not me, this is me. i don’t hate you, i
love you.
- will be important for
repression: forgetting traumatic experience.
sublimation- marriage, permitted sexual relationships
rationalization- changing the reason why you are acting a
certain way
5 Phases:
Oral-
- anaclitic
-
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
NOTHING Happens to your personality after the phallic stage
(after age 5)
There is a lot of reason to reject this—> even at its core
(personality), we would not necessarily describe ourselves the
same way now as we would when we were 5.
All psychopathology comes from LIBIDO—> comes from the
ID. Libidinous energy is from the ID.
Psychotherapy:
1. Free Association- you just talk.
- you lay on the couch, and you look at nothing. you have no
relationship with the therapist. they will just prod you if you
say nothing. doesn’t matter how tangential. The analyst wants a
stream of consciousness of your thoughts
2. Abreaction- emotional moment you will reach (Can happen
over and over), NODAL Moment.
3. Emotional Insight- result of abreaction. NOT the same as

intellectual logic.
- this is transformative.
4. Interpretation
- the analyst comes in and offers their thoughts on WHY you
are having a given reaction.
5. Resistance
6. Working Through- trying to understand and come to
acceptance of your weird unconscious urge, and integrate it into
your life to prevent future regression. Accept a bomb that’s
been laid on your life. Bridging the emotional and the logical.
- this is not necessarily one time. people do psychoanalysis
for 2-3 years before they feel like they have reached.
Analysis now is considered the term of study.
7. Termination- and you’re done.
Transference: (very important): Re-experience the conflict and
displace it onto the analyst. The non-relationship is what allows
the transference to take place. You will relive it with your
analyst as if they are your parent (or whatever the target of your
libidinous energy is.)
- transference to other people
- When you are not a blank slate, you are more likely to enact
transference.
Content of transference: psychosexual urge—> libido.
Psychosexual conflict is reducible to libido. (make sure to get
this right).
Freud thinks that awareness of your psychosexual conflict is
CURATIVE: Emotional Insight and Awareness in terms of
Interpretation.
Defense Mechanisms seem to rely on having a sense of reality.
Carl Jung:
Self-Realization—> first conception of an overarching way to

integrate the self and understand yourself, and fully understand
yourself. This comes back in 3rd wave approaches.
- gain an understanding of who you are and utilize those things
in life.
Differentiation and Integration-
taking parts of yourself that are divorced from one another, and
making space for all of them.
Opposing Forces: Yin and Yang
Anima/Animus—> feminine and masculine part of yourself.
- you will de-emphasize the half of you that is not as
present—> SHADOW ASPECT.
- learn different parts of yourself, what they are, and
integrate them into the way that you make decisions.
-understand yourself.
Archetypes: mother earth, hero, categories into which we fit our
behavior.
Jung is a spiritual dude- there are ways we experience the
world, and our cultural archetypes are important.
Extrovert/Introvert- these are also archetypes.
Goal: get to wholeness. Allow all parts to work together and in
tandem with each other.
Competency/Mastery—> understand how to utilize parts of
ourselves to be the most functional possible. Want to be good at
life.
- social
-emotional
Spirituality- greater connectedness to the world
Archetypes: shared consciousness. Very abstract.
Eric Erikson:

Focus on Interpersonal Adaptation and how we form
relationships with others
8 stages, that each exemplify crises that are experienced in our
life.
1. Age 1: Trust vs. Mistrust. Who can I rely on and who will
show up for me? I trust and feel safe or I don’t (connect to
Bowlby)
2. Age 2-4: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: I’m good or I’m bad.
Competency over controlling yourself.
- developmental theory. You must go through these stages
3. Age 5: Initiative vs. Guilt: goal directed purpose, am I gonna
do this thing or am I guilty and have no goal.
4. Age 10/11: Industry vs Inferiority:
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (pre-teen/teenage)
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Generativity vs. Self-absorption
8. Integrity vs. Despair
Freud
· first thinker to talk about the unconscious- aspects of the mind
that operate outside of awareness, and that we cannot
intentionally change, get rid of, or get access to
· experiences that we have, especially those that are painful,
will lead you to feel pained and anxious and you will defend
against those bad things that happen to you. Mind engages in
psychological defense designed to protect you.
First theory- which he held until 1905: theory of anxiety and
defense (aka Seduction/Molestation Theory)
· rests upon idea of physical abuse in childhood at the hands of
a parent, in particular MOLESTATION
· sexually abused by an adult person in your environment,
whether a parent, relative, etc.
· through this experience, you are being used as a tool, and that
experience of being thrown about and physically damaged by
another person is too much to bear, betrayal of vulnerability

that is traumatizing
· psychopathology, whatever it is, is human suffering that
derives from early childhood trauma in the form of sexual
abuse.
· the defensive processes the mind engages in to defend you
from that betrayal
· Assumptions:
· reality matters
· the way you were treated in your life matters
· psychsexual abuse is what happened in reality
· trauma when you are vulnerable and dependent on others for
your survival is utterly and completely unacceptable and
UNPROCESSABLE
· defensive maneuvers (defense mechanism)= repression.
· without knowing or intending it, this experience of this trauma
gets shoved out of your mind into the unconscious so that it is
not something that you have in your awareness anymore.
· bundle of trauma, followed by anxiety, and then defense, is
what CAUSES psychopathology
· when he publishes these ideas and this theory, he publishes
this to a fair amount of acclaim.
· He is in Vienna, very conservative society, and the entire
medical community is Up in Arms. They perceive him as a
horror story. They think he is making this up.
· Medical community thinks that the probability that everyone
has been molested is incredibly low
· Freud is attacked and lampooned in the press
· Who are these colleagues? Freud trained as a neurologist. Job
to diagnose disease as a physical illness.
· At this time, the referral of last resort is the referral to a
neurologist. No one can figure out what is going on with you.
People in neurology have a strange set of cases that are difficult
to diagnose.
· He is trying to propose this theory and not be ostracized from
his profession.
· No colleagues think this has ANYTHING to do with

medicine.
· He ultimately rejects all of the premises of this theory when
he presents his second theory
Second Theory (after 1905):
· Freud retracts his original idea, saying that he made an
inferential error
· Drive-Structure Model
· Even though it seemed evident that these women had been
molested as children, what I now REALIZE is that something
different is going on.
· ALL PEOPLE are born with a universal urge/instinct/drive
that is psychosexual in nature.
· this psychosexual instinct is infantile in nature.
· the urge (LIBIDO) is building up and seeking expression—>
biologically given level of drive
· need to obtain a release of the building up of tension
· the urge is what CREATES your personality.
· the urge migrates to different parts of the body. Initially, we
seek gratification via one part of the body
· Initially: seeking oral gratification, the erotic urges have
moved toward the oral cavity and getting pleasure from rolling
tongue along lips and gums and sucking on the nipple
· as instinct migrates, and infant is seeking gratification in a
certain part of the body, developmental processes occur
· these developmental process are ALSO biologically given
· NOT that you were sexually abused, its that you had an
unconscious drive to possess your opposite sex parent, or some
other person, sexually. In the process of wishing that, your
psyche began to develop so that conflicts surrounding this
psychosexual urge arise, you defend against them, but
ultimately it is not the case that they ACTUALLY occurred.
· “wished to be molested”- this wish is unacceptable to you, and
that is what then leads to psychological defense, neurosis and
the like
· the Instinct end up fueling the entire psychic system, which is

at the basis of your personality
· in the new theory, reality does not matter
· what ultimately matters is BIOLOGY
· Why is he so attached the idea of psychosexual molestation
and the idea that we want to be molested?
· some of his patients are extremely complicated
· woman with paralysis of her arm
· no idea what’s going on, can’t solve it, can’t treat it
· he’s doing his examination, and he can’t find any physical
cause of her paralysis
· as they continue to talk, and she returns, she is talking, she
bursts into tears, and blurts out the story that she is
remembering being attacked by my father, or having a sexual
interaction
· while she is sobbing about this, and apparently remembering it
for the first time, she takes her paralyzed arm and lifts it up to
wipe her tears.
· freud is trying to create a model which can somehow account
for this
· he was exposed to MORE than one case like this
· This thing is enormously painful and hideous
· The reason he retained the focus on seduction, and the wish
for this, is because he observes this frequently in talking to
people
· Though he was referred to as a scientist, he was not. He was a
doctor but not a scientist.
· Cannot study patients in a scientific manner- this is anecdotal
observation.
· Drive= Libido, the psychic system is the ID, EGO, and
SUPEREGO. Libido fuels the emergence of these structures of
the mind.
· Almost all of this theory is untestable because it is formulated
in a manner that is untestable.
· Contextual criticism: This DID give him the ability to remain
in the medical community because he made biological drive
more central to his theory.

· If he claims that people have been molested in REALITY (per
first theory), then he is restricted to talking about a very limited
group of people. His GOAL is AMBITIOUS, and is to talk about
the human mind in general, as it applies to everyone. In the end,
what Freud is able to do with the Drive Structure Model, is
generalize. He can now say that ALL PEOPLE independently of
culture/socialization, all people are born with drive, its source
is in BIOLOGY.
· Differences between people can be attributed to the
differences in the level of drive with which you are born.
· What actually occurs doesn’t matter because it is experienced
as utterly subjective. The subjectivity is reducible to biology.
· The theory is not dependent on culture, not dependent on
society, not located anywhere
· CROSS CULTURALLY UNIVERSAL SET OF PROCESSES
THAT CHARACTERIZE ALL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT from
early infancy onward.
Instinct- What is Instinct and how does anyone define instinct?
· usual understanding is that there is a source, an aim, and an
object.
· for Freud, there is no object, since this dynamic of instinct is
occurring in the mind.
· source
· biology/libido
· aim
· pleasure (tension reduction)
· object toward which the instinct is targeted
· problem: this should be something IN REALITY. But, what he
is saying is REALITY doesn’t matter. There doesn’t need to be
an opposite sex parent- none of this is grounded in things that
are actually occurring.
· Libido is object-less.
Substance of the Drive-Structure Model:
Libido is there, and will form these psychic structures.

· ID- born with it. In early childhood development, this is all
you have.
· Seeking pleasure and gratification.
· Gimme, gimme, gimme.
· Pleasure Principle- drive of ego to release tension
· Primary Process Thinking- unlike ordinary waking thinking
· largely symbolic
· most similar to your dream life
· time does not command obedience of what is going on as it
ordinarily would
· geography is the same. I can be both present and absent
· thinking is not linear, it is irrational, it is taking place in an
irrational way, and it is defined primarily by symbols
· Ego- rational thought
· secondary process thinking
· logically, rationally, sequentially
· the ego, as it is developing, has the capability of having some
responsiveness to reality
· mind acquires capability of detecting that something is
happening externally
· reality principle: it is still the case that as you get older, you
acquire the capacity to navigate your social surround in such a
way that if something is in the path of your crawling, or
walking, you will walk around it.
· The ID has no capability of engaging with reality- libido is
objectless.
· the ID will not lead me to be searching reality for a REAL
opposite sex adult to copulate with,
· whatever object is there will do for the purposes of what you
need
· Superego- conscience, rules, punishments
· formed of two aspects:
· conscience: your sense of what is bad, hideous and grotesque
and fear of the things that will befall you if you pursue those
things, anticipated penalties.
· ego ideal: about what I aspire to be, what I feel i must be,

what I wish to be. WISHFUL/ASPIRATIONAL idea
Characteristic of this system:
· fundamentally defined by CONFLICT
· ID- seeking pleasure
· Superego- seeking perfection according to some kind of
standard, dismissing the desires of the id and feeling sickened
by the self
· Ego is recipient of id and superego’s dramatically opposing
unconscious focus and the pressure coming from the
environment.
· Ego- sensing reality. Ego is, by definition, weak. Ego is a
slave to three forces: ID, SUPEREGO, and REALITY.
· In your personality development and in the rest of your life,
what is happening is the matter of pressure, conflict, and
compromise.
· There will NEVER be a solution to the problem.
Consciousness:
ID- entirely unconscious
Superego- mostly, but not entirely unconscious
Ego- somewhat conscious, but NOT ALL CONSCIOUS. the
reason the ego is not all conscious is because: as you formulate
your ego, you, by definition, have the capability for
psychological defense.
Pressures coming from ID are very anxiety producing. The Ego
will change what you are experiencing so that what you are
actually experiencing is not actually whats going on, so that you
can move forward without disturbance.
Freud- repetition compulsion.
Harry Stack Sullivan- MODALITIES (protaxic, parataxic,
syntaxic)
Fundamental Human Needs:
1. Satisfaction

-share inner life
-develop talents
- express self and be able to keep you in my life
2. security- integration and connection
everything he is talking about varies significantly and pointedly
from Freud, in terms of drive AND structure.
concept of consciousness/what is in the unconscious.
Similar to what we know from the science about how things
develop.
Proposes 3 aspects of development that are happening VERY
early on:
1. Prototaxic Stage: Sullivan argues that this is the condition
you are born with. There is NOT a lot that is conscious as you
and I know consciousness.
- Infant is not responding to environment. The ordinary way
of having regular human thoughts is NOT present in infants. we
begin with RAW FEEL of life. Light/noises/cuddly/itchy butt.
Just responding to discomfort, or feeling good, or images, that
are pleasant or unpleasant.
Everything is totally unconscious because you do not have a
way to categorize or label objects as separate from you.
2. Parataxic Stage: baby talk + caretaker understanding
-Develop baby talk- start articulating things you are trying to
refer to, but you don’t yet have words. No existence in shared
language.
- garbled expression of reference
- what he is MOST interested in is NOT just that it is not social
shared, but to the point of his theory, as you are formulating
these expressions, your primary caretaker has an ability to
KNOW WHAT YOU ARE TALKING ABOUT.

- strange unique language that the parent and child are
negotiating together so the parent can be responsive to the kid.
-this is the beginning of the kid learning to use some kind of
language
- one person can be quasi responsive to
-implies that as you formulate these ‘words’, you are forming
idiosyncratic concepts/categories in the mind, and idiosyncratic
MEANINGS
-idiosyncratic relationship
- this is the beginning of consciousness (communication at the
least)
3. Syntaxic Stage
- how to use words and language and categories, and sentences
as other human beings employ them
- might still be be engaging with primary caretaker, but can use
words in socially shared ways to be able to engage with lots of
people who share your language system
- consensual validation- using concepts/categories in the way
that everyone uses them
- consciousness is now in relatively Full Bloom
- can search memory by labels
- be aware of what you are saying and why you are saying it
- whorf hypothesis: argues that if you do not have a word for
something, you ‘cannot see it.’
- idea that the labels drive the perception. ex: many words
used by eskimos for snow and white.
Consensual Validation, in syntaxic stage. as you are learning
how to do this, you are learning how to navigate social life. If
you fail to arrive to this stage and utilize, and refine and
develop what you are capable of in that sense, to that degree
you will be regarded as mentally ill.
These are not just stages of development, but they are nested—>
by the time you get to phase 3, you have all 3 modalities of

experience (continue to experience. Maintain sense of raw feel,
maintain the idiosyncratic responses, and syntaxic stage.
Parataxic Distortion:
Sullivan’s conceptualization of TRANSFERENCE.
- self connected in memory with significant other by
dynamisms.
- when you are under some circumstance, the bundle of
knowledge/memories about significant other will ARISE and
come into play. Allows you to see a new person as if he or she
IS the significant other.
- take bundle of knowledge and superimpose it upon a new
person.
- relationship with significant other is in play
- self you experience with your significant other is ALSO in
play
- quasi-distorting what is going on
- illusory two person group- my notion of my sig other is
placed upon you, and then I see myself and experience self
as I am when I am with that person. I am inclined to enact that
version of myself as well.
similarity to freud: something from past is unconsciously
influencing current behavior. Content and Process is otherwise
COMPLETELY unrelated.
What is the content from relationship with significant other that
I would be re-experiencing in cognitive distortion?
- fundamental human needs, and how they have or have not been
met by parents/fundamental care giver.
- ex: expect rejection
- ex: using knowledge you have in memory in order to
engage in reality in the only way you know
this is coloring and contaminating your experience with other
people in your every
- if you are someone in my life who I already care about, you

are more likely to matter to me, so I am more likely to have
need in response to you, and these will be significant in the way
that they were with my primary significant other.
Treatment:
completely different arguments about what treatment should
consist of.
There is something destructive about the therapist holding on to
what he or she believes (i.e. theoretical foundation). Cannot
assume this is happening with your patient regardless of what
they say
- this approach is destructive and counterproductive
- therapist should take a position of humility— “I don’t know
everything. You know, since it if your life. You may not know
perfectly, but you know better than me.” Basically, therapist
should be arring into treatment with the attitude that an
anthropologist brings to a foreign culture.
- participant observation: you want to have the people you are
studying engage you in what they are doing so that you can have
some hope of understanding, grasping, what they are doing and
what things mea in this culture.
- in therapy, I should assume I don’t know you. my job is to be
a participant observer in your life with you. seek to see reality
through your eyes.
- sitting face to face, talking, with some psychoanalysis, but
without that sense of distance
- aim should be to throw yourself inside the client’s experience
and take on their experience, even if they are delusions,
hallucinations, to try to experience life as this person does, and
this give you the capability of grasping what they are going
through.
- need to have the ability to not stay there, but to learn to
oscillate between being completely inside the patient’s
perspective, and then regain distance. (like a figure 8)
- assumption is that relationship dynamics are at the heart of
what is going on with you

- treat by coming to terms with relationships and your
experience of them.
General Pt: segue into behavioral approaches.
Despite differences between Sullivan and Freud, all of the
psychodynamic people (neo-freudians and Freud) made a similar
assumption about the PURPOSE of therapy.
-Purpose of psychotherapy is to GAIN INSIGHT into what is
going on with you. This is different for Sullivan than for Freud,
but the assumption is the same.
- the what and why of what is going on with you-> this will be
curative.
Behavioral Therapy:
insight isn’t necessary or sufficient.
behavior change strategy is necessary and sufficient for cure.
Provide with tools you can use to change your behavior.
Implementation of behavior change strategies that are the focus
of behavioral approaches.
Pavlov
- hugely important in behavioral thinking, and in psychological
thinking
- model of learning/behaviorism: classical conditioning.
BF Skinner
-instrumental (operant) conditioning
If you are interested in any Freudians, and inclined to see self
as neo-freudian, one of the questions becomes: how do people
learn? Need to understand learning to understand
psychodynamic processes, from the scientific
Reality

culture
Socialization
LEARNING IS FUNDAMENTAL.
Pavlov:
Began his model of learning by studying animals—> begins
with biologically given MOTIVATION, physical need of some
kind. Learning he studies builds on that learning.
Begin with deprivation—> don’t allow animal to eat all day.
You will have a special physical need to eat and sensitivity to
things related to eating.
Now you are
Skinner:
Begins with NOTHING.
Summary of Freud:
Latency Phase: nothing happens during latency phase.
Genital Phase: final stage of psychosexual development
Phallic Stage: Naricissistic personality disorder develops in the
context of the phallic stage, ages 3-5.
After 5: latency phase
Genital Phase- after age 6. Nothing at this point changes in
terms of personality development.
Influences after 5 are not causal, crucial, or transformative.

Disorder evolves from over OR under gratification of libido.
SOURCE of psychopathology is LIBIDO. LIBIDO is biological,
you are born with it.
Psychoanalysis:
1. Psychoanalysis is Freud’s treatment story.
2. When you hear the world Psychotherapy, and you hear the
word psychoanalysis, these are not identical.
3. Psychotherapy is a generic term. Psychoanalysis is just ONE
example
4. Psychodynamic psychotherapy, this means that one or more
of the kind of neofreudian folks is evoked in their therapy. They
are NOT strict Freudians, but do take a somewhat
developmental approach, inspired by someone who was in the
Freudian scene
5. Psychoanalysis sort of owns NY. There is pressure here to be
a part of the analyst community.
6. What is psychoanalysis?- a few, extremely simple
components.
7. If you are an analyst, and you are the analysand (patient).
You come in, you are suffering with something.
1. I have a couch, and I am gong to sit behind your head
2. You should get as FEW cues for me as possible.
3. analyst is a BLANK screen
4. Show you as little as possible about myself, my views. I want
you to be uninfluenced by me, for your own underlying
conflicts to come to the fore and be experienced in relation to
me.
5. No clues, no hints, no prompts
8. Process of Psychoanalysis:
1. Free Association:
· FREE ASSOCIATION: saying ABSOLUTELY everything that
comes to mind, no matter how tangential
· This is the nub, ultimately, of what is going on in this
analysis.

· Purpose: the goal is to make the unconscious conscious
· THE AIM is AWARENESS- conscious awareness. This is the
‘be all and end all of cure"
· Side note: “I am in analysis”= psychoanalysis 2-3 times a
week for 3 yearsish, or for woody allen.
2. Abreaction- something that happens, as well as a phase
2. as I am free associating, I will come upon the nub of
something, some kind of unconscious conflict. You will re-
experience it, and then you may burst into tears sobbing about
this, or maybe you will be filled with rage/anger. You will
obtain EMOTIONAL INSIGHT.
1. there is some tension here. its not, usually, that you are
reliving an actual traumatic experience.
1. usually, you are re-experiencing a psycho-sexual conflict,
even though it is not an accurate memory. horrified to have such
grotesque urge, and filled with agony that my urge is not
fulfilled.
1. This will arise in ways that might produce conflict.
8. Interpretation
3. when something happens, such as an abreaction, the therapist
may offer an INTERPRETATION
3. The INTERPRETATION IS the treatment tool.
2. should be carefully timed
2. offered properly
2. it is often unaccepted
8. Resistance
4. they analyst has it right, or continues to believe this is the
case
4. the patient must have it more or less wrong
4. therefore, it is a matter of “waiting it out."
4. an Emotional Insight, which may come later, may lead you to
grasp the interpretation
8. Working Through
5. Coming to terms with what you have just re-experienced.
5. The therapist is doing nothing different than what he or she
was doing originally

8. Termination
6. drawing treatment to a close
Transference:
· good
· necessary
· looks like abreaction, but the distinction is that, whatever your
defensive process it, you are now going to re-experience it in
principle, but now you will experience this whole thing in
relation to the analyst.
· Transference: displace the psychosexual conflict ONTO the
analyst.
· analyst behaving competitively with me
· you are trying to best me
· infantile psychosexual conflict displaced upon the analyst
· at this point, the analyst
· what is the content of transference? PSYCHOSEXUAL
CONFLICT- reducible to libido and the conflicts that those
libidinous conflicts create.
· Transference may be very explosive
· As you become used to and accustomed to this new awareness,
the new awareness is both necessary and sufficient for CURE.
Freud does not require resistance, but it typically occurs. If I
am the analyst, then what I am doing ALL the time, everything
you do or say, is a symptom to me or a sign for me of your
underlying psychosexual conflict. If you surrender to me, then I
am interested in that. Your reaction is ALSO a sign of the
resolution of your unconscious conflict that you came upon.
Once we have 1905 theory, and we are talking seriously about
it, and we have the
Problems with Psychoanalysis:
1. the risk of this model is that it requires you to dismiss any
disagreement with your theory
Contemporaries of Freud

C.G. Jung
1. Brilliant, in a completely different way than Freud. He is a
master of many trades. He is, on the one hand, a cultural
anthropologist, but also a shrink/medical doctor, but he thinks
in a much broader way than Freud does.
1. Freud is trying to reduce everything to one biological story
2. Jung is trying to expand things in completely different
directions.
1. makes a lot of metaphysical assumptions: collective
unconscious, archetypes, spirituality
2. motivation and self-realization
1. who are you?
2. utilize your fundamental nature in order to harness it for the
purpose of living your life
3. Engage in a process of differentiation and integration
1. introspecting upon own qualities, tendencies, nature in such a
way as to differentiate opposing aspects of the self
2. we ALL contain all kinds of opposing aspects
1. both men and women contain an anima (female side) and
animus (male side of self)
3. Important to achieve WHOLENESS
4. Two basic components (phase-like):
1. Competency and Mastery: reach up, open door, and push.
bigger and bigger challenges, particularly all through early life
in early 20s and 30s. People are still really developing
competency/capability/talent
2. Spirituality/religious experience. Spiritual connectedness to
the universe is pretty universal across cultures. This is you, in
your human effort, to find a way to locate yourself in the
greater cosmos, the greater universe of influences.
1. locating self in broader cosmology, with meaning and
metaphysical understanding, seeing life in a way that gives ME
meaning in my puny individual life.
2.
3. Example: Dreams

1. Freud: retrospective
1. whatever is going on in the dream is a manifestation of my
unconscious psychosexual conflicts. Everything comes down to
penises, vaginas, conflicts, castration.
2. not going to refocus you on the image of your dream
2. Jung: prospective
1. Libido is not sexual at all.
2. loves dream analysis, would bring you back to the dream
1. what else does that remind you of, what else is that connected
to.
3. distinguish between retrospective dream analysis and
prospective dream analysis—>
1. prospective: implications for the future
2. assumptions of prospective dream analysis
1. everything there is to be known about you, you already
know.
2. you may not know that you know it, but the nub of the truth
of who you are, what you want, what you are oriented toward,
its already in there.
3. The problem is that it is sullied by other stuff that is
confusing you about it
4. while some dreams are trivial, there are dreams that he calls
big dreams.
1. the idea is that it is about a future decision or an approach to
where you want to be, or how to live your life, or a smaller
decision needed in the immediate future.
2. The wisdom of WHAT you actually need, and why you need
to go in a certain direction, is embodied in that dream.
3. looking at the SYMBOLS in the dream, and the processes in
the dream, which according to Sullivan would include
components from ordinary daily life.
4. there will be, in the dream, a message to you, an epiphany,
about how best to proceed with your life given that you have
choices before you
3. What do psychologists think about lucid dreaming?
1. some jungians say that if you control yourself in a dream, if

you are regulating something
2. ex: dream about being upstairs in apartment above, something
unpleasant going on, and then there was a monster in the above
apartment, and dr. andersen is running and she’s gonna die, but
instead, she flew and floated
1. this is a transcendence dream.
2. you take charge, you exit , you take a big risk to get away
from the monster, but with whatever you did/will do, you will
be able to have a soft landing. it will not be suicide.
3. Fear, or intense emotion, will often wake people up.
4. Jung: no hard and fast rules. Freud is all about hard and fast
rules. Jung is about uniqueness of the dreamer and the life of
the dreamer.
Alfred Adler
1.Mastery/Superiority
- Drive toward masculinity, asserting masculinity/becoming
masculine. Shifts toward a drive toward power.
- you are born a teeny, incompetent creature. you have nothing,
no knowledge, no anything.
- you ARE inferior, when you are born. it feels uncomfortable
to be incapable of doing anything.
- VERY satisfying to acquire capability
-compensation for Inferiority is to pursue the drive toward
competency development/talent development/ power/
superiority
2. Social Relatedness
- need relationships with other people in balance with
competency in order to feel well.
PRAGMATIC
- heavily focused on REALITY factors.
- reality of conditions in which you are coming of age
-focused on working class people and those who do not have
any wealth in their families.
- how can you treat human suffering as it concerns CONTEXT

- He is really, ultimately, talking about GOALS.
- Essentially, what people are doing in life is establishing
GOAL STRIVING.
- life goals, life tasks, define the choices that you will
make.
- how much you persist toward your goals
- fictional finalism, which to say that as you striving toward
goals you are acting as if your goals are reacher, or even HAVE
been reached.
by having these goals, we eventually learn to do these
things.
- neurosis come down to UNREALISTIC life goals, or
unrealistic strategies for reaching those goals.
- if your goals are way beneath your capability, this will
also be a big problem.
- need to pursue STRATEGIES that will allow you to
achieve those goals.
Social Learning:
Vicarious Conditioning-
- Vicarious Reinforcement: watching someone else be
reinforced—> same as acquiring outcome expectancy
- have outcome reinforcement
- vicarious punishment is NOT as strong
Bandura: proposes cognitive meditational model: introduced
P(person)— your interpretation of events matters.
Expectancy: set of beliefs about the outcome of a certain thing.
Self-efficacy expertancy:
- what you expect impacts the likelihood that you will/won’t do
it
- if you don’t think you are able to ride a bike (low-self
efficacy), you won’t do it.

-note: self efficacy is NOT self-esteem.
feedback loop: even if you do the behavior, and you do it
somewhat poorly, that increases your expectation that you can
do it.
not taking on opportunities REDUCES self-efficacy
expectation—> likelihood of doing the behavior decreases.
Outcome expectancy: what you expect to happen as a result of a
behavior.
The ENVIRONMENT Impacts your expectation— if you are in
a very hard class and the teacher says they will only give one A
Outcome value: how much is it worth to you, what does it mean
to you.
Bandura thinks about reinforcement (increase in behavior)— he
pulls reinforcement into his model, but not punishment.
P(B)=f(Self Efficacy* Outcome expectancy)
- self efficacy needs to improve in therapy for there to be a
change.
- if you don’t have a change in self-efficacy, it really
doesn’t matter what is presented externally. If I don’t believe I
can ride a bike, then it doesn’t matter if you offer me 10 dollars
to do it.
turns out that there is ANOTHER factor= outcome value.
Eccles: Low SES— wants to change people’s self efficacy
expectation and outcome expectancy. what is missing for them
is the EXTENT to which they VALUE THAT OUTCOME. If the
outcome is not of value to you, then the likelihood that you will

do it is still about the same.
Bandura:
ABCs:
thoughts/feelings/cognitions/emotions
antecedent:
skinner: its the physical or
Bandura: its the thought that you have that you can’t do it/can
do it/really want to get paid
Rogers:
-Unconditional positive regard: I love you no matter what you
do.
- conditional positive regard: condition of only caring for
someone conditionally
the CURATIVE thing that a therapist needs to do is GIVE
unconditional positive regard that the child NEVER got.
- The implications for this are LARGE: problem is that this
means that you don’t need to have special training to be a
therapist
- friends
- teacher
-suicide hotline
- delivering unconditional positive regard
Tory Higgins: you have an actual ought and ideal self. Idea of
who actually are, idea of who you ought to be (a la super ego)
this is what the world wants from me (ideal: this is what I
want). Actual: this is who I think I am. THESE ARE SELF
CONCEPTS A PERSON HAS ABOUT THEMSELVES. Does
not take into account what you are experiencing deep down.
- interested in self-regulatory behavior
- actual self—> who you believe yourself to be.
Rogers

1. Organismic experience
- who you are deep down inside, at your core. might not
have a concept of it. might not have a schema of it, but deep
deep down I want xyz...
2. Self (self-concept)
- through conditional positive regard, you build a conception
of WHO you ARE. I’m someone that wins medals for violin
performance, i love violin, I’m determined, I’m independent,
etc.
3. Conditions of worth: psychopathology is more likely to
develop if you have conditional regard from your parents all the
time. If/when you are worth something. someone has been
presented with conditions of WORTH.
4. Client centered therapy: job of the client is to talk, should be
avoiding diagnostic terms. should avoid jargon. have a face to
face conversation and give them unconditional regard. Fewer
sessions than in psychoanalysis, dealing with current concerns.
- understand you/feel you/get that!
Discrepancy between organismic experience and SELF
concept— when you were raised with a lot of unconditional
positive regard.
Humanists: concerned with self-actualization—> the idea that
you can be your full/true self.
Existentialist: concerned with conscious experience, death.
Many existentialists are also humanists: Maslow is both.
Maslow:
- hierarchy of needs
- at the top is self-actualization.

- look at the pyramid in THE BOOK.
- self actualization is a human need/ human drive.
Existentialism:
-In existential philosophy there is no absolute truth (waiting for
godot/the stranger). not helpful for therapeutic purposes.
In existential therapy, there is one fundamental truth:
EMPATHY.
- capacity for empathy: sullivan and Rollo May (humanistic
person).
- there IS a truth in the fact that you have empathy and you
need to honor it. If you go against it, you deny your own
humanity.
Rollo May: first psychologist to write apply existentialism to
psychology.
- engage in things where turn off my humanity, no longer a
person.
- existential anxiety (grasp that there is no truth).
Ontological Anxiety (looks forward)- have a lot of choices and
its overwhelming. I don’t want to choose.
Ontological Guilt (looks backward)- look back and realize that
you didn’t make any choices for yourself, instead you just
floated along.
Shrinking of consciousness: default to the easiest choice= not
having to choose. This occurs by saying that there is an outside
force that is MAKING ME DO THIS.
For Rollo May, engaging in critical thought is an important part
of the human experience. If you stop engaging in critical
thought, then you have stopped allowing yourself to be human.
According to this view, humanity is not a given. You can
choose not to have it= BAD FAITH= going against what you

feel is true.
As long as I’ve analyzed EVERYTHING, then I know that I
MADE THE CHOICE.
Clarifications:
FREUD:
preconscious
unconscious
conscious
Milgram/Zimbardo: why do good people do bad things?
- how do we live with ourselves?
- what does that do to us as people?
· LECTURE 9/23
· Basic Human Needs/Motivation
· 1. Connection:
· Freud: No
· Jung: No? Not explicitly stated, but slightly embedded (each
individual has capacity for extraversion and introversion)
· Adler: Yes
· 2. Autonomy:
· Freud: No
· Jung: Not really stated, no
· Adler: No
· 3. Competence:
· Freud: No
· Jung: Yes
· Adler: Yes – mastery/power
· 4. Meaning:
· Freud: No
· Jung: Yes
· Adler: No
· 5. Security:
· Freud: No – kind of
· Jung: Yes a little

· Adler: A little?
·
·
· Defense mechanisms operate via ego
· Where does ego come from? Derivation of libidinous impulse
– not a free standing need for security
·
· Neo-Freudians
· Wanted to argue that the ego is not just reducible to drive –
idea of being able to regulate your own behavior, plan ahead,
develop goals, etc., these ideas are stronger than Freud assumes
· Some also claimed there is a conflict free sphere of the ego –
ego is not reducible to libido; it has a life of it’s own
· Reduction in the power of libido – libido isn’t the most
powerful thing in the psychic system
· Karen Horney:
·
· Interpersonally oriented psychodynamic theorists
· How in the context of interpersonal relationships, you learn
who you are – acquire a sense of self
· Harry Stack Sullivan:
·
· Assumes 2 fundamental human motivations/needs:
· 1. Satisfaction:
· 1a.Express/develop your competencies, talents, etc.
·
·
· Not just to develop in terms of overt behavior, knowledge
acquired, etc., -- fundamental need to be able to express in
words your internal states, life, feelings, attitudes, wishes,
dreads, fears, etc.
which includes everything in your mind
· VERBAL EXPRESSION of the way that you feel.
· Important for you to be able to say that you are annoyed, or
irritated, upset, angry.
· 1b. Integrating Tendencies

· I have a fundamental need to be able to be in your presence
and to engage with you in a way that is good – I want to be able
to engage with you in some kind of human way. A workable
way.
· Because of the power of the integrative tendencies, you have a
fundamental need to express/do all of those things, without
taking the risk of losing the other person/pushing them away
· Often we are at risk of losing the other person by telling them
the truth
· It’s about not losing the love, affection, support, relationship
with that human being
· The more the tension exists between the needs, the more you
can’t express competencies without the risk
· Security/Safety:
· Each of us is born with a capacity for human empathy
· I am born with a capacity to feel what you are feeling while
you are feeling it
· The moment you are born and there are other humans/another
human, you’re focused on that human
· But you also don’t know what you’re doing
· You’re a big bundle of emotion – in those early moments,
whatever the mother (primary caretaker) is experiencing
emotionally, is exactly what you’re experiencing
· You’re the same person as that person
· You take from that significant other and this helps acquire
your sense of self
· The connection between the other and the self the
relationship
· personification
· dynamisms, dynamics
· clarify these things since your stupid Microsoft crashed
· during primordial actions with mom, she’s doing/experiencing
positive things – calm, gentle, nurturing, joyous, playful, etc.
· these things end up constituting my first understanding of “the
good mom” – when I’m in the presence of the good mom, I have
the capacity to embrace those feelings and actions – I come to

two ways that learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement1. obser.docx

two ways that learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement1. obser.docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to two ways that learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement1. obser.docx

Similar to two ways that learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement1. obser.docx (15)

More from willcoxjanay

More from willcoxjanay (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

two ways that learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement1. obser.docx