My presentation of Turing revolution in STS

1. Turing Revolution

2. Alan Mathison Turing
• Alan Turing, in full Alan Mathison
Turing, (born June 23, 1912,
London, England—died June 7,
1954, Wilmslow, Cheshire), British
mathematician and logician who
made major contributions to
mathematics, cryptanalysis, logic,
philosophy, and mathematical
biology and to the new areas later
named computer science, cognitive
science, artificial intelligence, and
artificial life.
• Father of modern computer
science, and famous for cracking
German enigma codes during the
world war 2. Historians says, Turing
made the war 2 years shorter and
singlehandedly save the most lives

3. • The son of a civil servant, Turing was
educated at a top private school. He won a
scholarship in the University of Cambridge
to study mathematics in 1931. He thrived
in a culture that encouraged his scientific
interests and as a young gay man. He also
found protection in the liberal ambiance
that the college provided.
• In 1936 Turing publish a seminal paper
“On Computable Numbers, with an
Application to the Entscheidungsproblem
[Decision Problem]”, in which he invented
an idea of a ‘Universal Machine that could
decode and perform any set of
instructions. Ten years later he would turn
this revolutionary idea into a practical plan
for an electric computer, capable of
running any program. This hypothetical
machine is also called the Turing machine.

4. The Turing Machine
• Turing originally conceived the machine as a mathematical tool that could infallibly
recognize undecidable propositions—i.e., those mathematical statements that, within
a given formal axiom system, cannot be shown to be either true or false. (The
mathematician Kurt Gödel had demonstrated that such undecidable propositions
exist in any system powerful enough to contain arithmetic.) Turing instead proved
that there can never exist any universal algorithmic method for determining whether
a proposition is undecidable.
The Turing machine is not a machine in the ordinary sense but rather an idealized
mathematical model that reduces the logical structure of any computing device to
its essentials. As envisaged by Turing, the machine performs its functions in a
sequence of discrete steps and assumes only one of a finite list of internal states at
any given moment. The machine itself consists of an infinitely extensible tape, a
tape head that can perform various operations on the tape, and a modifiable control
mechanism in the head that can store directions from a finite set of instructions. The
tape is divided into squares, each of which is either blank or has printed on it one of
a finite number of symbols. The tape head can move to, read, write, and erase any
single square and can also change to another internal state at any moment. Any
such act is determined by the internal state of the machine and the condition of the
scanned square at a given moment. The output of the machine—i.e., the solution to
a mathematical query—can be read from the system once the machine has stopped.
(However, in the case of Gödel’s undecidable propositions, the machine would
never stop, and this became known as the “halting problem.”)

5. Turing machinecan describe
infinitely many operations

6. Turing machine parts
Tape/Memory
…. > 0 1 1 0 1 < ……
Cell
Read/Write head

7. Turing Machine’s Structure
…. > 0 1 1 0 1 < ….
Alphabet ∑={0,1}
sigma
Tape alphabet Γ= ∑ ∪ {>,<,~}
gamma
Movement ←,→,−

8. Turing Machine Function
> 0 1 2 <
Turing
Machine

9. Breaking the
enigma code
• At the start of world war 2, Britain
needed mathematicians to crack
the German navy’s enigma code.
He joined the government’s code
breaking group called Ultra. Turing
worked in the top-secret
Government Code and Cipher
School at Bletchley Park.
• Operation Ultra was the
codename for the British
cryptologists efforts at Bletchley
Park to intercept and break German
coded messages. There, code-
breaking became an industrial
process; 12,000 people worked
three shifts 24/7.

10. Enigma
Machine
• The Enigma machine is a cipher device developed and
used in the early- to mid-20th century to protect
commercial, diplomatic, and military communication. It
was employed extensively by Nazi Germany during World
War II, in all branches of the German military. The Enigma
machine was considered so secure that it was used to
encipher the most top-secret messages.
• The Enigma has an electromechanical rotor mechanism
that scrambles the 26 letters of the alphabet. In typical
use, one person enters text on the Enigma's keyboard
and another person writes down which of the 26 lights
above the keyboard illuminated at each key press. If plain
text is entered, the illuminated letters are the ciphertext.
Entering ciphertext transforms it back into readable
plaintext. The rotor mechanism changes the electrical
connections between the keys and the lights with each
keypress.

11. The Bombe
• In 1940, Bombe, a code-breaking machine, was installed
at Bletchley Park; improvements suggested by British
mathematician Gordon Welchman were incorporated by
August. This complex machine consisted of
approximately 100 rotating drums, 10 miles of wire, and
about 1 million soldered connections. The Bombe
searched through different possible positions of Enigma’s
internal wheels, looking for a pattern of keyboard-to-
lamp board connections that would turn coded letters
into plain German. The method depended on human
instinct, though; to initiate the process, a code breaker
had to guess a few words in the message (these guessed
words were called a crib). The Polish Bomba, a simpler
18-drum machine, was a forerunner of the Bombe, but it
was based on Rejewski’s method for finding the wheel
positions at the start of the message.

12. Automatic Computing
Engine
In 1945, the war over, Turing was recruited to
the National Physical Laboratory (NPL)
in London to create an electronic computer. His
design for the Automatic Computing
Engine (ACE) was the first complete specification
of an electronic stored-program all-
purpose digital computer. Had Turing’s ACE been
built as he planned, it would have had vastly more
memory than any of the other early computers, as
well as being faster. However, his colleagues at
NPL thought the engineering too difficult to
attempt, and a much smaller machine was built,
the Pilot Model ACE (1950).

13. Artificial
Intelligence
Pioneer
• Turing was a founding father of artificial
intelligence and of modern cognitive
science, and he was a leading early exponent
of the hypothesis that the human brain is in
large part a digital computing machine.
• He theorized that the cortex at birth is an
"unorganized machine" that through "training"
becomes organized "into a universal machine or
something like it.

14. Computing
Machinery
and
Intelligence
"Computing Machinery and Intelligence" is a seminal
paper written by Alan Turing on the topic of artificial
intelligence. The paper, published in 1950 in Mind, was
the first to introduce his concept of what is now known
as the Turing test to the general public.
Turing's paper considers the question "Can machines
think?" Turing says that since the words "think" and
"machine" cannot be clearly defined we should "replace
the question by another, which is closely related to it and
is expressed in relatively unambiguous words." To do
this, he must first find a simple and unambiguous idea to
replace the word "think", second he must explain exactly
which "machines" he is considering, and finally, armed
with these tools, he formulates a new question, related
to the first, that he believes he can answer in the
affirmative.

15. Turing Test
Rather than trying to determine if a machine is thinking, Turing suggests we should ask
if the machine can win a game, called the "Imitation Game". The original Imitation
game that Turing described is a simple party game involving three players. Player A is
a man, player B is a woman and player C (who plays the role of the interrogator) can
be of either sex. In the Imitation Game, player C is unable to see either player A or
player B (and knows them only as X and Y), and can communicate with them only
through written notes or any other form that does not give away any details about their
gender. By asking questions of player A and player B, player C tries to determine which
of the two is the man and which is the woman. Player A's role is to trick the interrogator
into making the wrong decision, while player B attempts to assist the interrogator in
making the right one.
Turing proposes a variation of this game that involves the computer: '"What will happen
when a machine takes the part of A in this game?" Will the interrogator decide wrongly
as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played
between a man and a woman? These questions replace our original, 'Can machines
think?"' So the modified game becomes one that involves three participants in isolated
rooms: a computer (which is being tested), a human, and a (human) judge. The human
judge can converse with both the human and the computer by typing into a terminal.
Both the computer and human try to convince the judge that they are the human. If the
judge cannot consistently tell which is which, then the computer wins the game.
As Stevan Harnad notes,the question has become "Can machines do what we (as
thinking entities) can do?" In other words, Turing is no longer asking whether a
machine can "think"; he is asking whether a machine can act indistinguishably from the
way a thinker acts. This question avoids the difficult philosophical problem of pre-
defining the verb "to think" and focuses instead on the performance capacities that
being able to think makes possible, and how a causal system can generate them.

16. Captcha
CAPTCHA (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers
and Humans Apart) is a type of security measure known as challenge-
response authentication. CAPTCHA helps protect you from spam and
password decryption by asking you to complete a simple test that proves
you are human and not a computer trying to break into a password
protected account.
A CAPTCHA test is made up of two simple parts: a randomly generated
sequence of letters and/or numbers that appear as a distorted image, and
a text box. To pass a the test and prove your human identity, simply type
the characters you see in the image into the text box.
Why do we use Captcha?
CAPTCHA offers protection from remote digital entry by making sure only a human
being with the right password can access your account. CAPTCHA works because
computers can create a distorted image and process a response, but they can't read
or solve the problem the way a human must to pass the test.
Many web services, including Google, use CAPTCHA to help prevent unauthorized
account entry. You may also see CAPTCHA on other sites that provide access to
sensitive information, such as bank or credit card accounts.

17. A theory of life
In 1951 Turing turned to a completely
new scientific project, which exploited
his ability to use the Manchester
computer. It was the problem of
understanding the biological patterns -
spots, stripes, flower petals of nature. -
He proposed an explanation in terms
of chemical interactions and developed
equations for them.

18. The betrayal of
Alan Turing
Homosexuality, a crime in Britain at that
time. Now with a criminal record, he
would never again be able to work for
Government Communications
Headquarters (GCHQ), the British
government's postwar code-breaking
Centre.
• In 1952 Turing was prosecuted for gross
indecency, as being gay was then a crime in
Britain. He was sentenced to chemical castration.
It's believed that this caused depression, and in
1954 Turing committed suicide by eating an apple
poisoned with cyanide

20. Advancement of Artificial
Intelligence
Remarkable A.I Chatbots in the History of A.I
• Eliza
• Eugene
• Catherine
• Parry

21. ELIZA
ELIZA is an early natural language processing
computer program created from 1964 to 1966 at the
MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Joseph
Weizenbaum. Created to demonstrate the
superficiality of communication between humans
and machines, Eliza simulated conversation by using
a "pattern matching" and substitution methodology
that gave users an illusion of understanding on the
part of the program but had no built-in framework
for contextualizing events. Directives on how to
interact were provided by "scripts", written
originally in MAD-Slip, which allowed ELIZA to
process user inputs and engage in discourse
following the rules and directions of the script. The
most famous script, DOCTOR, simulated a Rogerian
psychotherapist (in particular, Carl Rogers, who was
well known for simply parroting back at patients
what they had just said), and used rules, dictated in
the script, to respond with non-directional questions
to user inputs. As such, ELIZA was one of the first
chatterbots and one of the first programs capable of
attempting the Turing test.

22. Eugene
Eugene Goostman is a chatbot that some regard as having passed the
Turing test, a test of a computer's ability to communicate indistinguishably
from a human. Developed in Saint Petersburg in 2001 by a group of three
programmers, the Russian-born Vladimir Veselov, Ukrainian-born Eugene
Demchenko, and Russian-born Sergey Ulasen, Goostman is portrayed as a
13-year-old Ukrainian boy—characteristics that are intended to induce
forgiveness in those with whom it interacts for its grammatical errors and
lack of general knowledge. Eugene Goostman is portrayed as being a 13-
year-old boy from Odessa, Ukraine, who has a pet guinea pig and a father
who is a gynecologist. Veselov stated that Goostman was designed to be a
"character with a believable personality". The choice of age was intentional,
as, in Veselov's opinion, a thirteen-year-old is "not too old to know
everything and not too young to know nothing". Goostman's young age
also induces people who "converse" with him to forgive minor grammatical
errors in his responses.In 2014, work was made on improving the bot's
"dialog controller", allowing Goostman to output more human-like
dialogue.

23. PARRY
PARRY was written in 1972 by psychiatrist Kenneth Colby, then at Stanford University. While ELIZA was a
tongue-in-cheek simulation of a Rogerian therapist, PARRY attempted to simulate a person with paranoid
schizophrenia. The program implemented a crude model of the behavior of a person with paranoid
schizophrenia based on concepts, conceptualizations, and beliefs (judgements about conceptualizations:
accept, reject, neutral). It also embodied a conversational strategy, and as such was a much more serious and
advanced program than ELIZA. It was described as "ELIZA with attitude".
PARRY was tested in the early 1970s using a variation of the Turing Test. A group of experienced psychiatrists
analyzed a combination of real patients and computers running PARRY through teleprinters. Another group of
33 psychiatrists were shown transcripts of the conversations. The two groups were then asked to identify
which of the "patients" were human and which were computer programs. The psychiatrists were able to
make the correct identification only 48 percent of the time — a figure consistent with random guessing.
PARRY and ELIZA (also known as "the Doctor") "met" several times. The most famous of these exchanges
occurred at the ICCC 1972, where PARRY and ELIZA were hooked up over ARPANET and "talked" to each other

24. Rapid
advancement
of computers
• The works of Alan Turing, especially his
works on the concept of Turing Machine
kickstarted a revolution in which
governments and companies, investing a lot
of money to realize the Machine that can
solve any problem.

26. Turing’s Revolution Controversies
A.I Controversy
The development of A.I created arguments like if the a.i is smart
enough as humans or have learnt empathy should we accept them too
as humans, even in the name of law. Or the capability of someone
programming an evil A.I, this where the idea of Terminator came from.
And in modern days, we have shown A.I have more vast capabilities
even in spyware, where they continually breach our privacy. Human
Activeness might be in danger too dur to being potentially over reliant
on A.I.s

27. Alan Turing founded computer science and artificial
intelligence, he was one of the great mathematical
logicians of the mid-twentieth century and laid the
foundations of mathematical biology.
His remarkable achievements were recognized in 2019
when he was voted as the nation’s icon of the 20th
century in BBC Two’s Icons finale.
The Bank of England ‘unveiled’ the new plastic £50
note which features Alan Turing, and is released in
June 2021. The new design is not just a celebration of
the well-known achievements of Alan Turing but gives
us all a chance to reappraise his legacy. It is time to use
this to look forward and inspire everybody, no matter
their gender or race to fulfil their potential and
contribute to the mathematical and scientific
achievements of the future.
To quote the great man himself:
“This is only a foretaste of what is to come, and only
the shadow of what is going to be.”