This document provides an analysis of contingency, situational, transactional, and transformational leadership theories through the lens of process-oriented moral leadership (POML). It examines each theory based on three key POML concepts: leadership development, morality, and the leader-follower relationship. For contingency and situational theories, it notes their flexibility as a strength, but finds their views on morality and relationships to be neutral and dependent on the leader's definition. The analysis seeks to advance POML as a collaborative theory that incorporates strengths from various approaches.
Chaleo Yoovidhya was the originator of Red Bull and the third richest man in Thailand. He started his career with humble beginnings as a duck farmer and shopkeeper before founding TC Pharmaceuticals in the 1960s. In 1976, he created Krating Daeng, which would later become known as Red Bull, the second most popular energy drink in Thailand within a year. Chaleo utilized a marketing strategy of free samples and positioning the drink for hard-working laborers. He demonstrated leadership qualities of being forward-looking, intelligent, honest, charitable, respectful, and reserved. Chaleo's influence came from both his expert power as the originator of Red Bull and his referent power through others'
This document provides a commentary on the first chapter of the Bhagavad Gita. It introduces the context of the conversation that will take place between Krishna and Arjuna. Sanjaya was the charioteer of the blind King Dhritarashtra, and would serve as a narrator relaying the events of the upcoming battle between the Pandavas and Kauravas to the King. The commentary explores different leadership roles and styles, analyzing characters like Dhritarashtra, Duryodhana, and Drona in the context of these roles. It aims to highlight leadership lessons that can be drawn from the Bhagavad Gita.
This chapter discusses theories of motivation across cultures. It examines Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory and how research has found both universal aspects of motivation as well as cultural differences in what motivates employees. For example, Asian cultures may prioritize belonging and societal needs over self-actualization. The chapter also reviews Herzberg's two-factor theory and how different occupational groups prioritize factors like esteem, security and self-actualization needs differently based on their job level and culture. Understanding these motivation theories can help managers motivate diverse, global workforces.
For professionals navigating negative Corporate karmas, Leadership Lessons from the Bhagavad Gita offers a way forward for overcoming self-defeating habits and managing the mind’s negative chatter that is often the main obstacle to effective leadership. By promoting a leadership approach of caring for followers, stakeholders and future generations, the book offers hope for harmonious workplace relations and a protected environment.
Based on leadership by inspiration as opposed to leadership by control, Leadership Lessons from the Bhagavad Gita provides an alternative to conventional leadership. Particularly, in the times we live, where there is a crisis of faith in leadership, the insights from this book presents a vision of linked-leadership—leaders who are linked through loving-connection or bhakti-yoga with themselves (through self-knowledge), with other beings, with nature and with the supreme source. As exemplified by Krishna taking over the reins of Arjuna’s chariot, the crux of this book is leadership, not as a title or position, but as a commitment to service, excellence and virtuous character that motivates and inspires others to pursue the same
This document discusses effective leadership and the relationship between a leader's personality, leadership style, and their follower's readiness level. It proposes that understanding one's Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality profile in conjunction with situational leadership theory can help a leader determine whether their style is appropriately matched, overmatched, or undermatched to a follower's changing readiness levels. A pilot study supported this connection between a leader's personality, situational awareness of followers, and effective leadership.
This white paper discusses how coaching transformational leaders can incorporate the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment to shape a high-performance organizational culture. It argues that shaping organizational culture is critical for leadership and performance improvement. The paper presents the L4 Strategy Model, which identifies four cultural patterns (cooperation, inspiration, achievement, consistency) that are correlated with effective performance when balanced. It then describes how the MBTI assessment can help leaders understand their personality preferences and how those preferences influence their natural tendencies to shape certain cultural patterns over others. Analyzing preferences can help leaders adopt a more balanced approach to cultural change.
Research Brief - Personality and LeadershipCorbin Ploessl
The document summarizes three studies that examine the relationship between personality and leadership effectiveness. All three studies found that conscientiousness was the most significant predictor of leadership success. Specifically, leaders who were organized, dependable and achievement-oriented tended to be more effective. While the studies looked at different variables, they consistently showed that personality, especially conscientiousness, plays an important role in leadership. This has implications for human resource managers in selecting candidates for leadership positions.
Pathwise Leadership Development Program - BrochureWorthwhile
Pathwise Leadership is a development program that teaches advanced leadership skills drawn from depth psychology and neuroscience. It aims to transform leaders and consultants by strengthening their abilities to foster cultures of results, innovation, and high-level thinking. The program identifies five levels of leadership development and focuses on the highest level, Level IV. It comprises monthly sessions over a year that cover ten essential skills using case studies and practice. These skills help leaders perceive underlying dynamics, motivate others intrinsically, and apply systems and archetypal thinking to complex problems. Completing the program certifies participants in Cultural Genesis consulting to help organizations achieve higher performance through improved thinking.
Chaleo Yoovidhya was the originator of Red Bull and the third richest man in Thailand. He started his career with humble beginnings as a duck farmer and shopkeeper before founding TC Pharmaceuticals in the 1960s. In 1976, he created Krating Daeng, which would later become known as Red Bull, the second most popular energy drink in Thailand within a year. Chaleo utilized a marketing strategy of free samples and positioning the drink for hard-working laborers. He demonstrated leadership qualities of being forward-looking, intelligent, honest, charitable, respectful, and reserved. Chaleo's influence came from both his expert power as the originator of Red Bull and his referent power through others'
This document provides a commentary on the first chapter of the Bhagavad Gita. It introduces the context of the conversation that will take place between Krishna and Arjuna. Sanjaya was the charioteer of the blind King Dhritarashtra, and would serve as a narrator relaying the events of the upcoming battle between the Pandavas and Kauravas to the King. The commentary explores different leadership roles and styles, analyzing characters like Dhritarashtra, Duryodhana, and Drona in the context of these roles. It aims to highlight leadership lessons that can be drawn from the Bhagavad Gita.
This chapter discusses theories of motivation across cultures. It examines Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory and how research has found both universal aspects of motivation as well as cultural differences in what motivates employees. For example, Asian cultures may prioritize belonging and societal needs over self-actualization. The chapter also reviews Herzberg's two-factor theory and how different occupational groups prioritize factors like esteem, security and self-actualization needs differently based on their job level and culture. Understanding these motivation theories can help managers motivate diverse, global workforces.
For professionals navigating negative Corporate karmas, Leadership Lessons from the Bhagavad Gita offers a way forward for overcoming self-defeating habits and managing the mind’s negative chatter that is often the main obstacle to effective leadership. By promoting a leadership approach of caring for followers, stakeholders and future generations, the book offers hope for harmonious workplace relations and a protected environment.
Based on leadership by inspiration as opposed to leadership by control, Leadership Lessons from the Bhagavad Gita provides an alternative to conventional leadership. Particularly, in the times we live, where there is a crisis of faith in leadership, the insights from this book presents a vision of linked-leadership—leaders who are linked through loving-connection or bhakti-yoga with themselves (through self-knowledge), with other beings, with nature and with the supreme source. As exemplified by Krishna taking over the reins of Arjuna’s chariot, the crux of this book is leadership, not as a title or position, but as a commitment to service, excellence and virtuous character that motivates and inspires others to pursue the same
This document discusses effective leadership and the relationship between a leader's personality, leadership style, and their follower's readiness level. It proposes that understanding one's Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality profile in conjunction with situational leadership theory can help a leader determine whether their style is appropriately matched, overmatched, or undermatched to a follower's changing readiness levels. A pilot study supported this connection between a leader's personality, situational awareness of followers, and effective leadership.
This white paper discusses how coaching transformational leaders can incorporate the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment to shape a high-performance organizational culture. It argues that shaping organizational culture is critical for leadership and performance improvement. The paper presents the L4 Strategy Model, which identifies four cultural patterns (cooperation, inspiration, achievement, consistency) that are correlated with effective performance when balanced. It then describes how the MBTI assessment can help leaders understand their personality preferences and how those preferences influence their natural tendencies to shape certain cultural patterns over others. Analyzing preferences can help leaders adopt a more balanced approach to cultural change.
Research Brief - Personality and LeadershipCorbin Ploessl
The document summarizes three studies that examine the relationship between personality and leadership effectiveness. All three studies found that conscientiousness was the most significant predictor of leadership success. Specifically, leaders who were organized, dependable and achievement-oriented tended to be more effective. While the studies looked at different variables, they consistently showed that personality, especially conscientiousness, plays an important role in leadership. This has implications for human resource managers in selecting candidates for leadership positions.
Pathwise Leadership Development Program - BrochureWorthwhile
Pathwise Leadership is a development program that teaches advanced leadership skills drawn from depth psychology and neuroscience. It aims to transform leaders and consultants by strengthening their abilities to foster cultures of results, innovation, and high-level thinking. The program identifies five levels of leadership development and focuses on the highest level, Level IV. It comprises monthly sessions over a year that cover ten essential skills using case studies and practice. These skills help leaders perceive underlying dynamics, motivate others intrinsically, and apply systems and archetypal thinking to complex problems. Completing the program certifies participants in Cultural Genesis consulting to help organizations achieve higher performance through improved thinking.
This document summarizes the key discussions and findings from a workshop on leadership in higher education institutions. It outlines two common models of university management structures and examines the tensions between individualistic and distributed concepts of leadership in this context. Interview findings suggest leadership requires a combination of hierarchical and shared approaches. Effective leaders draw on both formal and informal social networks and must navigate competing social identities.
This article discusses the role of purpose in leadership and argues that it is an important but often overlooked aspect. It seeks to distinguish purpose from related concepts like vision and goals. While purpose may be implied in discussions of results, the article argues more attention needs to be given to the tensions that can exist between corporate and societal purposes. The authors develop a framework for examining how leadership can help balance these purposes through a process of sensemaking. They conclude by outlining a research agenda to further study leadership as purpose.
This document provides an overview of leadership theories and styles. It begins by defining leadership and discussing classic studies that looked at traits and behaviors of leaders. It then examines various theories of leadership including trait theory, behavioral theories, contingency theories, and transformational leadership. It also outlines different leadership styles such as laissez-faire, and compares the characteristics of managers versus leaders. Finally, it identifies skills that effective leaders need such as communication, problem-solving, and the ability to motivate others.
The document discusses the importance of developing emotional intelligence skills to achieve excellence. It argues that excellence is a habit that comes from consistently applying knowledge and skills with the right attitude. Developing self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills allows one to manage emotions effectively and build strong relationships, which are keys to outstanding performance and success.
This document provides information and materials for the LDR 531 leadership course, including assignments for each week, guides for exams, and tutorials covering various leadership models and concepts. It outlines the individual and team assignments required for each week, as well as quizzes, discussions, and other assessments. Additional materials include guides for comparing leadership models, implementing organizational change, and completing the final exam. The document aims to provide all necessary materials to complete the LDR 531 course.
The document provides tips for using Facebook and other online tools for marketing a business or entrepreneurial venture. It discusses setting up and optimizing a Facebook page, including using events, contests, fresh content and storytelling posts. It also recommends using additional online platforms like blogs, Google tools, YouTube, Twitter and mobile apps to engage customers and build an online presence.
This document discusses how two friends, Keri and Deb, have worked together to promote their local community of Hampton, Iowa through various initiatives. They founded a newspaper called Hampton Today to share news and events. They got involved with the local Chamber of Commerce to support economic growth. They also worked with the Historical Society and Tourism Board on projects like restoring an old stone house and promoting tourism through social media skills workshops. The document emphasizes the power of community and how getting others involved through groups like the Chamber, Questers, and blogging tours can create positive change and opportunities at the local level.
The document provides tips for attracting visitors to local attractions and businesses. It advises determining what makes an attraction unique and telling its story. It gives examples of unique historic sites in a small town, including a 100-year-old farm that preserved a Danish immigrant family's history and letters. It stresses promoting other activities in town to give visitors reasons to stay longer, such as shopping, dining, and visiting other historical sites. It also provides suggestions for offline marketing strategies like educating locals, engaging with the press, writing articles, and engaging local groups.
Global warming is the increase in average temperature on Earth over the last century due to greenhouse gases trapping heat in the atmosphere. It is causing more extreme weather, rising sea levels, and harm to human health and wildlife. Polar bears and whales are particularly threatened as their habitats change. To address global warming, countries aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through initiatives and technology while adapting to impacts already occurring. Individual actions like conserving energy and driving less can also help reduce the effects of climate change.
This document proposes a framework called the Context-Influence Framework for managing context in interactive systems. The framework defines contexts as occurring at the level of "Use Subsystems", which are specific combinations of users, tasks, and interfaces. Contexts are made up of "influences", which are factors that affect the behaviors and states of a use subsystem. The framework is intended to ease communication, provide flexibility, promote completeness, and manage complexity when dealing with contextual information in interactive system design.
This document provides tips for using Facebook and other online tools for marketing a business or entrepreneurial venture. It discusses the benefits of creating a Facebook page, including reaching a large potential audience. Specific recommendations are given for the types of content to share on a Facebook page, such as events, contests, stories, and causes to promote. The document also introduces other online tools including blogs, Google services, mobile apps, and Twitter that can be leveraged for business purposes.
The document provides information about attractions and locations in Hampton, Iowa to help them promote tourism. It discusses the Harriman-Nielsen Historic Farm, which is a 100-year-old family farm that gives visitors a look into the history of a Danish immigrant family. It also mentions the Franklin County Historical Society Museum and some of the unique artifacts it contains. The document then provides tips on giving visitors reasons to visit Hampton, such as the local shops, restaurants, and historical sites. It emphasizes promoting these additional attractions to encourage longer visits.
Attracting and working with travel writers and bloggersDeb Brown
This document provides information and resources for attracting travel writers and bloggers. It discusses establishing partnerships with local organizations, evaluating return on investment from blog posts and social media mentions, and finding relevant influencers on platforms like Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest and blogs. Specific tips are given for engaging with travel writers and bloggers online to promote local tourism opportunities.
The document discusses effective strategies for evangelism and using social media for business. It emphasizes that evangelism is about genuinely sharing why something is worth following rather than just reciting points. Effective social media use involves building real relationships with customers through engagement and sharing what you're passionate about to invite others into your space. Several experts provide tips like asking customers where they're online and using various social platforms to interact and provide value to customers.
The document appears to be a lesson plan for teaching Arabic containing several sections and subsections. It includes the title of the lesson, objectives, topics to be covered such as grammar rules and vocabulary, activities for students such as exercises and questions, and a closing section. The lesson plan utilizes both Arabic and English text and incorporates multiple educational elements to teach the Arabic language.
Eldridge Cleaver was interviewed at his Berkeley apartment about his views on the 1960s and his time with the Black Panthers. Some key points:
- Cleaver sees both positives and negatives from the 1960s movements. Positives include ending segregation and withdrawing from Vietnam, but negatives include the left becoming too ideological in their anti-American views.
- Looking back on his Black Panther days, Cleaver is amazed at how little blood was spilled during such a large transformation in America. However, he acknowledges the Panthers did try to provoke violence as part of their revolutionary strategy.
- Cleaver became disillusioned with communism after experiencing life under totalitarian regimes in Cuba, Algeria, and other
This document contains an export order from Fatima Enterprises in UAE to Raga Internationals in India. The order is for ERW MS black pipes of various sizes and thicknesses. Raga Internationals has quoted rates on an FOB Mumbai port basis. The terms include delivery within 45-60 days of receiving an irrevocable letter of credit at sight for 100% payment. The goods will be shipped in a 20-foot container, and inspection and legalization charges are to be borne by the buyer.
Hotel motel marketing presentation for 2014 15Deb Brown
The Webster City Area Chamber of Commerce is requesting a hotel motel tax grant to fund their marketing budget of $34,300 for the year. The marketing budget will be used for various activities including producing promotional videos, designing advertisements, promoting events like Ladies Night Out and JunqueFest through print, online, radio and direct mail campaigns. Specifically, the grant of $24,010 would fund advertising in magazines, newspapers and online platforms to attract visitors from a 100 mile radius to Webster City.
This document summarizes the key discussions and findings from a workshop on leadership in higher education institutions. It outlines two common models of university management structures and examines the tensions between individualistic and distributed concepts of leadership in this context. Interview findings suggest leadership requires a combination of hierarchical and shared approaches. Effective leaders draw on both formal and informal social networks and must navigate competing social identities.
This article discusses the role of purpose in leadership and argues that it is an important but often overlooked aspect. It seeks to distinguish purpose from related concepts like vision and goals. While purpose may be implied in discussions of results, the article argues more attention needs to be given to the tensions that can exist between corporate and societal purposes. The authors develop a framework for examining how leadership can help balance these purposes through a process of sensemaking. They conclude by outlining a research agenda to further study leadership as purpose.
This document provides an overview of leadership theories and styles. It begins by defining leadership and discussing classic studies that looked at traits and behaviors of leaders. It then examines various theories of leadership including trait theory, behavioral theories, contingency theories, and transformational leadership. It also outlines different leadership styles such as laissez-faire, and compares the characteristics of managers versus leaders. Finally, it identifies skills that effective leaders need such as communication, problem-solving, and the ability to motivate others.
The document discusses the importance of developing emotional intelligence skills to achieve excellence. It argues that excellence is a habit that comes from consistently applying knowledge and skills with the right attitude. Developing self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills allows one to manage emotions effectively and build strong relationships, which are keys to outstanding performance and success.
This document provides information and materials for the LDR 531 leadership course, including assignments for each week, guides for exams, and tutorials covering various leadership models and concepts. It outlines the individual and team assignments required for each week, as well as quizzes, discussions, and other assessments. Additional materials include guides for comparing leadership models, implementing organizational change, and completing the final exam. The document aims to provide all necessary materials to complete the LDR 531 course.
The document provides tips for using Facebook and other online tools for marketing a business or entrepreneurial venture. It discusses setting up and optimizing a Facebook page, including using events, contests, fresh content and storytelling posts. It also recommends using additional online platforms like blogs, Google tools, YouTube, Twitter and mobile apps to engage customers and build an online presence.
This document discusses how two friends, Keri and Deb, have worked together to promote their local community of Hampton, Iowa through various initiatives. They founded a newspaper called Hampton Today to share news and events. They got involved with the local Chamber of Commerce to support economic growth. They also worked with the Historical Society and Tourism Board on projects like restoring an old stone house and promoting tourism through social media skills workshops. The document emphasizes the power of community and how getting others involved through groups like the Chamber, Questers, and blogging tours can create positive change and opportunities at the local level.
The document provides tips for attracting visitors to local attractions and businesses. It advises determining what makes an attraction unique and telling its story. It gives examples of unique historic sites in a small town, including a 100-year-old farm that preserved a Danish immigrant family's history and letters. It stresses promoting other activities in town to give visitors reasons to stay longer, such as shopping, dining, and visiting other historical sites. It also provides suggestions for offline marketing strategies like educating locals, engaging with the press, writing articles, and engaging local groups.
Global warming is the increase in average temperature on Earth over the last century due to greenhouse gases trapping heat in the atmosphere. It is causing more extreme weather, rising sea levels, and harm to human health and wildlife. Polar bears and whales are particularly threatened as their habitats change. To address global warming, countries aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through initiatives and technology while adapting to impacts already occurring. Individual actions like conserving energy and driving less can also help reduce the effects of climate change.
This document proposes a framework called the Context-Influence Framework for managing context in interactive systems. The framework defines contexts as occurring at the level of "Use Subsystems", which are specific combinations of users, tasks, and interfaces. Contexts are made up of "influences", which are factors that affect the behaviors and states of a use subsystem. The framework is intended to ease communication, provide flexibility, promote completeness, and manage complexity when dealing with contextual information in interactive system design.
This document provides tips for using Facebook and other online tools for marketing a business or entrepreneurial venture. It discusses the benefits of creating a Facebook page, including reaching a large potential audience. Specific recommendations are given for the types of content to share on a Facebook page, such as events, contests, stories, and causes to promote. The document also introduces other online tools including blogs, Google services, mobile apps, and Twitter that can be leveraged for business purposes.
The document provides information about attractions and locations in Hampton, Iowa to help them promote tourism. It discusses the Harriman-Nielsen Historic Farm, which is a 100-year-old family farm that gives visitors a look into the history of a Danish immigrant family. It also mentions the Franklin County Historical Society Museum and some of the unique artifacts it contains. The document then provides tips on giving visitors reasons to visit Hampton, such as the local shops, restaurants, and historical sites. It emphasizes promoting these additional attractions to encourage longer visits.
Attracting and working with travel writers and bloggersDeb Brown
This document provides information and resources for attracting travel writers and bloggers. It discusses establishing partnerships with local organizations, evaluating return on investment from blog posts and social media mentions, and finding relevant influencers on platforms like Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest and blogs. Specific tips are given for engaging with travel writers and bloggers online to promote local tourism opportunities.
The document discusses effective strategies for evangelism and using social media for business. It emphasizes that evangelism is about genuinely sharing why something is worth following rather than just reciting points. Effective social media use involves building real relationships with customers through engagement and sharing what you're passionate about to invite others into your space. Several experts provide tips like asking customers where they're online and using various social platforms to interact and provide value to customers.
The document appears to be a lesson plan for teaching Arabic containing several sections and subsections. It includes the title of the lesson, objectives, topics to be covered such as grammar rules and vocabulary, activities for students such as exercises and questions, and a closing section. The lesson plan utilizes both Arabic and English text and incorporates multiple educational elements to teach the Arabic language.
Eldridge Cleaver was interviewed at his Berkeley apartment about his views on the 1960s and his time with the Black Panthers. Some key points:
- Cleaver sees both positives and negatives from the 1960s movements. Positives include ending segregation and withdrawing from Vietnam, but negatives include the left becoming too ideological in their anti-American views.
- Looking back on his Black Panther days, Cleaver is amazed at how little blood was spilled during such a large transformation in America. However, he acknowledges the Panthers did try to provoke violence as part of their revolutionary strategy.
- Cleaver became disillusioned with communism after experiencing life under totalitarian regimes in Cuba, Algeria, and other
This document contains an export order from Fatima Enterprises in UAE to Raga Internationals in India. The order is for ERW MS black pipes of various sizes and thicknesses. Raga Internationals has quoted rates on an FOB Mumbai port basis. The terms include delivery within 45-60 days of receiving an irrevocable letter of credit at sight for 100% payment. The goods will be shipped in a 20-foot container, and inspection and legalization charges are to be borne by the buyer.
Hotel motel marketing presentation for 2014 15Deb Brown
The Webster City Area Chamber of Commerce is requesting a hotel motel tax grant to fund their marketing budget of $34,300 for the year. The marketing budget will be used for various activities including producing promotional videos, designing advertisements, promoting events like Ladies Night Out and JunqueFest through print, online, radio and direct mail campaigns. Specifically, the grant of $24,010 would fund advertising in magazines, newspapers and online platforms to attract visitors from a 100 mile radius to Webster City.
Principles Of Human Development Based On Morality And FreedomAllen Carn
This document provides a summary of key concepts from the breadth portion of a Knowledge Area Module (KAM) focused on theories of human development.
The summary discusses four main impediments to individual development according to various authors - the decay of social expectations, ignorance, hate, and systems of hate. It then outlines several concepts that can promote individual development, drawing from the works of Weber, King, Friedman, and a letter from I.R. These include the concept of a calling, King's belief in agape love, the three dimensions of a full life, individual responsibility, and economic freedom.
The document analyzes how these concepts relate to Kohlberg's theory of moral development and Maslow's hierarchy
The document provides descriptions for various flowchart symbols, including:
- Terminators that show the start and stop of processes, processes/actions, predefined/subprocesses, decisions, data inputs/outputs, and documents.
- Other symbols include preparation, display, manual input, manual operations, connectors/inspections, off-page connectors, merging/branching, sorting/collating, delays, and various data storage methods.
- Not all symbols apply to every usage, and some have multiple meanings, so including a symbol key is important for clarity.
The document provides an overview of transformational leadership, including:
1) It discusses the origins and definitions of transformational leadership from theorists like Burns and Bass.
2) There are four key components of transformational leadership: charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.
3) Transformational leadership aims to transform and motivate both leaders and followers to higher levels of morale and performance.
Transformational leadership is a style where a leader inspires subordinates to identify needed change through creating a vision and guiding change while executing it with committed group members. It enhances motivation by connecting subordinates' identity to the organization's goals and collective identity. Transformational leaders serve as role models, challenge followers to improve, understand individual strengths and weaknesses, and align people with complementary tasks. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire measures transformational leadership behaviors like idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Studies show transformational leadership is associated with more positive outcomes than transactional or laissez-faire styles.
Learning Objective: Examine methods for developing a successful team
Are you the type of leader who takes control of a situation by conveying a clear vision of the group’s goals, who exhibits a passion for your work, and who has the ability to put others at ease? If not, do you want to be this person? A transformational leader is one that can inspire positive changes in those around them, is energetic, and is enthusiastic. These leaders are focused on helping their team members rise to their best. This seminar will address how transformational leadership can convey trust and develop employees.
By the end of the session, participants will:
a. Discuss what transformational leadership is.
b. Discover the traits that support and mentor employees to greatness.
c. Examine processes for boosting morale, creating positive expectations, and leading empowered groups.
Presenting a Sustainable Master Model of Leadership, where it is stressed the fundamental leadership attributes of a leader in the workplace. Special emphasis is given to the element of "Emotional Intelligence".
This document outlines a presentation on transformational leadership given by Tan Sri Dato' Seri Dr. Ibrahim bin Abu Shah. The presentation defines transformational leadership and discusses its key characteristics. It aims to help prepare audiences to become future leaders and encourage applying transformational leadership in work and social environments. The presentation is divided into three parts: conceptual overview of leadership, characteristics of transformational leadership, and issues related to building leadership. Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems through developing followers into leaders.
1) The document discusses the concept of leadership and proposes a model called "Proof of Leadership" to define it.
2) "Proof of Leadership" identifies six key dimensions of leadership: the leader's vision, beliefs, change model, ability to influence, values, and behaviors.
3) The model is then applied to analyze several iconic, business, and political leaders like Martin Luther King Jr., Abraham Lincoln, Steve Jobs, Alan Mulally, Hillary Clinton, and Donald Trump. Applying the six dimensions provides a concise way to understand the essence of each leader's approach.
The document provides an overview of leadership and influence processes, including:
1) It describes different approaches to defining and understanding leadership, distinguishing it from management, and discusses the search for leadership traits.
2) It examines models of leadership behaviors including the Michigan and Ohio State studies, and situational approaches like the LPC theory and path-goal theory.
3) It outlines Vroom's decision tree approach and discusses related perspectives on leadership like substitutes for leadership and transformational leadership.
The document outlines a lesson plan on relational leadership. It aims to help students articulate the changing nature of leadership in the 21st century, understand the five components of the relational leadership model, and reflect on developing their own philosophy of leadership. The lesson includes activities where students craft a shared definition of leadership, compare images using the relational leadership model, and discusses how leadership has changed over generations.
The violations include staging processions during nomination submission; holding rallies after nomination submission; seeking votes in rallies; and using government vehicles for electioneering. As climate change is becoming the order of the day, leading to extreme weather events frequently, access to resources like water, fuelwood and food is becoming challenging. Moving to the urban setting, where women’s health and well-being are disproportionately impacted by air pollution and poor waste management, the intersection of gender and environmental issues is particularly important. Management science (or managerial science) is a wide and interdisciplinary study of solving complex problems and making strategic decisions as it pertains to institutions, corporations, governments and other types of organizational entities. It is closely related to management, economics, business, engineering, management consulting, and other fields. It uses various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and analytical methods including mathematical modeling, statistics and numerical algorithms and aims to improve an organization's ability to enact rational and accurate management decisions by arriving at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex decision problems.[1]: 113
Management science looks to help businesses achieve goals using a number of scientific methods. The field was initially an outgrowth of applied mathematics, where early challenges were problems relating to the optimization of systems which could be modeled linearly, i.e., determining the optima (maximum value of profit, assembly line performance, crop yield, bandwidth, etc. or minimum of loss, risk, costs, etc.) of some objective function. Today, the discipline of management science may encompass a diverse range of managerial and organizational activity as it regards to a problem which is structured in mathematical or other quantitative form in order to derive managerially relevant insights and solutions.[2][3]
science in everyday life composition : Now we live in the age of science. Wherever we cast Our eyes, we can see the blessings of science. It has made our life very easy, comfortable and enjoyable. We cannot think of our life without the blessings of science. from dawn to mid-night we feel the value of science in our everyday life.
Science in house : Science plays an important role in our house hold activities. Everything used in the house is the blessing of science. .Tooth brushes, toothpastes, mirrors, combs, pens, clothes, papers, shoes, utensils etc. are the blessings of science. Electric fans and air-conditioners have made us happy at home.
In recreation : Science has invented many wonderful things for our enjoyment. We use the radio, television, tape recorder, V.C.R, gramophone etc. for recreation at home. They help us to forget our sorrows and pains of life and remove monotony of day’s hard labour.
In communication : Science also plays an important role in communication.
The document discusses various leadership and motivation theories. It describes the University of Iowa leadership styles (autocratic vs democratic) and the University of Michigan model, which has two styles (job-centered vs employee-centered) along one dimension. It also details the Ohio State University model, which has four styles based on two dimensions: initiating structure and consideration. Motivation theories covered include content theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, process theories like expectancy theory, and reinforcement theory.
The Impact of Transformational Leadership on Organizational Change Management...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
1- What are the functional sources of power- 2- Distinguish between pe.docxtjames442
1. What are the functional sources of power?
2. Distinguish between personal and social power? What are the 4 power-oriented characteristics of the best managers
Solution
Making organizations more innovative, responsive and responsible requires focusing on a number of leadership, power and influence issues. These issues are critical in coping with the strategic environment with all its VUCA characteristics, and strategic leader performance requirements in that environment. The issues influence developing teams at the strategic level, as well as managing organizational processes linked to values and ethics, organizational culture, visioning and the management of change. Such issues include:
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Although trait, behavioral, and contingency approaches have each contributed to the understanding of leadership, none of the approaches have provided a completely satisfactory explanation of leadership and leadership effectiveness. Since the 1970s, several alternative theoretical frameworks for the study of leadership have been advanced. Among the more important of these are leader-member exchange theory, transformational leadership theory, the substitutes for leadership approach, and the philosophy of servant leadership.
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Transformational leadership is a leadership style that inspires followers to accomplish more than expected through motivation. It believes in raising followers to higher levels of motivation and morality. There are 4 components of transformational leadership: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation. Transformational leadership can transform organizations by implementing a clear vision and inspiring passion throughout the organization. It focuses on developing future leaders and improving performance through motivation rather than negative reinforcement.
Interview With Transactional LeadershipBarb Tillich
The document discusses transformational and transactional leadership styles. It provides examples of how the author has witnessed transactional leadership in their organization, focusing on tasks and rewards/punishments. The author believes their organization would benefit from more transformational leadership, which inspires employees and helps them achieve their potential. The author has been influenced by servant, transformational, and contingency leadership theories and hopes to implement more transformational techniques.
The document discusses five big ideas that leadership books and research frequently explore: 1) Good leaders have good character, 2) There is no single best way to lead, as the approach depends on many situational factors, 3) Leaders must collaborate with stakeholders and manage conflicting interests, 4) Adaptability is key for leaders to remain effective amid constant change, and 5) Leaders are partly self-made through experimenting with different approaches and developing a personal leadership style. The document also identifies four challenges for leadership research: selection of effective leaders, training leaders, understanding followership, and developing useful metrics for measuring leadership effectiveness.
Running Head LITERATURE REVIEW ON LEADERSHIP 1LITERATURE RE.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW ON LEADERSHIP
1
LITERATURE REVIEW ON LEADERSHIP
4
Leadership
Brandman University
Chad Hurt
OCLU 501: Organizational Research
21 November 2017Abstract
Knowledge does not exist in a vacuum; it has to be obtained from somewhere. Therefore a given work becomes only useful in comparison with other people’s work. This calls for the establishment of what the research study published in connection with the works of other researchers to analyze the development of the subject matter. This paper will present a critical review of the literature that was done in regard to the research questions about leadership. The objective of this literature review is to define leadership and to explain the roles and qualities of good leaders as backed up by scholarly documentation.
Table of Contents
3Introduction
4CRITICAL REVIEW
5Research questions
5Research Question One: Defining who a leader is
6Research Question Two: Stating what the Functions of Leaders are
7Research Question Three: Stating what the qualities of good leaders are
7Conclusion
9REFERENCES
CRITICAL REVIEW
The study will apply the deductive approach in critically reviewing the literature. The approach helps to identify theories and ideas to be used in testing and to develop a conceptual framework for testing the data.
According to James Macgregor (2003) leadership contribute quite much to civilization due to their transformative capabilities. Leaders are not just solvers of problems, but they are the people who can help the society move from one level to another through motivation and morality. Some documents on leadership have suggested that leaders are the people who not only ensure that they do things right but also they are seen doing the right thing. In this regard, which type of leaders would be perceived as doing what is right? This question could bring in some answers with a lot of variations in them, but one thing for sure that will be common is that leaders have one personality trait in them, a passion for leading, though different leaders use different styles to lead. There isn't a dearth of experts in the field of leadership or even sophistication of approaches, but still, there is no consensus on which leadership style is the most effective. As much as individual leadership styles do matter, leadership effectiveness is increasingly believed to be dependent on context and situational factors in which those particular leaders work. Research conducted on 160 CEOs justified that leadership is dependent not so much on what a person is like on the inside but by what the demands of the outside are. Considering temporal changes is essential in dynamics and patterns of leadership behaviors of the task they undertake when conceptualizing their styles effectiveness.
Research questions
The research will seek to answer the questions; who are a leader, what are the striking qualities of a good leader and what are their roles? The exploration of these questions ...
The document provides a summary and analysis of the book "Leadership Wisdom from the Monk Who Sold His Ferrari" by Robin Sharma. It discusses 8 leadership rituals presented in the book and correlates them to the theory of transformational leadership. The 8 rituals include linking paychecks to purpose, managing with heart and leading with mind, rewarding and recognizing routinely, surrendering to change, focusing on the worthy, leading oneself, seeing what others see and thinking differently, and linking leadership to legacy. The summary analyzes how each ritual relates to aspects of transformational leadership such as individual consideration, intellectual stimulation, and charisma.
291➠13 Leadership Essentialsthe key pointNot all man.docxlorainedeserre
291➠
13 Leadership Essentials
the key point
Not all managers are leaders and not all leaders are managers. In a managerial position, being a
leader requires understanding how to adapt one’s management style to the situation to generate
willing and effective followership. As shown in the Zappos example, the most successful leaders are
those who are able to generate strong cultures in which employees work together to get things done.
chapter at a glance
What Is Leadership?
What Are Situational Contingency Approaches to Leadership?
What Are Follower-Centered Approaches to Leadership?
What Are Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives?
what ’s inside?
ETHICS IN OB
CEO PAY—IS IT EXCESSIVE?
FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU
LOOKING FOR LEADER MATCH AT GOOGLE
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
PATH-GOAL AND REMEMBER THE TITANS
RESEARCH INSIGHT
PARTICIPATORY LEADERSHIP AND PEACE
leaders make things happen
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 291 6/29/11 8:28 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 291 6/29/11 8:28 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
292 13 Leadership Essentials
Most people assume that anyone in management, particularly the CEO, is a leader.
Currently, however, controversy has arisen over this assumption. We can all think
of examples where managers do not perform much, if any, leadership, as well as
instances where leadership is performed by people who are not in management.
Researchers have even argued that failure to clearly recognize this difference is a
violation of “truth in advertising” because many studies labeled “leadership” may
actually be about “management.”1
Managers versus Leaders
A key way of differentiating between managers and leaders is to argue that the
role of management is to promote stability or to enable the organization to run
smoothly, whereas the role of leadership is to promote adaptive or useful
changes.2 Persons in managerial positions could be involved with both manage-
ment and leadership activities, or they could emphasize one activity at the
expense of the other. Both management and leadership are needed, however,
and if managers do not assume responsibility for both, then they should ensure
that someone else handles the neglected activity. The point is that when we dis-
cuss leadership, we do not assume it is identical to management.
For our purposes, we treat leadership as the process of infl uencing others
to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the
process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objec-
tives.3 Leadership appears in two forms: (1) formal leadership, which is exerted
by persons appointed or elected to positions of formal authority in organizations,
and (2) informal leadership, which is exerted by persons who become infl uential
because they have special skills that meet the needs of others. Although both
types are important in organizations, this chapter will emphasize forma ...
291➠13 Leadership Essentialsthe key pointNot all man.docxjesusamckone
291➠
13 Leadership Essentials
the key point
Not all managers are leaders and not all leaders are managers. In a managerial position, being a
leader requires understanding how to adapt one’s management style to the situation to generate
willing and effective followership. As shown in the Zappos example, the most successful leaders are
those who are able to generate strong cultures in which employees work together to get things done.
chapter at a glance
What Is Leadership?
What Are Situational Contingency Approaches to Leadership?
What Are Follower-Centered Approaches to Leadership?
What Are Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives?
what ’s inside?
ETHICS IN OB
CEO PAY—IS IT EXCESSIVE?
FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU
LOOKING FOR LEADER MATCH AT GOOGLE
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
PATH-GOAL AND REMEMBER THE TITANS
RESEARCH INSIGHT
PARTICIPATORY LEADERSHIP AND PEACE
leaders make things happen
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 291 6/29/11 8:28 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 291 6/29/11 8:28 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
292 13 Leadership Essentials
Most people assume that anyone in management, particularly the CEO, is a leader.
Currently, however, controversy has arisen over this assumption. We can all think
of examples where managers do not perform much, if any, leadership, as well as
instances where leadership is performed by people who are not in management.
Researchers have even argued that failure to clearly recognize this difference is a
violation of “truth in advertising” because many studies labeled “leadership” may
actually be about “management.”1
Managers versus Leaders
A key way of differentiating between managers and leaders is to argue that the
role of management is to promote stability or to enable the organization to run
smoothly, whereas the role of leadership is to promote adaptive or useful
changes.2 Persons in managerial positions could be involved with both manage-
ment and leadership activities, or they could emphasize one activity at the
expense of the other. Both management and leadership are needed, however,
and if managers do not assume responsibility for both, then they should ensure
that someone else handles the neglected activity. The point is that when we dis-
cuss leadership, we do not assume it is identical to management.
For our purposes, we treat leadership as the process of infl uencing others
to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the
process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objec-
tives.3 Leadership appears in two forms: (1) formal leadership, which is exerted
by persons appointed or elected to positions of formal authority in organizations,
and (2) informal leadership, which is exerted by persons who become infl uential
because they have special skills that meet the needs of others. Although both
types are important in organizations, this chapter will emphasize forma.
This document summarizes key concepts from a book about leading in a culture of change. It discusses the importance of moral purpose in leadership and using strategies to achieve goals. It also emphasizes the importance of relationships, knowledge building, understanding change, and creating coherence. Some specific points made include that moral purpose must be accompanied by strategies, relationships are critical for success, and effective leaders combine intellectual brilliance with emotional intelligence to appreciate resistance and ambiguity during change. The document advocates for disturbance to push an organization to the "edge of chaos" in a way guided by moral purpose to create new patterns and coherence through self-organization.
Similar to Triangulating freedom & leadership (20)
1. Triangulating Freedom and Leadership Development
by
Allen Carn allen.carn@waldenu.edu
Program: PhD in Applied Management and Decision Sciences
Specialization: Leadership and Organizational Change
KAM Assessor: Dr. Branford McAllister branford.mcallister@waldenu.edu
Faculty Mentor: Dr. Duane Tway duane.tway@waldenu.edu
Walden University
June 6, 2012
2. i
Abstract
Breadth
In comparing and contrasting various leadership development theories, transformational
leadership was supposed to be the pinnacle of leadership development. However, as the leader
develops, he or she should never discard process-oriented lessons learned as being a situational
or a transactional leader. Situations and events may require the leader to react in an appropriate
manner that is either situational or transactional. Furthermore, a transformational leader does not
transform societies to fit his or her personal desires at the expense of its citizens. It is a
transformational leader‟s moral responsibility to transform a society by enacting a vision of
positive social change. He or she completes this life goal by transforming those in their personal
sphere of influence to aspire to the highest levels of moral development. In addition, the process-
oriented moral leader provides the constituent the necessary freedom and opportunity to learn
and choose.
3. ii
Abstract
Depth
The focal point of the depth was to review leadership theories in current scholarly literature that
could enhance the premise of process-oriented moral leadership. The literature included various
leadership theories, but the focus was on situational, contingency, transactional, and
transformational. The examination of the various leadership theory encapsulated in the literature
included the key concepts found in process-oriented moral leadership. These concepts included:
the driving force of change, competition, and positive social change. Because of this analysis, the
concept of process-oriented moral leadership is enhanced in terms of looking for opportunities
and avoiding threats that help leaders achieve their primary purpose, serving and inspiring those
they lead to be more than they thought capable.
4. iii
Abstract
Application
In an effort to triangulate freedom, equal opportunity, and positive social change concerning
leadership development, three iconic leaders provided invaluable information to assist potential
process-oriented moral leaders in implementing their version of leadership development and
organizational change. In his self-proclaimed arrogance, Alinsky provided a method to develop
organizers and leaders through continual societal upheaval. Iacocca announced that everyone has
leadership potential; it just takes a mentor, knowledge, and hard work to develop his nine
characteristics of a good leader. This mentoring belief is similar to King‟s belief in the unlimited
potential of individuals to achieve the height dimension of life, which includes leadership
development principles and the concept of interrelatedness. Interrelatedness provides the best
example why Alinsky and Iacocca believed that leaders were supposed to serve the needs of all
individuals.
6. v
Potential POML Negatives. 73
Amoral Transformational 77
Potential POML Positives. 77
Potential POML Negatives. 80
Moral Transformational 83
Potential POML Positives. 84
Potential POML Negatives. 87
Summary 91
Driving Force for Change 91
Competition 96
Positive Social Change 99
Conclusion 102
Application 107
Analysis 110
Leadership Development 111
Morality 115
Leader-Follower Relationship 124
riving Force for Change 128
Competition 134
Positive Social Change 141
Conclusion 147
7. 1
Leadership Development: Discovering a Morally Efficient Process to Achieve Positive Social
Change
Synopsis
Process-oriented moral leadership (POML) derived from empowering individual
development concepts that suggest an individual should focus on the journey and not the result.
This empowering journey of self-discovery provides the starting point for POML. From this
starting point, Kouzes and Posner (2007) believed, “to encourage initiative in others, training is
crucial to build self-efficacy and to encourage initiative. Training is one form of preparation:
another effective way to prepare is mental stimulation” (pp. 170-171). Mental stimulation
requires a “powerful heuristic strategy for making people confident that they can act when the
situation requires” (p. 171). This strategy in developing others to become POMLs has six basic
concepts that were analogous Kouzes and Posner‟s belief in empowerment leadership. POML
concepts include leadership development, morality, leader-follower relationship, driving force
for change, competition, and positive social change. This fundamental leadership development
strategy serves as the starting point used to define the concept of POML. This process defines a
development path that requires current leaders to relinquish power to empower. However, it also
requires aspiring leaders to classify and be committed to their core principles. These core
principles and ethics serve as the aspiring leader‟s foundation; consequently, the aspiring leader
should never abandon them as they progress in their leadership development process. Finally, as
the individual develops they increase their leadership potential to serve their constituents in a
manner that allows them to develop and maximize their potential.
In the breadth, the tactic is to focus on the foundational strategic concepts that include
leadership development, morality, and leader-follower relationship. These fundamental concepts
8. 2
offer insight on contingency and situational theories, transactional theories, and transformational
theories. According to Bass (1985) and Burns (1978), leadership development is the engine that
drives a vision of transformational change. Morality to Kouzes and Posner (2007) is the bedrock
of understanding to systematic and efficient change while Burns believed the leader-follower
relationship is the lubrication that sustains a vision. Consequently, a collaborative theory evolves
that promotes POML as the breadth compares and contrasts various leadership theories.
Using this essential POML leadership foundation developed in the breadth, the depth will
enhance and sharpen the POML process by analyzing the driving forces for change, competition,
and positive social change using current leadership literature. The driving force for change stems
from a source generating a need as Bass (1985) alluded to in his theory. More importantly, this
concept identifies the source of that need, and its use to promote change. Kouzes and Posner
(2007) believed that competition is a powerful force that drives win-win solutions while Bennis
and Ward-Biederman (1997) believed competition was the key to survival and a win at any cost
mentality. According to Kouzes and Posner, winning at any cost is antithetical to positive social
change; furthermore, they believed that leadership development is the key to positive social
change because it ultimately requires empowerment. It completes the development of one leader,
while providing leadership development opportunities for a multitude of other aspiring leaders;
as a result, it generates a force multiplying effect for positive social change. In the process of
using leadership development to generate positive social change, the analysis suggests the leader
has to protect freedom and other ingredients necessary for leadership development. Ultimately,
the leader must do no harm to the mechanisms necessary to leadership development and positive
social change.
9. 3
In the application, this article ends with an analysis of three iconic leader‟s methods of
leadership development; the iconic leaders were Saul Alinsky, Lee Iacocca, and Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr. The analysis encompasses the positives and negatives of each leader‟s
perspective as it concerns the six critical aspects of empowering leadership. The six aspects were
leadership development, morality, leader-follower relationship, driving forces for change,
competition, and positive social change. Alinsky‟s (1989) perspective was admittedly efficient in
expressing contradictory claims of social change. Uncaringly, Alinsky sought contradiction as
means to amass power and hateful zealots. Unlike Alinsky, who was at least consistent in his
beliefs, Iacocca (2007) was inconsistent in his book that seeks to answer the question where have
all the leaders gone. Iacocca intertwined cronyism with soulful thoughts about mentoring. King
(1986) was consistent in his belief in the interrelatedness of the individual and the unlimited
leadership development potential and power that comes with it. With great power comes great
individual responsibility, which is in line with the POML maxim, first, do no harm, and then
seek positive social change.
10. 4
Breadth
AMDS 8512: Classical and Emerging Paradigms of Leadership
Introduction
In the breadth, the method used to refine a collaborative theory that promotes POML
involves comparing and contrasting various leadership theories authored by Bass; Bennis and
Ward-Biederman; Blanchard, Zigarmi, and Zigarmi; Burns; Ibbotson; and Kouzes and Posner.
The comparison focuses on three foundational elements of POML: they are leadership
development, morality, and the leader-follower relationship. The POML analysis begins with an
examination of the positive and negatives of contingency, situational, transactional, and
transformational leadership development theories. The analysis includes the methodology of
POML used to compare and contrast each theory in order to ascertain the effectiveness of each in
developing holistic leaders. The comparison includes the process of developing a leader, the
fundamental morality of the theory, and its perspective on the leader-follower relationship. This
analysis focuses on the intrinsic aspects of the leader and his or her direct sphere of influence.
Furthermore, this analysis provides the first portion of the answer that advances the notion that a
process-oriented moral leader is something more than just another transformational theory.
Contingency and Situational Leadership
As noted by Kouzes and Posner (2007), contingency and situational leadership have
many similarities since both require the leader to adapt to a follower‟s reactions to an external
stimulus. Blanchard, Zigarmi, and Zigarmi (1985) best explained this notion as they extolled the
virtues of contingent and situational leadership-styles. They believed that one leadership-style
cannot effectively respond to an infinite number of follower responses; consequently, they
thought that contingent or situational leadership-style was the prudent choice in leadership
11. 5
development. However, there was one main difference between Ibbotson‟s (2008) contingent
theory and Blanchard et al.‟s situational theory. According to Ibbotson, a contingency theory
attempts to assess the follower‟s ingenuity in responding to an external stimulus, while
Blanchard et al. situational theory has a narrower perspective. Situational theory requires the
leader and the follower to measure the follower‟s responses to external stimuli. This section will
analyze contingency theory and situational theory simultaneously while determining what each
theory does or does not do well with respect to the leadership development process, morality,
and leader-follower relationship.
Potential POML Positives.
One of the critical strengths in either contingency or situational leadership
development is flexibility, as noted by both Ibbotson (2008) and Blanchard et al. (1985).
Ibbotson suggested using a creative cross-functional team that had a strong and well-
developed leader to harvest spontaneous creativity as the team handled various tasks.
From within the team, a leader develops as they became experienced in spotting desired
outputs from other individuals in the work team. In total, Ibbotson thought the leadership
profession is a learnable skill. A creative leader‟s capability determines the level of
expertise in which they create situations to produce the correct or spontaneous result.
From Ibbotson‟s perspective, leadership has to be more directive than democratic.
On the subject of situational leadership, Blanchard et al. (1985) had a different outlook on
leadership development, which contrasted sharply from Ibbotson (2008). Blanchard et al.
believed that a leader strives to be more democratic than directive. However, the leader‟s
approach or style with respect to follower depends upon the follower‟s measurable level of
performance. There are “four leadership styles” within situational leadership theory; the
12. 6
leadership styles were “directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating” (p. 31). A leader uses
the appropriate style that matches the level of measurable performance from the follower. As the
follower progresses in understanding while achieving an agreed upon level of output, the leader
switches his or her style of leadership to match a followers‟ measured output. A leader
delegating responsibility to the follower is the highest level of achievement. Blanchard et al.
believed that a followers‟ ability to achieve a consistent level of performance is the only true
measure of performance with regard to “competence and commitment” (p. 60).
In a diverse culture, Ibbotson‟s (2008) believed that morality is a potent force that derives
from the leader‟s ability to “balance power and humility” (p. 10). This position appears to be
neutral as it relates to any social moral norm and is dependent upon the leader defining morality.
With respect to balancing power and humility, it requires a self-effacing leader knowing he or
she does not have all of the answers. As a result, the leader must be humble and provide his or
her followers enough freedom to be unimpeded in expressing an opinion or idea. This requires a
strong mutually dependent bond between the leader and the follower that is comparable to an
ethic of reciprocity. However, it is the leader‟s responsibility to manipulate and then harvest that
open-minded natural act. Thus, the freedom of expression is dependent on the authoritarian
leader‟s level of humility concerning their imposed morality.
As with Ibbotson (2008), Blanchard et al. (1985) had a neutral position concerning any
socially set morality. The organization or the leader advocates their interpretation of morality.
Whatever the source providing moral guidance, Blanchard et al. believed it is the leader‟s
responsibility to maintain a high level of moral understanding throughout the organization.
Consequently, this high level of moral understanding made situational leadership development
theory more stringent than Ibbotson‟s creative based contingency theory. Blanchard et al.
13. 7
reemphasizes this disciplined approach to morality when stating leaders need to be constantly
evaluating the follower's understanding of organizational morality. This means that a concept of
fairness revolves around organizational and societal rules, ethics, and morals. The follower‟s
ability to follow them is a part of the overall evaluation. Since the leader evaluates the follower
in a continuous manner, the leader‟s leadership style varies as the follower develops competence
and commitment. This also ensures that the follower‟s moral and ethical code adheres to the
standard set by the leader.
Since morality was not a priority to Ibbotson (2008), the leader-follower relationship has
to have well-defined roles and boundaries between leader and follower. Having defined roles is
comparable to Blanchard et al.‟s (1985) belief in leader needing to know a follower‟s level of
development. However, Ibbotson also believed that a leader could take away the boundaries
when needed. For example, if the leader sets up a brainstorming event that encourages
spontaneity, he or she would temporarily eliminate the boundary between the leader and the
follower. As a result, this newly appointed freedom encourages the follower to react to the
leader‟s predetermined stimulus and event boundaries. As the followers react to the stimulus, the
leader coaches, mentors, facilitates, or even participates to encourage the continued development
of the followers. As soon as the event between the leader and follower ends with the harvesting
of creative ideas, the boundaries between leader and follower would resurface. The follower
would reassume their previous role.
Similarly, Blanchard et al. (1985) had well defined relationship boundaries. Unlike
Ibbotson‟s (2008) approach, Blanchard et al. used an approach that focuses on the continuous
flow of small victories. This differed significantly from Ibbotson‟s creative bursts of
development energy. Continuous small victories are a method that promotes positive
14. 8
reinforcement, which helps increase the level of confidence and trust between the leader and
follower (Blanchard et al.). Consequently, not only did small victories serve as a continuous
approach to leadership development, they also strengthen the relationship between leader and
follower on a continual basis.
Potential POML Negatives.
The positive found in Ibbotson‟s (2008) leadership development theory was his
belief in the level of freedom the leader bestows upon the follower. This freedom
provides the energy for dynamic, creative bursts of ideas while simultaneously providing
the best opportunity for development. However, as soon as the creative burst subsides,
the leader falls back into the role of project manager or director, while the follower
resumes a more subservient role. Contrastingly, one of Blanchard et al.‟s (1985) strengths
were a series of small victories as the follower developed; however, this concept relegates
the follower to a need to know basis which means they only know what is necessary to
complete their assigned tasks. This differed greatly from Ibbotson‟s belief, since seeing
the overall goal is an essential ingredient as the leader shapes the brainstorming event.
Blanchard et al. (1985) determined that it was immoral to treat followers the same when
they are at different levels of development within a status level. The original weakness with this
concept is the subjectivity of the leader to determine the appropriate level the follower is at in his
or her development. Blanchard et al. tried to use “SMART – Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Relevant, and Trackable” (pp. 89-90) goals to reduce this weakness. The concept of
personalizing levels of development contrasts sharply with Ibbotson‟s (2008) belief that leaders
should provide equal treatment to all individuals within a status level. Ibbotson despised
hierarchy. Ironically, Ibbotson offered SMART goals as a means to achieve better performance
15. 9
in followers. Bass (1985), on the other hand, thought that SMART goals were just another form
of the “carrot or the stick” (p. 130) approach to leadership development. Concerning Bass, he
used SMART goals to aid the followers to become better managers of goals rather than
developing into leaders. Kouzes and Posner (2007) offered caution when using a reward or
punishment approach when dealing with morality and leadership development. The authors
thought it limited the follower‟s perspective in regards to their hierarchy of needs; consequently,
it would impede their development.
The primary drawback to Ibbotson‟s (2008) leader-follower relationship as it related to
his contingency theory is his dependence on the power-humility ratio that requires a strong
mutually dependent bond. As Burns (1978) noted, the core issue concerning power in the leader-
follower relationship is the mission or function of the exchange between the leader and follower.
Since Ibbotson was morally neutral, there is little guidance to where the leader could take the
follower. The only firewall to protect the follower is the leader‟s humility. However, Burns re-
issued Lord Acton‟s warning about power being a corruptible force. Humility offers little solace
to the follower as the leader has the potential to act as an ambivalent dictator. Blanchard et al.‟s
perspective suffers from the same weakness as Ibbotson‟s; the leader-follower relationship is still
dependent upon the leader‟s interpretation of the organizational or community morality. As Bass
(1985) declared, a leader could mislead, promote ignorance, or encourage negative activism
within the follower. Concerning Blanchard et al.‟s and Ibbotson‟s perspective on leadership,
there continues to be a fragile link to the greater good.
Transactional
Bass (1985) and Burns (1978) shared similar views of transactional leadership. They both
believe it is an inescapable stepping-stone in the process of a leader evolving into a
16. 10
transformational leader. The difference between the two is that Burns believed that transactional
leadership is a part of a linear evolution towards transformational leadership, while Bass had a
dynamic opinion of transactional leadership. For Bass, leadership development theories such as
transactional theory are tools in a toolbox, used as necessary by a transformational leader guided
by experience and knowledge. In some ways, transactional leadership is similar to contingency
or situational leadership, since Bass and Burns both believed that transactional leadership is an
agreed upon exchange. Nevertheless, the analysis in the next section will compare Bass and
Burns‟ interpretation of that exchange in terms of positive and negatives as they relate to POML.
In doing so, it will break down each author‟s theory with respect to the leadership development
process, morality, and the leader-follower relationship.
Potential POML Positives.
Bass (1985) viewed the exchange between a leader and follower as an assessment of
needs, with an exchange occurring if both parties met the other‟s negotiated need. Transactional
leadership, in terms of leadership development, is just another exchange. The leader receives an
increase in output while the follower receives tutelage in spotting opportunities, negotiating
skills and a small portion of the leader‟s power or the promise of power in the near future.
Dissimilarly, Burns (1978) viewed the exchange as an item for item transference, such as work
for pay. If the leader wants more work, then he or she has to provide greater benefits. For Burns,
transactional leadership development occurs when a leader provides insight concerning a work
topic, identifies a follower‟s transactional needs, and helps the follower spot transactional needs
in others. This could mean more power for the follower while reducing the leader‟s burden of
work and responsibility. One of the positives, found in both author‟s leadership development
theories, is the simplicity in the item for item exchange using a pseudo market bartering system
17. 11
of leadership development. The first step for the follower in leadership development is the act of
bartering to receive greater responsibilities.
According to Burns (1978), the level of mutual understanding identifies the terms of the
exchange and determines the level of morality. Increasing the level of understanding between the
two parties makes the exchange between leader and follower more moral. It is imperative that the
leader provides as much clarification as possible in a scope of work, instructions on how to
perform the work, expected output, and the expected reward after achieving a certain output.
Bass (1985) had a slightly different take on transactional morality. He viewed a transactional
leader as an individual that works within the confines of the law or social-moral ethos. The
transactional leader never transforms or alters the terms of understanding. The moral strength,
according to Bass, is the leader or follower being unwilling to alter the terms of the exchange
unless both parties are mutually willing to renegotiate the terms of the agreement. The
dependability in knowing that the leader or follower would not alter this understanding is
reassuring to both parties.
For both Bass (1985) and Burns (1978), the relationship between leader and follower is a
shrewd exchange of needs and desires. The POML positive in this exchange is the level of
communication necessary to create a moral and mutually beneficial agreement. The act of
creating this agreement also breeds confidence in a trusting relationship that has the potential to
be a lasting professional friendship. The exchange of needs offers the opportunity for the leader
and the follower to inject personal observations and opinions. This exchange provides both the
leader and follower the opportunity to grow professionally and to learn. The relationship positive
for Bass and Burns, as well as any other leadership theory, occurs when both parties actively
communicate and exchange information. As the level of open and honest communication
18. 12
increases, the level of trust increases with the leader and follower strengthening the bond
between them.
Potential POML Negatives.
The agreement in transactional leadership determines the level of development.
However, as Bass (1985) asserted, POML negatives occur when “compromise, intrigue,
and control” (p. 13) mask a leader‟s hidden agenda. This misdirection of intentions
carried out by the leader would encourage the follower to be ignorant of the harm they
are doing to their own long-term development. At this point, the follower would either
become despondent or learn negative life skills. Another negative that Bass noted occurs
when a leader would set unrealistic goals, setting the follower up to fail instead of
succeeding. This could destroy the follower‟s confidence in his or her own abilities.
Lastly, Bass thought transactional leadership focuses too much on the process and not
enough on broad issues that influence the world around them. This meant that leaders
should steer followers away from the process and fundamental issues; instead, followers
should be inspired to focus more on societal issues. In a comparable manner, Burns
(1978) thought transactional leadership development is a disservice to the follower since
it did not inspire the follower to be more than they were capable of negotiating. Burns
noted that another potential negative occurs when the follower could not present his or
her terms in an effective manner. The leader could then determine that the follower is
weak, unrefined, or uneducated. He thought the problem is more with the listening skills
of the leader and not the communication skills of the follower.
Bass (1985) expressed concern that if the language in the agreement is brief or
ambiguous, then the rational response by the follower is that the leader is purposely being
19. 13
unscrupulous or vague in order to achieve a greater level of control or output. This lack
of communication could make an honest leader appear scheming and divisive. However,
Bass was just as concerned with a leader being purposefully manipulative by injecting
ambiguous or confusing language into an agreement. Another concern of Bass‟ occurred
when a leader would carry out the letter of the agreement while committing unethical acts
outside the social moral norm. This would undermine the development of the follower,
organization, or community the leader represents for his or her own personal gain. Burns
(1978) had a similar view concerning the moral weakness in transactional leadership.
This moral weakness occurs when a leader fails to project trustworthiness, use power
competently, correctly apply the follower‟s output to the stated goal, or act appropriately
when action is necessary. This moral weakness hinders the moral development of the
follower.
Both Bass (1985) and Burns (1978) thought that as the morality of the agreement
broke down, the leader-follower relationship would begin to degrade. For Bass, the first
mistake a transactional leader makes is to take punitive action when a follower has an
occurrence where he or she generated less than optimum output. If this occurs, a
transactional leader would force the follower to regress downward in Maslow‟s hierarchy
of needs. Bass believed that this would only ensure a response that often has unintended
consequences, which fractures the understanding in the agreement as well as the
relationship between leader and follower. Burns had a different take on the leadership-
follower relationship, the intended reward for the output given often leads to a breakdown
in the relationship. This misunderstanding often leads to a degree of unintended effects
generating negative (punitive) fluctuations in the leader‟s use of power, which in turn
20. 14
causes the follower to produce nothing more than the minimum requirement.
Unfortunately, the leader views this cause and effect response as a loss in output and the
cycle would repeat. For Burns, the inability of a transactional to be more proactive than
what the status quo requires often causes the transactional leader to be reactionary. As a
result, this generates unnecessary stress upon the leader-follower relationship.
Transformational
According to Burns (1978), the primary limitation in most leadership theories is the
absence of a transformational perspective that encourages the leader to be an agent of social
change. The actual social change agent is where the author‟s began to differ; Bass (1985) and
Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997) believed that a transformational leader could promote
change that is negative as well as a positive. In this analysis, Bass represented the traditional
perspective while Bennis and Ward-Biederman represented the emerging paradigm in leadership
development. Meanwhile, Burns, who represented the traditional perspective, agreed with
Kouzes and Posner (2007), who represented the emerging paradigm, they believed that a
transformational leader promotes positive social change. The initial overall premise concerning
transformational leadership is the same between the two groups; a transformational leader is
perceptive in understanding the needs and desires of their followers. However, the first group
made up of Bass, Bennis, and Ward-Biederman believe it is acceptable for a transformational
leader to manipulate their follower‟s needs for selfish reasons. Meanwhile, Burns, Kouzes, and
Posner thought a transformational leader is an agent of positive social change and uses their
followers‟ needs to gain a greater understanding of the world around them. As a result, the noted
authors had sharp contrasts in their opinions concerning positive social change. Since positive
social change is a critical function of POML, the next section compares and contrasts all of the
21. 15
transformational theoretical perspectives as they relate to POML concepts of leadership
development process, morality, and leader-follower relationship.
Potential POML Positives.
According to Bass (1985), a transformational leader intellectually stimulates the
creative desires in followers so that they actively seek leadership development. Bass
believed transformational leadership is an output and not the process. Consequently, to
Bass it appears that a transformational leader often emerges in times of tumult and
societal upheaval. As a transformational leader, the leader's skill at manipulating events
to hide their selfish desires often determines the level of their success. Bass‟s
transformational theory incorporates two concepts. The first was similar to Burns‟ (1978)
description of a transformational leader being a change agent. The second differed from
Burns‟ belief that a transformational leader does not have to be a great person to produce
societal change results. Bass thought transformational leaders have to be great men and
solve problems systematically while inspiring their followers to push the limits of societal
change. Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997) had a similar belief as Bass; leadership
development of followers occurs when they enact a leader‟s vision as they dramatically
alter the boundaries of societal norms. Unlike Bennis and Ward-Biederman, Bass‟
version of a transformational leader requires the leader to have a transactional concern
about the leadership development of devout followers while promoting radical social
change. Development occurs as followers aspire to emulate the leader. Leadership
development for the followers of the transformational leader requires the leader to seek
them out and cultivate them to challenge the status quo. As the leader demonstrates a
desire to know the needs of the followers, it is only a means to achieve some form of
22. 16
political or socio-economic power, so the transformational leader could achieve his or her
ends.
Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997) had a similar approach where the
transformational leader seeks highly talented change agents with similar beliefs to create
a different tomorrow. However, Bennis and Ward-Biederman believed that the
transformational leader has a more participative role, which differed significantly from
Bass (1985). This participative role occurs as the leader relinquishes some of his or her
power to the team. This power allows talented individuals to operate freely while trying
to solve some societal issue of considerable importance. As the group of talented
individuals solves the problem, the leader facilitates internal disagreements and protects
the talented group from outside interference. This differed greatly from Bass‟s concept
while it had some similarities to Kouzes and Posner (2007) belief that a transformational
leader adapts to the needs of his or her followers while serving them. One of the
differences in Bennis and Ward-Biederman‟s concept is that every member in the group
has to be talented, strong, and assertive. If not, the strongest members in the group
consume or discount the ideas of lesser team members. Development within the group is
often the result of imagination, intelligence, and determination of the individual. The
measure of success for the transformational leader comes in their ability to cultivate the
groups‟ creative energy. Leadership development is a case of the survival of fittest for
those strong and intelligent enough to be a visionary creator and inspirational leader.
Burns‟ (1978) transformational theory had a different take all together. Leaders
and followers have to be rooted in the fundamental belief that there are societal
expectations, and there are responsibilities in achieving those societal expectations. The
23. 17
transformational leader‟s reward is to “achieve mutually valued outcomes” (p. xiii). This
differed greatly from Bass‟s (1985) belief that the leader shapes the outcome and the
other extreme offered by Bennis and Ward-Biederman‟s (1997) where the group shapes
the outcome. According to Burns, transformational leaders serve their followers;
consequently, transformational leadership development is a variation of that same basic
premise. The leader in this instance mimics Bass‟s belief about surveying the needs of his
or her followers; however, Burns believed that a transformational leader searches for a
win-win solution between him or herself and the follower. Societal change to Burns is
mutually beneficial to everyone, and the output produces something greater than the
Golden Rule. This differed greatly from Bass‟s concept of transformational leader. For
example, Bass thought Hitler was a transformational leader while Burns thought
otherwise.
Like Burns (1978), Kouzes and Posner (2007) had a positive societal perspective
to their concept of a transformational leader. Kouzes and Posner believed a
transformational leader needs to lead by example, encourage followers to aspire to higher
levels of development, legitimately challenge the status quo, empower those with a desire
to improve, and appreciate their efforts because as they win, society wins. Kouzes and
Posner believed that anyone has the potential to be a transformational leader. Moreover,
leadership is a learnable skill honed by experience and continuing education. It is the
transformational leader‟s responsibility to encourage and empower the follower to be
more than their self-imposed limitations. Through leadership development, societal
change occurs as leaders and followers interact with a community. Kouzes and Posner
had much the same belief in leadership development as Burns; leadership development is
24. 18
a one of the primary responsibilities of the transformational leader. Unfortunately,
leadership development is a circuitous process for Bass (1985), as well as Bennis and
Ward-Biederman (1997), since development only occurs during the act of a leader or
group achieving some formidable task. As the transformational leader amasses power, he
or she needs subordinate leaders to carry out their will.
Bass‟s (1985) concept of a transformational leader requires the leader to create a
moral code to avoid organizational confusion. However, the moral code is in line with the
leader‟s perception of right and wrong, not societal good or evil. For instance, a leader
has to account for societal norms; to act contrary would undermine the leader‟s ability to
transform society. This did not mean the leader agreed with societal norms. He or she
changes them in an incremental manner with followers aspiring to be leaders piloting the
way. As with Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997), the concept of a societal greater good
is not a burden for their concept of a transformational leader. Bass‟s moral thoughts were
more in line with the premise that the leader establishes their concept of right and wrong.
As soon as the leader installs their version of morality, the leader should not vary as
consistency in thought made the leader and followers more in tune with one another,
making them more effective as change agents.
Similarly, Bennis and Ward-Biederman‟s (1997) moral constructs did not have any
connections to a society's established moral norms. Bennis and Ward-Biederman believed that
solving the monumental problem provides its own moral clarity. It is society‟s problem to
determine if the results are socially acceptable. To Bennis and Ward-Biederman, great groups
fought “holy wars” (P. 204) or involved in a “crusade” (p. 206) for all ages. Morality within the
group requires the highest levels of dedication. Dedication to the task requires personal
25. 19
sacrifices. As the individual increases their level of dedication to the project, the individual
appears to generate a higher moral clarity in the eyes of the transformational leader and team
members. The fanatical transformational energy generated from these groups alters the conscious
of humanity for decades. Kouzes and Posner (2007) believe it is immoral to generate change in
spite of the cost.
Burns‟ (1978) perception of transformational leadership is something greater than the
greatest achievement by any of Bennis and Ward-Biederman‟s (1997) transformational great
groups. According to Burns, he believed that universal moral development requires a leader to
serve and work to encourage the development of others. Burns‟ point of view stands in stark
contrast with Bass (1985) while paralleling the beliefs of Kouzes and Posner (2007). Burns went
further to state that some theorists fail to understand behavioral motifs of followers and the
primary reasons why some societies prosper. Without a fundamental belief in a moral structure
that makes all individuals equal in opportunity and responsibility, societies flounder and leaders
become tyrannical. This fundamental moral belief provides the best opportunity for leaders to
inspire followers to achieve the highest levels of development.
Helping followers achieve the highest levels of development is something Kouzes and
Posner (2007) considered when they wrote about a transformational leader needing to establish a
set of ethics and values. The transformational leader must lead by example and not deviate from
what they preach. The establishment of ethics, morals, and values must be a compilation the
follower and leader‟s moral norms derived from society. As soon as there is an agreement on the
ethical and moral constructs, the leader needs to embody and promote the agreement. Kouzes
and Posner's concept of a greater good and win-win relationship philosophy is more similar to
26. 20
Burns (1978) than Bass (1985) or Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997). This dissimilarity
concerning morality carried forward in the leader-follower relationship.
In Bass‟s (1985) theory of transformational leadership, the leader-follower relationship is
a process of the leader listening to and potentially incorporating the follower‟s beliefs to build a
working relationship. This is an inclusive concept that had a similar construct to Burns (1978), as
well as Kouzes and Posner (2007). In doing so, Bass provided the appearance that the
transformational leader is listening and empowers the follower. Consequently, this inspires the
follower to increase his or her output. It is from this understanding that the transformational
leader drew his or her power. As the transformational leader builds this bond with the follower,
the connection enables the leader to make holistic societal changes.
Similarly, a strong leader-follower relationship was something Bennis and Ward-
Biederman‟s (1997) believed to be necessary for the leader and follower to achieve their separate
goals in solving the societal problem. The relationship has to have a strong bond, which is
similar to Bass‟s (1985). However, the relationship between the leader and the group has the
leader serving the group‟s needs while protecting it from outside influences. This increases the
level of empowerment within the group and allows them to solve the most perplexing of societal
problems. Those followers not involved in the transformational group, according to Bennis and
Ward-Biederman‟s theory, did not have their needs addressed. As a result, the indirect followers
are dependent upon the moral makeup and output of both the transformational leader and group.
This separation between leader, group, and the rest of society was something Burns (1978) and
the collaborative effort of Kouzes and Posner (2007) discouraged in their theories about the
transformational leader-follower relationships.
27. 21
Burns (1978), as with Kouzes and Posner (2007), believed a transformational leader has
to be very responsive to all stakeholders. This relationship with their followers flows through the
direct group of followers and has a positive impact on society as a whole. This is especially true
since the transformational leader encourages his or her direct followers to create a similar
mutually beneficial bond between the followers and other members of society. This act is in
itself a leadership development activity. In doing so, it was Kouzes and Posner‟s conviction that
this would promote a generational environment of positive social change that dwarfs any output
created by transformational leaders and groups as described by Bass (1985) or Bennis and Ward-
Biederman (1997). The premise behind Burns, Kouzes, and Posner‟s similar theories is to
increase the level of involvement and empowerment of all people; thereby, making societal
responses to positive change or problems highly dynamic and adaptive to any situation.
Potential POML Negatives.
The positive found in the theory offered by Bass (1985) is that it is dependent upon a
dynamic and strong leader understanding the needs of his or her followers. The negative in what
he had offered, when compared to Burns (1978) and Kouzes and Posner (2007), is that
leadership development of followers is truly an afterthought; consequently, it makes positive
social change difficult from a generational standpoint. Bass did bring to light some “Leadership
Developmental Orientation” (pp.84-85) techniques, but the main goal of his belief in
transformational leadership is about selfish desires of the leader. The transformation leader uses
charisma and rhetoric to align followers to serve his or her needs as they transform an
organization or society. A transformational leader did allow followers limited freedom to search
out and expand as long as the expansion aligned itself with the mission and values of the leader.
However, since Hitler was an example of one of Bass‟s transformational leaders, a follower‟s
28. 22
unaligned development has potentially dire consequences. Ultimately, a transformational leader
as defined by Bass is more rare than common. Contrastingly, Burns, Kouzes, and Posner created
robust systems of leadership development that has the potential to make transformational
leadership a standardized approach to societal improvement.
As with leadership development, according to Bass (1985), morality is a secular construct
based on rhetoric with minimal ties to societal norms. A true transformational leader may be
required to shape morality to meet his or her needs while attempting to be consistent in the
application. This paradox of inconsistency helps explain why a transformational leader could
declare some social moral norms as immoral and require them to be changed. In addition, this
also explains why Bass is not overly concerned about a follower‟s higher hierarchal needs, since
necessity dictates whether a transformational leader needs to alter a follower‟s lower level needs
to attain the desired output. Burns, Kouzes, and Posner have a diametrically opposite opinion to
Bass‟s interpretation of morality and the concept of a Hitler-like transformational leader.
The negativity found in Bass‟s (1985) transformational theory as it relates to leader-
follower relationship, required the leader to understand the follower‟s needs and desires. In doing
so, the leader could manipulate their needs and desires to achieve the leader‟s perceived greater
good. Bass‟s view of the leader-follower relationship, it is cold and calculating. Contrastingly,
Burns (1978), Kouzes, and Posner‟s (2007) believed the relationship is genuine and an inviting
win-win scenario. The win-win scenario occurs when the follower eventually adapts his or hers
needs to match the needs of the transformational leader. A follower bending their wishes and
desires to be in line with the leaders was something that conflicted with Bennis and Ward-
Biederman's (1997) concept. Alarmingly, Bass admitted the manipulation of needs and desires
fuels resentment. This resentment allows an up and coming revolutionary leader to harvest the
29. 23
angst in order to build his or her power base. Furthermore, the revolutionary leader routinely
represents the next change and not a new concept in societal development. As a result, the
leader-follower relationship becomes a tool for the revolutionary leader to implement this
change.
As with Bass‟s (1985) concept of leadership development, Bennis and Ward-
Biederman‟s (1997) concept of developing leaders as a function of leadership is the exception
and not the norm. The transformational group has a leader that bestows equality to the group
while attempting to solve a problem that has a transformational impact on society. The leader
assembles a group that is talented and self-driven. Since technical prowess provided the reason to
assemble the group, each member comes to the group with a different level of leadership
development and style. The team becomes a creative gathering where dominant leaders within
the group separate themselves at the expense of others in the group. The dominant leaders
provide guidance to the group while updating the team leader on progress and the group‟s needs.
In some of the examples offered by Bennis and Ward-Biederman, if either the team leader or the
dominant leaders within the group are unscrupulous, then the group will commit unscrupulous
acts. This process of leadership development is the antithesis to the leadership development
processes created by Burns (1978), Kouzes, and Posner (2007).
Since Bennis and Ward-Biederman‟s (1997) leader development process is absent of any
specific moral construct, morality is not a priority for the group. In some instances, the absence
of morality is often unavoidable; Bennis and Ward-Biederman used the Manhattan Project and
the development of a nuclear bomb as examples of amoral projects. However, as with the lauded
Black Mountain Experiment, morality was the victim of “anti-institutional” (p. 170) de-
evolvement. Leaders encouraged this anti-institutional belief, which warped the perception of
30. 24
followers to view shoplifting and other petty crimes as a badge of ingenuity and courage. To
Burns (1978), Kouzes, and Posner (2007), if the lowest common denominator found in amoral
behavior is the best example of societal progress, then the failure of the Black Mountain
Experiment was inevitable. A constantly changing moral landscape prevented individuals from
working together. The experiment used a pseudo-institutional construct; however, the
experiment‟s anti-institutional belief system trapped leaders and followers in a self-destructive
loop of lawlessness and anarchy.
The leadership-follower relationship as described by Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997)
requires both to sacrifice everything, which usually means that the emotionally spent leaders and
followers depart the project with shattered personal lives. As a reward, the authors believed that
the satisfaction in completing the task offsets the shattered lives and relationships. In addition,
any relationship within the group paled when compared to output of the project. Some trusting
relationships do form within the team; however, the relationships are a by-product of individual
alliances made during the team's storming phase. Bass‟s (1985) theory failed to generate trusting
leader-follower relationships since they were not one of his primary objectives. Trusting
relationships evolve out of necessity during the leader or group‟s development. As with morality,
Burns (1978), Kouzes, and Posner‟s (2007) theory on transformational leadership had a different
take on the leader-follower relationship. The strength of their relationship often has positive
transformational outputs for both the leader and the follower. Furthermore, sacrifice is the
exception and not the rule.
Burns‟s (1978) positive take on transformational leadership development differed greatly
from Bass (1985), Bennis, and Ward-Biederman (1997). However, the transformational leader as
described by Burns was in a tenuous position. Burns questioned this when he wrote about a
31. 25
transformational leader becoming too involved when wanting to relate and understand his
followers. This appears to put the leader in a position of micromanaging the follower‟s affairs. If
so, then the leader could inadvertently stunt the leadership potential of the individual. If the
leaders avoids involvement, does the leader neglect follower development duties? Burns offered
a small group solution that was similar to Bennis and Ward-Biederman‟s; however, the proper
solution may require a transformational leader to use situational or contingency techniques as
suggested by Bass (1985); Blanchard et al. (1985); and Kouzes and Posner (2007). Different
problems require different leadership techniques to provide maximum flexibility for the
transformational leader and the development of the follower.
Burns (1978) believed that moral-character is a necessary ingredient in the development
of transformational leader, which conflicts with Burns own thoughts about highly developed
transformational leaders being able to transcend the limits found in the ethic of reciprocity or the
Golden Rule. Kouzes and Posner (2007) tendered a word of caution with regard to those
individuals thinking they have a level of wisdom that transcends time. To think an individual
leader or group of leaders has a grander idea than freedom is the folly of fools, especially as their
hubris assumes they have all of the answers as they micromanage their fellow human beings. In
the end, they only marginalize their leadership power as they eventually become out of touch
with the needs of their constituents. Making the simple complex has often led to disagreement,
the eventual breakdown in the social moral norms, and a loss of freedom within a society. This
was one of Kouzes and Posner‟s concerns in a leader shaping morality; he or she could do it at
the long-term detriment of society.
Burns's (1978) viewpoint has a fundamental weakness in the leader-follower relationship
that occurs as the transformational leader works to achieve the highest levels of moral
32. 26
development. The weakness occurs as the transformational leader loses focus on the details to
leadership development. Burns's perspective of highly developed leader is that he or she often
overlooks the little details in life. Contrastingly, Blanchard et al. (1985) pointed out that within
those details are many of life‟s problems and moments of inspiration. Consequently, if a leader
ignores the details it often meant repeating mistakes not knowing the sources of failure. This
over indulgence concerning macro-level issues is an error duplicated in Bass (1985), Bennis and
Ward-Biederman‟s (1997) theories. However, Bass did offer the solution of using other
leadership theories such as contingency and situational leadership to offset this weakness.
In evaluating weaknesses, Kouzes and Posner (2007) hinted to other leadership
development techniques; however, they did not define them for what they were. For example,
they discussed a concept of “fostering hardiness” (pp. 208 -209). This appeared to be an
abbreviated description of Blanchard et al‟s. (1985) concept of situational leadership. Which
reiterated the weakness found in Burn‟s description of transformational leadership development,
a good transformational leader has to know when to step in to help a subordinate, to let them
struggle to learn, or leave them alone because they are both competent and confident. If the
leader incorrectly assesses the subordinate‟s ability in being competent and confident, leaving
the individual alone may appear as leader ignoring the needs of the subordinate.
Transformational leadership theories alone do not address this issue.
Kouzes and Posner (2007), as with Burns (1978), believed that a transformational leader
has to have an established moral foundation in order to communicate a reasonable vision of the
future. For followers to believe in the communicated vision, followers need historical precedent
to help them believe. The weakness in Kouzes and Posner‟s belief that morality is a necessary
ingredient in the development of a transformational leader is time and communication. To
33. 27
establish a history and lead by example requires an aspiring leader to have time to prove he or
she is capable in delivering their vision. If a situation does not allow the leader enough time to
evaluate the aspiring leader effectively, then it becomes a matter communication. As stated by
Kouzes and Posner, open and honest communication provides the best chance of success.
Anything less than open and honest communication will have the follower wondering, if the
leader is intentionally deceiving him or her which would separate the follower from the leader‟s
vision.
Kouzes and Posner (2007) also required a strong leader-follower relationship in order for
it to be successful. This is analogous to Burns‟ (1978) reference to Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs
and where those that achieve in meeting the highest stages of development are often the most
dependent upon those striving to improve. This concept is similar to the weakness noted in the
analysis of Burns‟ theory on transformational leadership development. The weakness, in this
respect, occurs as the transformational leader or follower becomes too dependent on the other.
Kouzes and Posner suggested that the relationship needed a level of independence between the
leader and followers in order to avoid groupthink, inefficient replication, and other ruinous
habits.
In concluding the comparison and contrast analysis, there were four groups of
contrastingly different leadership theories analyzed. These four groups provided an assortment of
varying analysis; however, in aligning an author to a theoretical classification of the leadership
theory the following systematic breakdown occurred. The reactive leadership development group
consisted of the theories offered by Blanchard et al. (1985) and Ibbotson (2008). The
transactional or exchange-based group consists of Bass (1985) and Burns (1978). They propose
exchanges that address the follower‟s lower level needs. The third group was an amoral
34. 28
transformational group that sought a leader‟s self-fulfillment this included the analysis of Bass
and the controversial theories of Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997). Finally, the fourth group
was the moral transformational group promoting leadership development. It consisted of Burns
(1978) and more recently Kouzes and Posner (2007). The next section will summarize and
provide some concluding analysis concerning the four leadership theories noted in the preceding
analysis.
Summary
In the final analysis, Kouzes and Posner (2007) presented a picture of moral leadership
that implied that Hitler (Bass), Mao (Burns), and Lenin (Burns) should not represent the pinnacle
of leadership since the deaths of millions occurred when they assumed and then maintained
power. Were their movements transformational, as Bass (1985) and Burns (1978) pointed out,
the answer to all of them was a definitive yes. However, in providing evidence that ends did
justify the means, Bass and Burns would have a difficult time to define their transformations as
positive. Consequently, Kouzes and Posner believed that leadership has to be something more
than wielding power to quench a thirst for monumental change. A portion of the answer resides
within analyzing three POML concepts; leadership development, morality, and leader-follower
relationships. These three concepts used in the analysis of the noted leadership theories emanated
from thoughts espoused by Kouzes and Posner. In addition, they serve as a foundation in
creating an empowering form of POML. This summary highlights each aspect and provides a
synthesized version of important qualities taken from the leadership theories that include
situational, contingency, transactional, and transformational. These essential qualities define the
foundational concepts of POML.
Leadership Development
35. 29
One of the most important aspects a leader should consider as they look to the future and
serve their followers is the process of leadership development. If anything, leadership
development serves as a force-multiplier as a leader works to instill his or her vision while
fulfilling the needs of the followers. The key qualities of leadership development start with the
leader leading by example. As Kouzes and Posner (2007) noted, with a firm understanding of
their moral foundational makeup a leader should be an example of honest self-assessments,
empower followers to act, and appreciate the efforts of others with humility. As the follower
develops, the leader must employ excellent communication skills that include being an active
listener as noted by all of the authors in the breadth. When communicating with followers, the
leader must identify with the followers needs in a manner that Burns (1978) described as
mutually valued outcomes. These leadership qualities offer the follower an example to emulate.
The process portion of leadership development includes establishing goals for
incremental follower success (Blanchard et al., 1985; Kouzes & Posner, 2007; and Bass, 1985)
based on input concerning the needs derived from followers. As Bass noted, this intellectually
stimulates the followers and offers the followers the opportunity for dynamic change and growth.
However, this transformation requires a morally repeatable process to provide equal opportunity
despite development being unique to each aspiring leader. For example, in using a morally
repeatable process, it requires the leader to be flexible, adaptive, and detailed oriented (Ibbotson,
2008) in order to accommodate the needs of the individual. This requires the leader to use
diverse leadership styles; Blanchard et al. provided four examples. They were “Directive,
Coaching, Supporting, and Delegating” (p. 30). Ibbotson (2008, p. 92) and Blanchard et al.
(1985, p. 81) all suggested that the leader use a measurable goal oriented process called
“SMART” to help the leader to objectively evaluate the follower‟s progress and help the
36. 30
follower to understand what it takes to be a leader. In order to make the development process
truly transformational, the leader needs to be positive, help the follower envision their role in the
leader‟s vision, and empower the follower to complete his or her portion of this vision. In doing
so, as Kouzes and Posner noted, the leader stimulates the follower creatively which offers the
follower the opportunity of dynamic leadership development.
Of the key weaknesses noted when reviewing the leadership potential of the four theories
analyzed, some of the theories ignore the destruction of leadership potential wrought by some
leaders as a follower attempts to improve their current situation. First, if a leader is disingenuous
while setting false expectations, goals, or targets he or she will destroy their personal integrity
(Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; and Kouzes and Posner, 2007). Bass added if a leader is disingenuous,
then he or she habitually changes organizational expectations and goals. As a result, the immoral
leader warps and hinders the development potential of the aspiring leader while the organization
suffers constant upheaval. During these periods of turmoil, as Kouzes and Posner explained,
Machiavellian power plays begin while aspiring leaders fend for themselves as they attempt to
survive. Bass believed that the aspiring leader no longer seeks development. This predicament
forces the aspiring leader to develop survivalist skills, which makes them a good leader that
knows how to survive and not a leader that knows how to inspire and promote positive social
change.
Morality
As the leader leads by example, he or she develops followers and aspiring leaders. As
Bass (1985) and Burns (1978) noted, the process of developing followers requires the leader to
work within the confines of organizational or social moral norms. Burns went further by adding,
while working within the confines of the social moral norms, the leader morally works to
37. 31
increase the level of understanding of the follower, so they may become examples to others.
Within the social moral confines, Blanchard et al. (1985) suggested the leader explain and
demonstrate fairness. Fairness requires the consistent application of organizational or social
morals, ethics, values, rules, and laws. Blanchard et al. continued this thought by adding, if
change is necessary the change must occur in a systematic manner within the societal structure.
Any change that occurs outside the socially accepted moral norms is anarchy inspired by amoral
transformational and revolutionary leaders (Bass). If a leader acts narcissistically or inspires
amoral behavior, Ibbotson (2008) suggested that the leader must self-correct and act with
humility in order to use his or her power judiciously. This judicious use of power falls within
Kouzes and Posner (2007) concept of a leader being a humble servant of the people. As a moral
servant, he or she works to inspire others, the moral leader works protect the future freedom and
opportunity of future generations.
To be amoral, Blanchard et al. (1985) cautioned, requires the inconsistent application of
social morals, ethics, values, rules, and laws. All of the authors reaffirmed this broad theme. For
instance, Bass (1985) suggested that some inconsistency occurs because of improper
communication or failing to communicate to increase understanding. If improper communication
occurs, the follower may perceive this failure to communicate as impropriety. Burns (1978) went
further and wrote that failing to communicate, lead by example, or act in a morally acceptable
manner as the situation dictates exemplified amoral leadership characteristics. Bass expounded
this last thought when he added that erratic behavior is a result of a secular belief in ethical
relativism, in which the amoral leader communicates using rhetoric and ambiguity. Some authors
promoted amoral behavior. For example, Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997) thought morality
was an obstruction to creative thought. They condoned and promoted individuals acting in an
38. 32
amoral manner. Regardless, for leaders to operate outside the boundaries, Kouzes and Posner
(2007) thought this typified a leader‟s arrogance in believing that morals do not apply to them,
they only apply to followers. This ruling class mentality is antithetical to process-oriented moral
leadership.
Leader-Follower Relationship
To counter a ruling class mentality, POML requires leaders who are humble and are
willing to create strong and trusting bonds between them and their constituents. Bass (1985) was
succinct in pointing out that this bond must include open and honest communication. Bass
continued by stating that as the bond grows it cultivates a working inclusive arrangement that
requires the leader to empower the follower, so he or she may act, learn, and develop into a
leader. A part of this trusting relationship requires the leader to encourage spontaneity. As
Ibbotson (2008) suggested, one way to encourage spontaneity is to conduct brainstorming or role
playing events. During these events, the leader collects the actionable ideas to either solve a
problem or use them to build group unity. Blanchard et al. (1985) thought that the leader needed
to transform the ideas into tasks in order to provide the best opportunity to generate a series of
small victories that would build competence and confidence, which only strengthens the bond of
trust.
As implied in the brainstorming event, which Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997) also
wrote about, the leader serves the group by providing information and the tools to succeed so the
group could generate small victories. As Burns (1978) noted, the leader has to maintain a macro-
level perspective while aligning the small victories with the larger group goals that ultimately fit
within his or her vision. In order for the leader to get the follower to believe his or her actions
add value, the leader educates the follower about the macro-level perspective while explaining
39. 33
how the small victories fulfill the leader‟s vision. Kouzes and Posner (2007) thought that the
macro-level perspective must include various expected inputs and outputs of all stakeholders. In
the act, of sharing the vision, the leader mentors, facilitates, coaches, and directs the followers
(Blanchard et al., 1985; Kouzes & Posner, 2007).
As the leader becomes inclusive to and empowers the followers, Kouzes and Posner
(2007) were implicit by requiring the leader to be firm with the equal application of the rules and
social moral norms. Equal application of the rules protects the group from anarchy and turmoil.
Ultimately, the leader protects the group from itself. The act of protecting the group from
internal and external conflict ensures the follower can focus on higher-level needs while building
trust and confidence in the leader.
The act of protecting the group and the follower, as Bass (1985) injected, requires the
leader to include corrective actions. As Kouzes and Posner (2007) cautioned, a leader should
conduct corrective action to protect rules, moral norms, or use them as a preventive measure
such as a learning event to thwart future inappropriate actions. However, Bass warned against
any corrective action carried out in an immoderate manner will force the follower to focus on
their lower level needs; consequently, reducing the follower‟s output and the leader‟s power.
Burns offered a similar perspective; he thought reactive or punitive leadership is the carrot or the
stick approach to leadership that hinders the leader-follower relationship making it inefficient
with respect to output and growing a power base. The process-oriented moral leader has to be
concerned with rules and corrective actions in order to be morally correct and fair. However,
Kouzes and Posner thought that the best way to avoid the need to use punitive action is through
education. This education must include preventative measures that increase social awareness and
interrelatedness.
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Growing a power base built on a strong leader-follower relationship has potential pitfalls
for the leader as Ibbotson (2008); Bass (1985); Burns (1978); and Kouzes and Posner (2007)
illustrated in their theories. Burns cautioned leaders about the corruptible nature of power.
Power's corruptible nature makes Ibbotson‟s self-assessing process based on the power-humility
ratio suspect and dependent upon the strength of leader‟s moral character. If the leader were
morally weak, as Burns warned, he or she could manipulate the leader-follower relationship to
encourage the follower to carry out activities that were counter intuitive to the social need.
When leaders amass power, a follower risks losing their identity as they become
captivated by the leader‟s vision. Kouzes and Posner (2007) made this point; furthermore, they
thought a loss of self-identity created an environment where systems of hate could develop. For
example, as Bass (1985), Bennis, and Ward-Biederman (1997) noted those followers within the
leader‟s sphere of influence become zealots carrying out acts with a Machiavellian crusade
mentality. As a result, the leader-follower relationship de-evolves into groupthink and an abusive
bi-polar carrot and stick approach to maintain output or group cohesiveness. Any dissenting
thought that is contrary to the leader‟s vision requires corrective or punitive action. Since
negative action identifies individuals left outside of the leader‟s sphere of influence, these
followers become targets of abuse. As resentment builds in the targets of abuse, the abused wait
for the next revolutionary leader to save those individuals forced to follow the amoral leader
(Bass). In this example, as Bass noted, the leader has destroys incentive in the targeted group.
The leader and his or her zealots will reduce the output of followers by forcing them to be
concerned about their lower level needs that include survival.
In the final analysis, the leadership development answer found by analyzing positives and
negatives of the four leadership theories provides a synthesized version of leadership
41. 35
development that culminates in a developed process-oriented moral leader. This process-oriented
moral leader focuses on the positives found in leadership development, morality, leader-follower
relationship, by finding a mutually beneficial driving force for change, competition, and positive
social change while avoiding the negatives of each. Simply, the process-oriented moral leader
looks at the leadership development theories as tools in a toolbox. When used appropriately, the
knowledge contained within each theory can inspire followers, depending upon the situation, to
become force-multipliers as they propagate the concept of positive social change via POML.
Positive social change in this analysis is working to inspire dormant and apathetic
individuals to be become societal leaders that protect freedom and opportunity. In doing so, with
proper education, future leaders will not have to relearn the lessons of the past, future leaders
will have the opportunity to lead changes necessary for a better tomorrow. Consequently, to
make the change process more efficient, positive social change must occur with some societal
understanding of right and wrong. As Bass (1985) noted with his examples, social moral norms
have to be something greater than laws, for the excessive abuses found within them often lead to
softer versions of tyranny. However, Kouzes and Posner (2007) alluded to societal norms
needing to be adaptable. When societal norms need changed, the change has to occur on a
societal level, so everybody knows the new standard for growth and future leadership
development. After any necessary changes, Kouzes and Posner believed that when the leader and
the follower works within the re-established social moral norms: they both win when carrying
out positive social change. In addition, the community wins as well when apathetic individuals
become self-leaders. The reality to our development and interrelatedness is that the answers to
universal questions are within all of us.
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Conclusion
After analyzing the POML positives and negatives of different leadership theories, there
were numerous leadership qualities discovered enhancing the concept of POML. POML is a
leadership development concept that emphasizes a process-oriented philosophy to produce
justifiable results while encouraging moral, positive social change notions of mutual-cooperation
and the continual improvement of all stakeholders. Even though, positive social change
transformation is the goal, the compilation of theories used in the analysis does not presume one
theory better or worse as Burns (1978) implied in his conceptual beliefs. Rather each theory
incorporates useful tools that a process-oriented moral leader could use in a manner that Bass
(1985), Bennis and Ward-Biederman (1997), Ibbotson (2008), and Kouzes and Posner (2007)
suggested. This concept of using the correct situational approach in response to a situation was
something Blanchard et al. (1985) wrote about in their situational leadership theory.
A process-oriented moral leader does not transform a society to fit his or her vision or
values as Bass endorsed; a process-oriented moral leader transforms by getting a group of
individuals to push their potential and boundaries for the benefit of all stakeholders as Kouzes
and Posner proposed. Furthermore, since the realm of the leader is the future, a process-oriented
moral leader must protect freedom and promote individual responsibility. Kouzes and Posner
believe it is necessary for leaders to have the freedom to choose and act upon those decisions.
Understanding freedom's frailty, the authors also thought leaders have to have a moral
foundation. As a result, leaders need to know societal right from wrong, to understand why it is
important to take responsibility for any improprieties, and the wisdom to know they are only an
interrelated servant to the greater good of positive social change. The process-oriented moral
43. 37
leader works to secure the potential of future leaders, in doing so he or she secures their legacy
as a transformational agent of positive social change.
In searching for the positives and negatives in the four theories as they relate to the
concept of POML, leadership development, morality, and leader-follower relationship are
consistent with regards to one basic concept. This fundamental concept instructs leaders to be
mentors of future leaders and prioritize the needs of their people first. A leader uses his or her
vision, philosophy, and leadership developmental understanding to augment the developmental
needs of followers as they develop into leaders. Morality comes into play in understanding right
and wrong, according to Kouzes and Posner (2007) knowing right from wrong provides a
foundation to identify positive social change issues, which enables future leaders to endure and
overcome obstacles to positive social change. This fundamental concept touches on three other
criteria used to evaluate POML; they were identifying a rationale for change, harnessing
competitive nature of humanity, and clarifying the concept of positive social change. In
analyzing current research, the depth will expand the last three criteria concerning the premise of
POML by providing a point of reference used to compare and contrast current research with
other current research and theories established in the breadth.
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Depth
AMDS 8522: Current Research on Leadership Development
Annotated Bibliography
Barbuto, Jr. J. E. (2005). Motivation and transactional, charismatic, and transformational
leadership: A test of antecedents. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies; 11,
26-40. doi: 10.1177/107179190501100403.
Barbuto‟s (2005) work focused on five hypotheses. The first hypothesis tried to establish
a positive relationship between the intrinsic factors of “heteronymous morality, impulsive need,
and pre-operational need” (p. 28-29) with charismatic and transformational leadership behaviors.
The second hypothesis dealt with contractual or well-defined goals and rewards providing a
theorized positive increase in a leader‟s internal motivation. The third hypothesis implied that the
positive relationship between a leader‟s popularity within a community and transactional and
charismatic leadership behaviors. The fourth hypothesis focused in on a leader‟s self-image as
positively related to charismatic and transformational leadership behaviors. The fifth hypothesis
dealt with the process on how a leader processed intrinsic goals determined the constructive
relationship to transformational leadership behaviors. Using relatively obvious hypotheses,
Barbuto determined that there were testable antecedents that a firm or organization could test for
in order to find the right-fit candidate qualities to fill leadership positions.
This leadership motivational “profiling” (Barbuto, 2005, p. 37) appeared to be fraught
with developmental subjectivity and legal ramifications by stereotyping individuals and setting
artificial limits. Barbuto appeared to have excluded the possibility of future developmental
epiphanies thereby relegating leaders of today and tomorrow to their current paradigm in both
motivation and leadership development. Furthermore, the study was very dependent upon
45. 39
whether the subjects or future job candidates responded to the questions truthfully and did not
offer what the test person thought was the correct response. In essence, Barbuto‟s study was
simple and transactional in nature; consequently, it was not surprising that he had difficulties in
identifying strong correlations with an antecedent and transformational leadership.
Fairhurst, G. T. (2005). Reframing the art of framing: Problems and prospects for leadership.
Leadership, 1, 165 doi: 10.1177/1742715005051857.
Fairhurst (2005) hoped to provide reasons as to why some leaders were both willing and
capable concerning the concept of framing as a communication tool while other leaders seemed
unwilling or incapable. The first reason, offered by Fairhurst, centered on a leader‟s natural,
philosophical makeup. Some leaders had a predominant relativistic or essentialist interpretation
of events, which hindered their ability to process the dynamic skill of framing conversations. As
determined by the author, the focal point of the second reason was the leader‟s ability to use
“Message Design Logics” (p. 173). The manner in which a leader communicated consisted of
three levels, which were expressive, conventional, and rhetorical. Expressive was blunt and to
the point. The conventional level was utilitarian and based upon social upon social norms of
communication. The third level of communication was the rhetorical level. It was the ability to
shape the exchange of ideas to fit a strategic need. If a leader displayed lower level logic, he or
she was less apt to understand the concept of framing conversation. Fairhurst believed that the
skill of framing was teachable; however, the level of understanding was dependent upon the
intrinsic abilities of the leader.
As a result of an extensive revelation, Fairhurst (2005) identified four impediments to the
understanding the skill of framing. All four impediments resided within a student‟s information
processing paradigm. The four Fairhurst identified were the inexplicable disorders of “arrogance,
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conduit thinking, authenticity concerns, and the absence of a moral framework” (p.175). Most
important was the absence of a moral framework, since framing was a tool, it could empower the
most virtuous of activities or promote hateful surreptitious activities that destroy the good that
resides in humanity‟s conscious. The absence of a moral framework would allow an amoral
leader to use it to promote social change that destroys. Fairhurst was explicit in the importance of
establishing a moral framework because framing has subcomponents called “metaphor,
jargon/catchphrases, contrast, spin, and stories” (p. 168). When used inappropriately, framing
can legitimize the inexplicable and cause social harm using the best of intentions.
Gorlorwulu, J. & Rahschulte, T. (2010). Organizational and leadership implications for
transformational development. Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic
Mission Studies, 27, 199 – 208. doi: 10.1177/0265378810369955.
The authors identified five features of Christian based transformational development.
First, and most importantly, an individual must know them self as he or she analyzed their
actions in relation to the established moral norm. Gorlorwulu and Rahschulte (2010) thought the
second feature required an individual to seek “positive change” as a leader with regards to the
three dimensions of a complete life, “materially, socially, and spiritually” (p. 202). The third
feature described the act of a leader being a servant of the people while focusing on the first two
features as being a “steward” (p. 200) for the people. The fourth feature required a total
commitment from the transformational leader to the concept of transformational development as
a life choice while serving the people. The authors‟ perceptions on the fifth feature included the
concept of a calling as it related to transformational leadership. It required a leader to assist
individuals to find their true calling in order to maximize their efforts and be efficient
contributors to their community. The authors believed that change was an integral part of
47. 41
leadership; as a result, they believed that their transformational development concept should be
included for both profit and non-profit business entities.
The unfortunate stance that Gorlorwulu and Rahschulte (2010) took was to declare that
true transformational development was a Christian only concept of spirituality. In doing so, the
authors choose to ignore other secular and religious entities in pursuit of the same singularity in
development. Furthermore, they took a pessimistic stance concerning the individuals they hoped
to help. Instead of improving the condition of poverty by harnessing the abundance of potential
in all individuals, they choose classify their endeavor as reducing poverty through “resource
scarcity” (p. 203) management and organizational efficiency. With that said, many of their
beliefs were similar to King‟s, especially the notion that a person seeking transformational
development was on a quest to search for the “wholeness” (p. 201) of life which drew many
parallels to King‟s three dimensions of a complete life.
Grint, K. (2005). Problems, problems, problems: The social construction of „leadership‟. Human
Relations, 58, 1467-1494. doi: 10.1177/0018726705061314.
Grint (2005) started the article by dispelling the notion of “context determining
leadership response” (p. 1490), as found in the great man, contingency, and situational theories,
since it limited the leader‟s options when resolving the problem in a systematic manner. Grint
offered a different approach that required the leader to be keenly aware of the situation and the
context in which the problem developed because a problem could either be “wicked, tame, or
critical” (p. 1472-1477). Each problem required a different response by the leader. For example,
if the situation were a wicked problem, then the leader would use leadership skills that build a
consensus in order to do root cause analysis and resource delegation. If the problem were a tame,
it would require routine managerial skills to resolve the problem. Finally, if the problem were
48. 42
critical, it would require a military style commander using coercion as they controlled others to
resolve the problem. As a result, an effective leader stayed ahead of the problem by reclassifying
the context of the problem in order to maximize political gain or lessen the damage to his or her
power base.
The article‟s premise focused on the maxim of never letting a good problem go to waste.
Ironically, Grint (2005) concedes that leaders routinely lusted for power, corrupted by power,
and were unable to admit mistakes. As a solution, he offered an amoral construct that instructed a
leader to frame the context of a problem in a manner that mitigated any negative effects and
maximized the positive effects in order to implement a social agenda. Upon taking office, a
leader arranges a host of predetermined responses to implement a social agenda that may be
intractable or even unwanted by his or her constituents. When a problem occurs, the leader
quickly frames it as wicked, tame, or critical with a matching predetermined response that may
have nothing to do with resolving the problem that triggered a need for a response. In almost
automatic fashion concerning the manner of appreciative inquiry, bureaucratic managers pick up
the predetermined response and begin implementation. Depending on the initial results, the
leader can reclassify the problem in order to deflect blame or to seize maximum power. On the
surface, this amoral construct appeared completely reactionary; however, this changed
dramatically as the leader implements a proactive social agenda. The construct is in conflict with
moral leadership. Moral leadership requires a leader to navigate through the tumult of the change
event, while consuming the least amount of resources in order to achieve a socially agreed upon
objective.
49. 43
Harland, L., Harrison, W., Jones, J. R., & Reiter-Palmon, R. (2005). Leadership behaviors and
subordinate resilience. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 11, 2-14. doi:
10.1177/107179190501100202.
Using optimism as a control variable, Harland, Harrison, Jones, and Reiter-Palmon
(2005) tested two hypotheses to determine if there were key ingredients a leader needed in order
to improve resilience in their subordinates. The first hypothesis theorized that the “five
transformational leadership dimensions (attributed charisma, idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration)” and the transactional
dimension of contingent reward “would be positively associated with resilience” (p. 9). While
monitoring the five dimensions and manipulating optimism, inspirational motivation was the
only dimension “not significantly correlated with resilience” (p. 9). As expected, in the second
hypothesis the author controlled optimism with respect to management-by-exception-active,
management-by-exception-passive, and laissez-faire dimensions and there was no significant
correlation with “subordinate resilience” (p. 9). When looking at the study in its totality and the
constant state of change found in current events, which political pundits have portrayed as a
harbinger of doom, the results of this study suggested that it would take visionary
transformational leaders to see the good and unlimited potential in their subordinates to navigate
the tumult.
Surprisingly, Harland et al. (2005) delved in to a topic that had relatively little research
conducted. In fact, they had to use research from other fields to assemble a definition for
resilience that was similar to coping. Concerning both resilience and coping, Harland et al. listed
some protective factors when predicting if an individual would be resilient or not. Interestingly
enough, if a transformational leader could develop and foster these protective factors in their
50. 44
subordinates, then the leader would have developed a dynamic group or team that could adapt,
improvise, and overcome any obstacle. The protective factors noted were “external supports (e.g.
good role models, trusted family and non-family members), inner strengths (e.g. likability,
optimism, empathy, a sense of purpose), and interpersonal and problems solving skills” (p. 3).
The interpersonal and problem solving factor included being creative when searching out for
new ideas, knowing when a follower needs help, humility, perseverance, and be appreciative. In
essence, in order to be a transformational force-multiplier for positive social change, the leader
must be an external support for others while exhibiting the other protective factors. The leader
truly leads by example.
Harms, P.D. & Credé, M. (2010). Emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional
leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17, 5-17.
doi: 10.1177/1548051809350894.
The inspiration for the authors of this meta-analysis concerned the growing debate with
reference to the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and aspects of transactional or
transformational leadership. Unfortunately, the study produced correlations that were weak, to
non-existent. In spite of the results, Harms and Credé (2010) made some interesting suggestions
for future research about EI and its links to more complex styles of leadership. First, according to
the authors, EI was a fundamental leadership principle best tested using a “self-reporting” (p. 13)
format coupled with the external performance “measures of personality and cognitive
intelligence” (p. 7). Second, future studies needed to include enhanced validity controls when
testing for relationships between EI and various leadership theories that go beyond “intelligence
and personality” (p. 13). Third, EI was a western concept. Consequently, there were relatively
few studies involving test subjects from non-English speaking countries. This led to researchers‟