This document discusses electric mobility, aimed at the general public, and highlights common questions and misconceptions about electric cars. A survey conducted with 4,000 participants revealed key interests regarding charging methods, lifespan, costs, and emissions of electric vehicles. The text also emphasizes the advantages of electric cars over traditional combustion engines, including efficiency and reduced dependency on fossil fuels.

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i

3. Table of Contents
Prologue
1
Introduction
2
A brief overview
4
1-How do you charge an electric car?
11
2-What is the lifespan of an electric car?
16
3-What is the range of an electric car?
20
4-What are the costs of an electric car?
25
5-Do governments promote the purchase of electric cars?
29
6-Is the electric car just another passing fad?
32
7-What are the levels of CO2 emissions from electric cars?
35
8-What kind of maintenance and repair do electric cars need?
38
9-Will the batteries be available in the long term?
40
10-How are electric car batteries recycled?
43
Conclusion/ Summary
45
Glossary of key terms related to electric-mobility
50
The Authors
54
ii

4. Prologue
Today, the issue of electric
mobility is more current than
ever. After conducting many
conversations with people who
are not experts in the field and
having analyzed their needs, we
realized that the general public
lacks fundamental information
about electric mobility and its
modern use. This book was
motivated by the desire to remove this deficit in basic information, or at the very least, reduce
it. It is not aimed at the scientific community and specialized public but rather for general
readers who are interested in learning more about the subject.
The authors are three scientists who have dedicated themselves to the issue both during and
after their studies. They collectively decided to explain and share their knowledge on electric
mobility, explaining it in a way that is simple to understand, removing any existing prejudices and
refuting any misconceptions.
This has been accomplished by avoiding the excessive use of puzzling technical vocabulary or
the excessive use of data. A thorough reading of this book will provide you with a basic
knowledge of electric mobility and give you the opportunity to learn about the advantages and
current disadvantages and the possible solutions to these issues.
This book is designed to give an independent view of the electrical performance of the cars and
their various uses as well as to provide the reader with an informed understanding of the topic.
1

5. Introduction
„What interests you about electric
mobility?“ - A survey.
Before we started working on this guide it was important for us to know what questions were
most important for the public. With this objective, we published a survey on the internet on
various platforms. We eventually managed to encourage 4,000 people from different areas,
countries and ages to participate in a survey. They were provided with a questionnaire consisting
of 20 questions on electric mobility and, taking into account their interests and prior
knowledge, were asked to prioritize their answers according to relevance and importance. The
results of the survey are shown in the chart below.
How do you recharge an electric car? 97,0 %
What is the lifespan of an electric car? 96,5 %
How much autonomy does an electric car have? 95,5 %
What are the costs of an electric car? 95,3 %
Are there any governmental subsidies for electric cars? 88,6 %
Is the electric car just another hype? 87,8 %
What are the levels of CO2 emissions from electric cars? 87,1 %
What kind of maintenance and repair do they need? 86,8 %
Will the batteries be available in the long term? 83,9 %
How do you recycle electric car batteries? 80,1 %
0 % 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %
important unimportant doesn’t matter
Figure 1: The ten most important questions about electric mobility
2

6. Number one on the list and therefore the question that generates the most interest is the
question about how to recharge an electric car. The demand for information is also largely
focussed around the life and autonomy of operating an electric vehicle. In turn, the survey
frequently threw up questions about the price of the vehicles and the promotion of them in
different countries. The participation of almost 4,000 respondents demonstrates the great
interest in electric mobility and the number of people interested in learning more about the
topic.
The survey helped us to discover the ten most common questions about electric mobility.
3

7. A brief overview
Currently, car dealers mainly feature cars with a
conventional combustion engine. However, as this Did you know that the first
book will attempt to explain, they are beginning to electric car was built in 1834 by
understand that in the future, sales of hybrid and Thomas Davenport? The vehicle
electric cars will grow. In this context, modern and was a prototype and did not have
alternative technology frequently appears as a rechargeable batteries. When Carl
series of concepts, parameters and names that you Friedrich Benz introduced the first
may have heard of but whose correct definition is petrol automobile in 1885, the
not fully known. To prevent possible confusion and electric car was already known,
to provide clarity from the beginning, this chapter is but the low cost of fuel at the
an introduction to the subject and provides a time meant that the combustion
concise perspective on these technologies, as well engine prevailed.
as explaining some of the new concepts.
Source: http://de.wikipedia.org/
Even the manufacturers themselves have problems wiki/ Thomas_Davenport
using the correct technical vocabulary. This is
demonstrated in the official description of a
product written by a British subsidiary of a US car manufacturer. It indicates an electric car
battery with a capacity of 111 kWh (kilowatt hours), a fact which simply cannot be true. The car
has 111 kW, a measurement that is used to indicate the electrical power more than to refer to
the capacity of the electric car’s battery. (see http://www.green-and-energy.com/blog/the-need-
forclarification-around-evs/).
4

8. The main difference between cars
with a combustion engine and an
electric motor lies in the energy
source used to enable locomotion.
In combustion engines the energy
sources are liquid or gaseous fuels
derived mostly from fossils. Both oil
and natural gas are accessible and
finite resources. Additionally, access
to these materials is restricted to
cer tain regions which has
generated a significant dependence
on imports from the countries
where the fuels are found. The
need for these deposits has often resulted in political tension and even war.
For decades the increasing global demand and limited supply of these resources has led to a
continuous increase in the price of petrol and diesel. Another basic argument against the use of
fossil fuels is the environmental impact caused by their burning. For example, it is from carbon
dioxide emissions that we get the so-called “Greenhouse Effect” that has been proven to cause
climate change, resulting in many countries committing to reduce their emissions. Therefore,
despite the claims that liquid and gaseous fuels can be obtained through Biomass, these
methods have certain disadvantages. For example, to obtain the necessary amounts of Biogas
and other Biofuels it would be necessary to turn to agricultural areas that are otherwise needed
for food production. This is particularly problematic in those countries where food production
and supply of goods for the general population is already difficult.
5

9. T h e f a c t s o u t l i n e d a b ove
demonstrate that the internal Did you know that the CO2 produced during the
combustion engine alone does combustion of biofuels is almost the same as the
not represent the technology of amount a plant captures during its growth? For that
the future, although at the reason, biofuels are CO2 neutral.
present time it satisfies almost all
consumer mobility needs. Unlike
conventional vehicles, electric cars store the energy they need for their operation in chemical
form in a battery. Cars with combustion engines also use batteries to store energy, not for
traction but primarily for starting the engine. In this context they are described as “starter
batteries”. If the accumulated energy is used for
the motion (traction) of the vehicle they are called
“traction batteries”. Traction batteries can store a
much higher quantity of energy than the starter
battery. An ordinary lead-acid battery is adequate
for a starter battery, while the traction battery
requires more advanced technologies such as
lithium-ion or nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH).
The energy for the electric traction can be
obtained through local and renewable energy
sources. Thus, through electric mobility emission
free mobility can be ensured. Another advantage is
that the dependency on oil or gas producing
countries is no longer existing. Therefore, the
vehicle owner is not subjected to the costs
dictated by the oil companies. If the electricity is
not produced emission free, electric cars are responsible for CO2 emissions which are not
emitted into the environment from the vehicle, like conventional cars, but from the production
process.
6

10. Along with the extensive number of utility companies there are also numerous methods of
producing energy through both fossil and renewable sources, meaning that supply problems or
dependence can be virtually eliminated. CO2 emissions per kilowatt hours vary from country to
country depending on the used power plants respectively used methods for the generation of
electricity. The current emissions of different countries are shown in the figure below. France,
with about 102 g of CO2/kWh, is amongst the countries with the lowest specific emissions
worldwide. This is because over 75 %1 of the electricity is generated by nuclear plants which
have relatively low CO2 emissions when compared to plants fueled by coal, gas or oil.
CO2 emissions of electricity production in kg/kWh
900
720
540
360
813
575 667
180
454
249
0
102
Germany Austria France Europe USA China
Figure 2: Specific emissions for electricity production in different countries2,3
1 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf40.html
2 http://www.zukunft-elektroauto.de/pageID_8368817.html [GEMIS (2009)]
3 http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/fileadmin/site/publikationen/REP0303.pdf
7

11. Due to technological advances and the
growth of renewable systems, the Did you know that the vehicle known as the
average carbon dioxide emissions from Lohner-Porsche was displayed at the
power plants are continuously Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900? It was
decreasing. Thus, the levels of CO2 per an electric car with the motor on the wheel
kilowatt hour produced will also hub. The image shows the racing version
continue to decrease. Even if the electric with the electric wheel hubs on all four
cars are not recharged by electricity wheels!
generated solely through renewable
energies the emissions will still decline.
The CO2 emissions will be separately
reviewed in Chapter 7.
Along with the pure electric cars that
are slowly arriving on the market there
are also hybrid cars that are already
growing in popularity. The term “hybrid”
generally refers to vehicle systems in
which two or more technologies are Source: http://de .wikipedia.or g/wiki/
combined. They have an internal Ferdinand_Porsche#Elektroauto_Lohner-
combustion engine and an electric Porsche
motor which make them a ver y
attractive option, as apart from the
lower energy consumption and therefore lower emissions of gases that cause pollution, they can
be propelled purely through electricity even if only for relatively few kilometers. In this way you
get the advantage of both technologies and compensation for the disadvantages of each.
8

12. The electric motor is, in terms of efficiency, superior
Did you know that the to the combustion engine. An electric motor has an
Greenhouse Effect is caused by efficiency factor of circa 95 % or more whereas a
greenhouse gases like CO2 or modern diesel powered engine only has a maximum
methane. The greenhouse gases efficiency of about 35 %. Depending on the driving
constrain the transmission of the characteristic and the route profile (for example
suns rays reflected by the earths driving in city traffic), this value is further reduced by
surface, which leads to rising a couple of percentage points and most of the fuel is
global temperatures. Scientists as used to heat the atmosphere rather than to propel
well as politicians came to a the vehicle.
worldwide agreement that the
Another advantage of the electric car is the ability to
extreme characteristics of the
recover the kinetic energy during braking. Braking,
current greenhouse effect and
which has been a purely mechanical process up to
therefore global warming is
n ow, c a n b e a l s o a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h
caused by the emissions created
electromagnetic forces that generate electricity and
by humanity.
recharge the battery. This is known as “recuperation”
and is particularly effective when driving in city
traffic.
Currently there are many different configurations in the world of hybrids. They differ according
to the various traction components as well as the degree of electrification of the vehicle. The
variety reaches from Micro-Hybrid electric cars with only a “Start and Stop” function to electric
cars with a so called Range Extender, which could be a small engine or fuel cell. The Range
Extender generates electric energy while driving in order to recharge the battery or to directly
drive the electric engine.
9

13. In a pure electric vehicle (EV) the engine is omitted. The car is equipped exclusively with an
electric motor powered only by the battery.
Electric motor / generator Battery
Range Extender Fuel tank Electronics
Figure 2: Hybrid car (left) and a pure electric car (right)
10

14. 1-How do you charge an
electric car?
What are the different ways to recharge
an electric car?
Cur rently there are no
standardized methods for
charging electric cars, but we
assume this will change soon.
Generally there are three main
ways: conductive charging,
inductive charging and by
changing the battery.
Using the conductive method
the car (battery) is connected
by a cable and plugged directly into an electricity provider. The inductive method, in contrast,
works through electromagnetic transmission without any contact between the EV and the
charging infrastructure. The charging spot is equipped with wires which carry an alternating
current as soon as the EV is at the right place. The alternating current creates an
electromagnetic field, which affects the receiver (also consisting of wires) in the EV in a way that
a current is induced and charges the battery. This method is the same as that used to charge
electric toothbrushes.
Currently, both the automotive industry and operators of charging stations prefer conductive
charging because it is much cheaper and more efficient. Yet there are several R&D projects
which focus on the further improvement of inductive charging, because it offers a way better
user comfort and could be a key feature for electric mobility.
11

15. The third possibility takes into consideration the swapping of discharged batteries with fresh
ones in a swapping station. This concept is being developed today by, amongst others, an Israeli
company. However for this to be possible the dimensions and internal connections for the
batteries must be standardized. Each electric car from each manufacturer would have to have
virtually the same size, shape and type of battery. As this reduces the OEM’s freedom of design
and given that the choice of placement of the battery would be severely reduced, most of the
manufacturers reject this method.
How long does it take to charge the
batteries?
The time required to recharge the
batteries depends on several
factors. Firstly- the available power
from the grid and the state of
charge of the battery. Secondly,
there are the specific
characteristic values of both the
car and the battery such as the
battery type, the cooling system
and the maximum permissible
current.
For example , a conventional
household outlet in Europe can achieve an output close to 3.5 kilowatt (kW) (Analog to Level 1
charging in USA, with 2 kW). Therefore, a battery with a capacity of 3.5 kilowatt hours (kWh)
can be charged in one hour, regardless of any energy losses and other effects during the charge.
This means that the procedure for charging a 20 kWh traction battery takes around 6 hours (in
USA with Level 1 10 hours). However, a high voltage power port supplies around 22 kW (Level
2 charging) so the same battery would be fully charged in around 50 minutes. This fast load can
only be guaranteed in facilities that have been technically upgraded for this purpose which
12

16. represents a considerable expense. Furthermore, the current battery types still react sensitively
to variable charging methods and therefore these methods of fast charging are not yet standard.
It could be that the implementation of fast charging infrastructure would be a result of simply
putting it in the public’s consciousness, to demonstrate to the users that fast charging is possible
and that additional unscheduled trips could be fulfilled. Vehicles are generally used every day and
owing to the average distances travelled and the time the vehicle is parked etc., a level 1
charging installation should suffice in a majority of cases.
As for the amount of energy recharged there are two reasonable possibilities: A complete
charge to 100 % or an 80 % charge. An 80 % charge is recommended when the process needs
to be finished in a hurry and if you are not going to make long journeys afterwards. The
problem with charging the batteries is that the charging of the last 10 or 20 % is slower and
produces more losses in the form of heat. The following figure can help to explain the influence
of load power during the process of recharging car batteries.
Level 1 Europe’s level 1 Level 2 Level 3
10
8
Charging time in hours
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Amount of energy recharged in kWh
Figure 3: Time necessary for the charging process depending on the charging power and the
amount of energy required.
13

17. Battery swapping would be, in terms of time demand,
probably the best way to provide a full battery. With the Did you know that you
technologies available today it would just take around a would have to pay about
minute to get a fresh one. The downside of this technology 10,50 € for a 100 km
is it’s high cost. It would involve not only a new and drive with a conventional
expensive infrastructure (the swapping stations) but you car (for an average fuel
would also need a certain amount of costly batteries for consumption of 7 l/
the exchange. It would also be necessary to standardize 100km and a fuel price of
batteries to be compatible with all car models and because 1,50 €/l)? With an EV the
of this the removable battery system is rejected by many cost would just be around
OEMs as well as many investors in this sector. 4 € ( fo r a n e n e r g y
demand of 20 kWh/
The recharging time is one of the most important aspects
100km and a price of 0,2
in the discussions about electric mobility. A look at the
€/kWh).
average use of the car4 demonstrates that a large part of
the vehicle’s lifetime is spent off the road so in most cases
fast charging is not necessary. Furthermore, most of the
every day journeys in Germany and Europe are below 50 km and could easily be fulfilled by
electric vehicles despite the range limitation.
4 Grau, A.: Pendler: Die Mehrheit nimmt weiter das Auto, Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden, 2009
14

18. When and where can the batteries be
recharged?
In theory, the batteries could be recharged at any time
and in any place that has an electrical installation
available. This means that the car could be charged
either at home or at the workplace as well as at a
public charging station. There are plans for the future
implementation of charging stations at strategic
points, e.g. in car parks or at shopping malls. In this way
the energy can be partially or even completely
recharged easily while the owner is, for example, in the
supermarket or visiting a doctor. Yet, these public
stations are especially useful for partial charging. It is
more convenient to fully charge the batteries in the
evening. There are two reasons why this is more
desirable: firstly because cars are generally used less in
the evenings and secondly because there is less
electricity consumption in the evenings so the grid will
not be overloaded. There is a further cost advantage if
the consumer has the possibility of contracting a
cheaper night time electricity tariff. This would not only
prevent change in the network stability but would
reduce the demand for new power plants. With the help of “smart” electricity meters
commonly known as “SmartMeters” you can recharge your vehicle at a time of night that would
be more economical.
15

19. 2-What is the lifespan of an
electric car?
The lifespan of an electric car depends
primarily on the battery. The lifespan of
the rest of the vehicle’s components is
comparable to those of conventional
cars or may even do need less
maintenance. For example, the lack of a
gear system or a complex cooling
system for the engine saves a lot of
visits to the mechanic.
Some automobile companies currently
offer a guarantee on traction batteries.
For example , the GM5 Volt is
guaranteed for 8 years and/or 160,000
km6 (100,000 miles) and the Tesla
Roadster comes with a 7 year and/or
160,000 km7 guarantee.
Like all other chemical storage systems,
lithium batteries, currently the most
promising technology for use in electric
cars, react to environmental effects and
5 http://www.auto-motor-und-sport.de/eco/gm-gewaehrt-acht-jahre-garantie-auf-volt-batterie-acht-jahre-garantie-
auf-batterie-des-volt-1930194.html
6 http://gm-volt.com/2010/07/19/chevrolet-volt-battery-warranty-details-and-clarifications/
7 http://www.teslamotors.com/blog/program-update
16

20. show signs of wear, so their life can be limited to some extent depending on their use.
This signifies that the battery capacity is reduced
Did you know that lithium slightly with each charging cycle due to the
batteries are constantly aging? numerous internal reactions caused by the charging
There are sever al inter nal process.
processes which lead to an aging
Put simply, the loss in capacity (aging) of the
during the phases of usage
batteries accelerates significantly with the
(charging and discharging) as well
temperature and the current as well as the number
as during periods of storage.
of charging cycles.
Therefore the possible usage of
current lithium batteries today is This background knowledge answers the most
limited to a maximum of 8 to 10 common questions about the lifespan of an electric
years. car. As for the “memory effect” (an effect observed
in some batteries that causes them to hold less
charge, specifically when the batteries lose their
maximum energy capacity when they are repeatedly charged after being only partially
discharged) known from batteries of the past it is safe to say that this effect does no longer
exist, or it should only minimally affect modern batteries.
17

21. Do the batteries age faster in Winter or
Summer?
Low temperatures, without being extremely low, both during use and when the vehicle is
parked, reduce the pace of the aging process in lithium batteries. For this reason the batteries
deteriorate markedly slower in winter than in the summer. During the summer months it makes
sense to protect the batteries with an appropriate cooling system.
That said - extreme low temperatures can also damage some types of batteries.
Is the lifespan of the battery longer if the
car is used less often?
Lithium batteries are
affected by calendaric aging
as well as an aging due to
the charging and discharging
cycles. Calendaric aging
means that regardless of
usage, the batteries will age
as time passes by. Because
of this effect the lifespan of
a lithium battery is reduced
to 10 years, 15 maximum, even when it is not used.
On the other hand, the cyclic aging is dependent on the frequency that the battery is charged
and discharged. Modern batteries can withstand between 2,000 and 3,000 cycles (charging and
discharging) so assuming a full charge cycle per day the life of the battery would be between 5
and 8 years. Under this assumption and depending on the type of battery you could say that the
life of a battery can be lengthened by moderate use. Yet, in general there are certain limitations
for the batteries life, which can not be prolonged even by not using the vehicle.
18

22. Depending on the type of battery, cyclic aging may be lower than calendaric aging. Put in other
words, no matter how many miles the car travels, the aging of the battery is dictated by the
passage of time.
How can the lifespan of the battery be
influenced?
The life of the lithium battery depends directly on their proper use. Mishandling can have a
negative influence in the conservation of energy storage and handled correctly the life of the
battery can be extended considerably. The main factor here is the temperature of the battery,
coupled with the correct charging and discharging. Fast charging will lead to higher current flow
(amps) into the battery and will accelerate cyclic aging. It will lead also to higher battery
temperatures and thus to faster aging due to the temperature.
Both overcharging and deep discharging can also
shorten the battery life. These two effects are usually Did you know that the
regulated and prevented by the electronics of the ener gy consumption in
vehicle. winter, with temperatures
touching freezing point, can
The battery life is currently estimated to be 5 to 8
rise from 16 kWh/100 km to
years. In contrast, the average life of a conventional car in
24 kWh/100 km just by
Europe is about 12 to 15 years8 , which is considerably
using the heating? This means
longer. This is one of the weak points of the electric car
that the range of the vehicle
and explains why the companies are working hard to
lowers from 120 km to 80
improve this statistic.
km.
However, if the total costs of ownership are taken into
account, an electric car can be cost effective compared
to a conventional vehicle despite the shorter lifespan and higher investment.
8 http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=SEC:2007:0015:FIN:DE:HTML
19

23. 3-What is the range of an
electric car?
In theory the range
of an electric car
depends on both the
energy stored and
the amount of
energy required by
the car.
The greater the
capacity of a traction
battery, the greater
the range of the car. However the range can be reduced by the manner the vehicle is driven.
The energy consumption of an electric car in Europe is given in kWh (kilowatt hours) per 100
km. A small electric vehicle driven in city traffic needs on average 15 kWh/100 km, which when
translated into liters of gasoline is about 1.5 liters/100km (157 MPG). The consumption of a
traditional car in urban traffic is, as everybody knows from experience, about or even more than
7 liters of gasoline per 100km (35 MPG and lower). This clearly demonstrates that the energy
requirements of an electric car are far below that of the combustion car.
A car equipped with a traction battery of 30 kWh and a specific energy consumption of 15
kWh/100 km has a theoretical range of 200 km. This theoretical range is further influenced in
practice by the way the vehicle is driven and other parameters like cooling and lights. These
parameters also appear in conventional vehicles with combustion engines but affect the electric
car’s range considerably more because of the lower energy stored in the battery compared to
the quantity of energy stored in gas tanks.
20

24. Before getting into the specifics of the aforementioned parameters we should clarify the
relationship between the speed and power demands of the car. Both electric cars and
conventional cars need more power at higher speeds. For conventional cars, this effect reflects
in a higher consumption per 100 km (or lower mileage per gallon) at higher speeds, as shown in
figure 4. If you drive at a high speed for a long journey the car will require more power for a
long period. This leads to a high energy requirement and therefore a small range.
100
Required power in kW
75
50
25
160 180 200
0 100 120 140
60 80
20 40
0
Speed in km/h
Figure 4: Power requirement of a car depending on the driving speed.
21

25. Car dependent parameters:
Here you have to look at the weight and shape of the car. The heavier and larger the car, the
higher the driving resistances that have to be overcome while moving the car. For example the
air resistance, which is directly proportional to the front surface of the vehicle, results in high
consumption and low range. This explains why an SUV needs between 10 and 15 liters per 100
km (23 MPG and lower), two or three times more than a small car traveling the same distance
that usually requires 4 to 5 liters per 100 km (52 MPG). iEV is a quick and effective way to
calculate the energy consumption of an electric car, even before having it.9
User dependent parameters:
The driver can influence the range of an
electric car in three ways. As shown in the Did you know that calculating your
graph above, the way that you drive plays a personal energy
role. If you accelerate too much or consumption is essential
maintain very high speeds, the range is before buying an electric
affected. The recuperation via regenerative car? The authors of this
braking is also smaller on the motorway. ebook, recognized the
Other factor s that should not be impor tance of this and
overlooked are additional accessories in developed a calculation algorithm and
the vehicle such as using the air implemented it into an iPhone app to
conditioning or having the heating on. Any perform this task.
additional weight also affects the range, if
http://dottribes.com/iEV
the boot is filled with boxes or bags or all
of the seats are occupied with passengers With iEV you can calculate which battery
the vehicle is heavier which has a negative will satisfy your mobility needs.
impact on the range of an electric car.
9 EV simulator for electric cars for the iPhone - http://dottribes.com/iev
22

26. Environment dependent parameters:
This section includes the outdoor
temperature, the distance travelled and the Did you know that the ener gy
traffic conditions. The outside temperature c o n s u m p t i o n i n w i n t e r, w i t h
affects the range because it influences the temperatures touching freezing point, can
need for heating or cooling. Electric cars rise from 16 kWh/100 km to 24 kWh/
have in winter, unlike petrol cars, the 100 km just by using the heating? This
drawback that the heating needs to be means that the range of the vehicle
powered by the battery, which decreases lowers from 120 km to 80 km.
the range massively. Residual heat from the
Source: Forschungsstelle für
electrical components is not sufficient to
E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t e . V. , M ü n c h e n
heat the interior of the vehicle due to its
(unpublished)( http://www.ffe.de)
high performance. Additionally, in very low
temperatures and depending on the type of
battery (e.g NiMH), only a small portion of the energy that is stored can be used to power the
car. Another important factor is geography because during climbs the car requires more energy
which can be recuperated going downhill through braking.
Energy consumption and autonomy depend on the type of journey and this explains why both
can differ considerably. In tests carried out a small electric prototype car demonstrated a
consumption of 10 kWh/100 km in urban traffic, about 15 kWh/100 km in intercity traffic and
20 kWh/100 km on motorways. The reason why motorway journeys require a greater amount
of energy is because of the higher speeds.
23

27. In summary, one could say
that the limited range of
electric cars could cover the
mobility needs of the
current average driver. 90 %
of daily trips made by the
average european driver ̶
from home to work and
work to home ̶ is usually
less than 50 km10 and is
within an electric car’s
range. Obviously the manufacturers of electric cars are struggling to find solutions for future
mobility requirements and are trying to ensure that the needs of all users can be met by an
electric car, (for example through the use of a range extender). Do you want to see, if an
electric car could be something for you? With iEV you can test it!11
10 www.eds-destatis.de
11 More information for iEV under http://dottribes.com/ebook-iev
24

28. 4-What are the costs of an
electric car?
For the consumer, the cost is one of the
most important criteria when buying a
car. It is the single factor that dictates
whether the next car you buy will be an
electric car or not. This brings us to the
purchase price. Several surveys have
shown the limits and the surcharges
that consumers are willing to pay.
Results showed that consumers would
spend a maximum of 24,000 €12 for an
electr ic car with 58 % of the
respondents stating that they would pay
an extra surcharge of 4,000 € 13 for an
electric car if necessary. Automobile
manufacturers calculate the price of an
average electric car between 35,000
and 40,000 € in the European market.
Similar prices are targeted for the US
market.
The largest percentage of the price is in the batteries. According to a study by Roland Berger
and the Market Research Institute TNS Infratest, the surcharge will fall below 4,500 € by 2020.
This indicates that there is a noticeable discrepancy between the prices that the users are
prepared to pay and the manufacturers estimated cost. Therefore it is essential to look not only
12 https://www.uni-due.de/de/presse/meldung.php?id=2428
13 http://www.wiwo.de/unternehmen-maerkte/deutsche-sehnen-das-elektroauto-herbei-429125/
25

29. at the cost of acquisition but at the cost of the vehicle throughout it’s total cost of ownership
(TCO)14.
Comparing the TCO, it is clear that the electric car, compared to a conventional one, might have
a great potential for savings. The savings generated from electric cars are largely a result of low
energy costs and better efficiency, plus the energy source used is more economical. The
maintenance of the vehicles is also more economical as there is less wear on their components.
This issue is explored in more depth in Chapter 8.
The consumer should not fall into the trap of seeing
only the purchase price of the car which could make Did you know that a large
him reluctant to purchase it. It should also be taken propor tion of fuel prices in
into account that there are few electric cars on the Europe are taxes? They have a
market. However, many manufacturers have tendency to rise. The current
announced that they will be launching models in price of a barrel of fuel is around
2011 and 2012. As soon as mass produced vehicles 90 or 110 dollars a barrel, which
enter the market, the consumer will see a decline in means just 33 to 37 cents per
price. liter. The rest of the fuel costs
are taxes
Batteries are the most expensive element in a
electric car. Currently they cost nearly 1,000 € per
kWh of storage, so the price of a lithium battery with a capacity between 20 and 35 kWh is
between 20,000 and 35,000 €. This is why the purchase cost of an electric car is so high today.
Electric cars will become more attractive when the battery price drops, or alternatively when
the cost of fossil fuels increases.
The car industry is aware of this problem and is working on strategies to lower the price of
batteries for users, for example they have considered the possibility that the customer does not
acquire the battery with the vehicle but instead leases it as a separate component from the
vehicle manufacturers. This way the batteries are removed when they no longer have the
required capacity as a traction battery and can be given a second life through stationary usage.
14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_cost_of_ownership
26

30. Since all of the electric mobility technology - from the cars to the batteries - is currently still in
the development stage, we can deduce that there is still great potential for cost reduction
through a combination of the effects of mass production and continuous and progressive
technological development.
Even today there are both public and private
Did you know that usually, using energy transportation systems that are fully electric
at night is cheaper than during the day? and are very profitable, for example electric
scooters. The scooters are already available
on the market in a wide variety of models
and the electric scooters suitable for urban traffic are now on sale for less than 1,000 €.
Electric scooters show slightly higher investment costs than their current petrol equivalents. The
prices depend directly on the battery technology used and their capacity, although the additional
purchase costs are compensated for by lower usage costs over a few thousand kilometers. This
relationship is demonstrated in figure 5.
Electric Scooter Petrol Scooter
1,500 €
1,250 €
1,000 €
Overall costs
750 €
500 €
250 €
0 €
0 1,250 2,500 3,750 5,000
Driven distance in km
Figure 5: Comparison of costs between an electric scooter and another with a gas powered
engine.
27

31. Electric scooters can also be a good additional investment to a car and not only as an
alternative to a combustion engine scooter. A cost analysis demonstrates from what mileage the
acquisition costs of a scooter are amortized.
The saving in running costs of a car can pay for the total costs of buying an electric scooter. The
following figure shows the total costs of an electric scooter as an additional investment to three
Volkswagen models when comparing the amount of kilometers travelled. The graph shows that
the scooter is more economical beyond 6,500 km as an additional investment to the car, taking
into account the current costs of electricity, fuel and other expenses.
VW Passat VW Golf VW Polo Electric Scooter
4000 €
3000 €
Costs
2000 €
1000 €
0 €
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Driven distance in km
Figure 6: Comparison of the total cost of ownership of an electric scooter with the variable
costs of three vehicles15
15 Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft München - (unpublished).
28

32. 5-Do governments promote
the purchase of electric cars?
The government’s role is important
in encouraging people to consider
electric transport as an option in
urban areas. After all, as with any
new technology there are always
difficulties to be overcome at the
outset. To answer the initial
question, there is no universal
worldwide approach for promoting
EVs. Some nations regard the
direct funding via governmental
grants for the purchase of an EV as
a suitable way of introducing of
e l e c t r i c m o b i l i t y. O t h e r
governments prefer an increase in
research and development.
Leading the way in subsidies for the
purchase of an electric car is Japan,
which contributes 10,000 € for the
purchase of a vehicle of this type. In
this way they are trying to encourage the purchase of the first generation of electric cars which
inevitably are highly prices (as noted in chapter four).
29

33. The figure below shows which countries contribute to the purchase of an electric car and how
much they provide as an incentive.
Japan 10,000 €
China 6,800 €
Canada 6,400 €
Spain 6,000 €
GB 5,700 €
USA 5,500 €
France 5,000 €
Italy 3,500 €
Ireland 2,500 €
Germany 0 €
0 € 2,500 € 5,000 € 7,500 € 10,000 €
Subsidy in € for each country
Figure 7: Subsidy in Euros provided by each country
As already mentioned before, direct financial support to buyers of electric cars is not the only
way governments can promote the implementation of this new technology. There are a number
of opportunities in the grants that governments provide that the consumer can take advantage
of indirectly, for example investment in research. This ensures the continuous improvement of
the car and battery and the subsequent development of technical innovations. Alongside the
subsidies there are also numerous other state funded aids that may be advantageous for
buyers, such as parking lots or separate lanes for these vehicles in busy areas.
30

34. The different possibilities of direct and indirect promotion are shown in more detail in Figure 8.
Common Opportunities for subsidies
Direct subsidies Indirect subsidies
• Investment costs associated with • Investment for R & D
the car Automotive and battery
• Fiscal advantages for the car technology
through the costs of electricity • Implementation of an
• Reductions in insurance costs infrastructure Charging stations
• Loans with low interest rates & battery recycling
• Preferential parking spaces • Preparation for market
•Special driving lanes introduction Field trial in pilot
regions
Figure 8: Subsidy possibilities for electric mobility
In summary, one can say that the subsidies governments provide for electric mobility are
reasonable although the governments should be careful not to focus simply on the way the
subsidies are provide, but also be conscious of providing the subsidies at the opportune
moment.
Although Germany aims to take a pioneering role in electric mobility, the German government
is currently left considerably behind their European neighbors in terms of promotion. There has
been much discussion on the provision of subsidies in Germany but so far there are no
subsidies available from the German government, although money has been spent on various
investigations into the subject. Even the smaller countries such as Ireland are considerably more
advanced in the subsidization of electric cars
31

35. 6-Is the electric car just
another passing fad?
This question can be
answered with a clear
and resounding NO. As
we have previously
explained, electric
mobility is not just
another technology
that will be fashionable
for a while. Finding
alternatives to oil and
finite fossil fuels that are harmful to both the environment and people´s health is of utmost
importance. Furthermore the costs of finite fossil fuels will inevitably rise due to the limitation in
combination with the constant increasing demand. For which reason a shift to alternatives is also
necessary from an economic point of view.
It is imperative to redefine the term “mobility” and find an alternative to the conventional
vehicles that are contributing to the greenhouse gasses that are continuously accelerating
climate change.
32

36. Many governments especially in Europe, Asia and the USA
have set ambitious goals for the eventual integration of Did you know that EVs
electric cars into urban traffic and are promoting projects are already economical in
by providing financial resources. The automotive industry diverse application areas
has also recognized the need to act and they are being (e .g. Taxi, Bus etc .)?
forced to manufacture and develop electric cars that are Despite the higher
suitable for a broad market. In recent years studies have investment costs, the
shown that the consumer has become considerably more much lower variable costs
sensitive to their own environmental impact. Ten years ago (energy, service etc.) and
these issues were not given much consideration but today the high kilometer s
they feature amongst the top 5 factors and criteria that travelled make it possible.
determine which vehicle the consumer will purchase16.
Many international companies are spending enormous
amounts of money attempting to transform urban traffic through the use of electric cars which
again confirms that the future of electric vehicles is very promising.
It is very likely however that in the future this
area will not be dominated by a single traction
technology and there will be many different
types of technology being used in different
fields. Thus, the electric car will be used primarily
as a city vehicle and for commuting to work. For
longer distances drivers will be able to use
technologies such as hybrid cars or electric
vehicles with range extenders (additional energy
storage and engines to extend the range of the
car). These vehicles can make urban driving
purely electric (no local emissions) but then
they can also make longer journeys without
having to worry about their range.
16 http://www.energie-info.net/diesel-und-benziner/umweltschutz-beeinflusst-kaufentscheidung.html
33

37. Biofuels will also play a role in the future “mobility
Did you know that most of the mix”, meaning a combination of different energy
oil producing countries are sources. These fuels will even be suitable for trucks
already in the process of turning and long haul vehicles that usually run on diesel.
away from fossil fuels? They Biofuels have already been tested in this area with
invest in renewable energies, great success, including air travel!
which demonstrates that electric
As for future forms of mobility two things are
mobility has an enor mous
required. Firstly, the fuels need to be green and thus
potential.
help minimize the emissions that contribute to the
greenhouse effect so that the rapid advance of
climate change is reduced. Secondly, the mobility alternatives must be widely available to
consumers and economically viable. Both of these demands cannot be met by conventional
driving technologies used up to now. For this reason, electric mobility and its derivatives will
make an enormous contribution in the future.
34

38. 7-What are the levels of CO 2
emissions from electric cars?
CO2 emissions from electric
cars basically depend on how
the electricity is produced
since - as mentioned before
- the cars do not emit CO2
during driving.
This fact also reveals the
reason for the variety of
CO2 emitted by EVs charged
from different sources in
different countries. Therefore
the information e.g. in Germany emissions vary from 0 g CO2/kWh when the electricity comes
from natural sources and around 575 g CO2/kWh 17 when measured against the regular
German mix (a mixture of all of the electricity generation systems). In other countries the
mixed power generation tariff is as follows18,19 : France 102 g CO2/kWh, Spain 390 g CO2/kWh,
Great Britain 530 CO2/kWh, China 813 g/kWh, USA 667 g CO2/kWh and Austria 249 g CO2/
kWh.
To get an idea of the influence of different technologies used by power plants to the CO2
emissions of electric cars we will calculate the potential CO2 savings of an electric car in four
countries with different power generation structures. More than half of the energy requirements
17 Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft
18 http://www.zukunft-elektroauto.de/pageID_8368817.html [GEMIS (2009)]
19 http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/fileadmin/site/publikationen/REP0303.pdf
35

39. in Spain and Germany are met by fossil fuels. Austria generates 70 % of its electricity through
hydropower and France produces 80 % of its energy through nuclear power.
The potential savings for the four countries analyzed are represented in Figure 9. To make an
adequate comparison the consumption of a Mini-E (15 kWh/100km) is compared to that of a
Mini Cooper with a petrol engine (7,56 Liters/100km20 and 2,33 kg CO2/l21 ).
20
CO2 savings in kg/100km
16
12
13.9 16.1 8
9.0
10.8
4
7.6
5.4 0
Germany Austria France Europe USA China
Figure 9: Potential CO2 savings of an electric car in comparison with a gasoline car
20 http://www.spritmonitor.de
21 http://www.spritmonitor.de/de/berechnung_co2_ausstoss.html
36

40. In the USA, an electric car saves more than 5 kg for every 100 km driven in comparison with a
gasoline powered automobile, while in Germany you would save about 9 kilograms. It is worth
mentioning that the percentage of
renewable energies in the mixed tariff of
Did you know that some companies offer
most of the countries is constantly
purely ecological electricity generated
growing. Therefore, in the future the
exclusively by renewable energy systems?
potential savings will even be greater.
France has the highest potential saving
with more than 16 kilograms although the use of nuclear energy to create electricity is still a
controversial topic. Austria produces a high percentage of renewable energy, reducing CO2
emissions to almost 14 kg per 100km.
On the other hand, power plants have the possibility of filtering the harmful substances on a
large scale and can separate them effectively. This procedure is difficult to perform when the
source of the emission is mobile and is very costly, like the catalytic converters in petrol
vehicles. The reduction of these emissions from power plants is an important issue - yet there
has been very little attention paid to it by the general public.
Generally, emissions of CO2 and other contaminants are
continuously declining due to the increased use of
renewable energy systems driven in par t by the
international climate conventions. This reduction is aided by
the increased efficiency of conventional power plants.
Power plants are obliged to purify their residual gases and
this is one of the reasons why the use of electric cars is
recommended from an ecological point of view, and may
be obligatory in the long term. Yet it is not only CO2
emissions that are on the decline but also other pollutants
such as nitrogen oxide or the particles created by wear on
the brakes.
37

41. 8-What kind of maintenance
and repair do electric cars
need?
When purchasing a vehicle, the consumer must
take into account the potential maintenance and
repair costs. It is therefore important to calculate
the maintenance and repair costs of an electric
car as precisely as possible in advance, so that any
future owner is aware of what the vehicle may
require. For accident repair, like any conventional
vehicle, nothing can be specified in advance.
If you look at preventative maintenance and repair
related to the wear of the automotive
components, electric cars have a clear advantage.
Electric motors are much simpler than their petrol counterparts and have a substantially higher
lifespan (excluding the battery). Electric vehicles have fewer components that are affected by
friction and temperature variations and the individual components are less exposed to wear.
This means that electric cars do not need the regular servicing that conventional vehicles
require. Electric cars do not need a gear box or a clutch, nor do they need a turbo charger, a
muffler or a catalyst to filter particles. They don’t even need to filter oil or air. While an owner of
a petrol car needs to continuously maintain these elements, the electric car owner does not
need to think about it, saving them both time and money.
All of this means that maintenance and repair costs for electric cars are greatly reduced when
compared to those of conventional cars, except for the batteries, which may possibly have to
be replaced during the car’s lifetime. The batteries are currently the most expensive component
38

42. of an electric car but if the minimal costs for maintenance and repair as well as the low
electricity costs are taken into account, the electric car can still be more economical. Once
again, the total cost of ownership is important when comparing conventional and electric cars.
One of the main goals for the future must be to ensure
that the additional costs generated by the price of the Did you know that an
batteries can be redeemed through the lifespan of the electric engine can be used
car. By lowering the prices of the batteries, the cars will as an engine as well as a
cost less and will be far more economically attractive to generator? Therefore it’s
consumers than a conventional vehicle. possible to turn the kinetic
energy into electric energy
Clearly, despite the reduced maintenance costs it is still
dur ing the deceler ation
imperative to adapt repair shops for electric vehicles so
phase. This so called
that electric mobility can be a success. The continued
„recuperation“ is one reason
and growing demand on vehicle mechanics has resulted
why electric mobility is
in a greater investment in electrical components and a
predestinated for inner city
demand for more qualified staff. In the future the
journeys. The breaking
workshops and garages will focus increasingly on electric
process will no longer be a
cars and the special conditions that they require (e.g
wasting of energy.
security measures for high voltage equipment) to meet
demand and take advantage of the new business
opportunities that are appearing.
39

43. 9-Will the batteries be available
in the long term?
The availability of the battery
systems depends on the availability
of the raw materials and the type
of the materials used within the
systems. The current focus is on
traction batteries made from
lithium which is a resource that will
continue to be important in the
future. Lithium is a lightweight
metal found in its elemental form in
the ground but is combined with
other elements within the battery.
It is found rock and salt lakes in
the earth’s crust and is referred to
in ter ms of “reser ves” or
“resources”. Both concepts are
used to describe the quantities of a
specific material in the ground
although it is impossible to
determine exactly how much there
is of any raw material. When we
define both terms it will explain
why.
40

44. Reserves: Raw materials known to be economically feasible for extraction by the use of
current extraction methods. The development of extraction technologies and increasing market
costs for raw materials could lead to a conversation of resources into reserves.
Resources: Raw materials that are known or
supposed to exist in a given region and may be used
in the future. The reserves are a subset of the
resources, therefore only parts of the resources can
be extracted at market price. The future use of the
whole amount of the resources is dependent on the
development and the availability of extraction
technology.
Technological progress and/or a rise in the price of the raw materials leads to the resources
being converted into reserves. Resources are continually being discovered so the amount of raw
materials available can never be absolutely determined. Every so often the availability of these
raw materials should be calculated and valued.
Obviously, the availability of lithium depends primarily on the extent of the deposits, however
there are other factors that must be taken into account. Firstly, governments have to encourage
that old lithium batteries are recycled and that the metal is used to manufacture new batteries.
This directly affects the longevity of lithium resources. Additionally, the ability to reuse the raw
materials is a crucial advantage when compared to oil.
On the other hand the regions in which lithium
D i d yo u k n ow t h a t c a r d i a c deposits are located should be taken into
pacemakers use lithium batteries? account. Theoretically, as with fossil fuels,
This is because lithium batteries countries that contain no lithium deposits may be
have a long lifespan. threatened with a shortage of the raw materials,
especially if the countries or regions that contain
vast deposits become politically unstable.
41

45. The following figure shows lithium stocks around the world and the quantity of known
deposits. The most important countries are those in South America. Argentina, Chile and Bolivia
represent the so-called “Lithium Triangle” which contains a concentration of around 70% of the
world reserves. Since the extraction an production is carried out by several countries with
different political systems there are no restrictions.
Total 17,630,415
Bolivia 4,925,000
Chile 4,235,000
China 2,730,000
Argentina 2,311,500
USA 1,450,400
Israel 675,000
Zaire 345,000
Brazil 252,750
Russia 170,250
Canada 166,090
Serbia 143,550
Australia 141,920
0 1,250,000 2,500,000 3,750,000 5,000,000
Lithium in millions of tons
Figure 10: Estimated worldwide lithium stocks22
The information about the number and the size of lithium deposits around the world varies
depending on the source, but they all agree on one point: taking into account only the
calculations of quantities available, there is enough lithium to supply the automobile industry for
at least 100 years23. The question still arises whether the amount of lithium required will be
available at the desired times, at a sufficient quality and at an affordable price. The variations in
quality and price are important issues. In order to secure the future battery availability other
battery technologies are also being considered and tested. With investment in different storage
technologies diversification can be achieved in respect to the dependency on certain raw
materials ensuring the long term availability of traction batteries.
22 Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft e.V.
23 http://www.green-and-energy.com
42

46. 10-How are electric car
batteries recycled?
14,000 tons of conventional batteries
are discarded annually in Germany24.
The controlled removal of these
batteries is necessary due to their toxic
contents. Therefore, inappropriate
elimination may obviously have a
negative impact on both the public and
the environment. Integrating electric
cars into city traffic will inevitably
increase the annual battery waste. In
view of environmental policy, this
represents a challenge.
For the users, disposing of batteries is relatively easy as European producers are subject to a law
encompassing the return of used batteries. The consumer is obliged to return the batteries so
that they can be disposed or recycled professionally. This law also applies to conventional
batteries, such as those used in a torch. Yet, studies have shown that less than 50 % of these
batteries are returned correctly.
To rectify this, a fee of 7,50 € was charged for starter batteries for cars, meaning that if the
customer did not return an old starter battery when purchasing a new one, he had to pay 7,50
€. As a result of this simple system the recycling quota reached almost 100 %. These returns,
sponsored by governments, provide benefits to the consumer through the economic cycle.
Recycling reduces manufacturing costs and ultimately the retail price.
24 http://www.bmu.de/abfallwirtschaft/statistiken/doc/3008.php
43

47. The collection of old, used batteries is difficult for the manufacturers, mainly because the
governments have set levels of recycling efficiency. There are also regulations covering the
quantity of old battery components that must be used for the production of new batteries. This
percentage is a statutory minimum of 50% for all batteries.
The regulations also require that the unusable parts are
disposed of using the best technical processes available.
For state of the ar t batter y technologies the
manufacturers have met the established requirements.
However for new technologies in this area these
requirements are still problematic. This is not the
manufacturers fault but is due to the lack of appropriate
infrastructure that would guarantee the correct recycling
of traction batteries. It can be concluded that constant
development in the area of electric-mobility will improve
recycling conditions and lead to a greater number of recycling centers.
In summary it can be stated that the
recycling of old batteries would be Did you know that lithium has only
advantageous and present no additional costs recently started to be recycled? The
to the consumer. This cost advantage would value of lithium was recognized during
only be guaranteed through a change in the development of electric mobility
policy and if the industry pays sufficient and processes for the adequate
attention to establishing infrastructure for the recycling are currently being researched.
recycling of old batteries and integrates this
into the development plans of the electric
car.
44

48. Conclusion/ Summary
The topic of electric-mobility is
omnipotent; in the media, in the
automobile factories and is the
subject of many cor por ate
meetings. Ever yone who is
interested, from journalist to
consumer, wonders about the
current state of development and
how it will continue. One issue is
more dominant than others - the
demand for information.
Since the subject is complex, we conducted an investigation into the most important questions
about electric-mobility that needed answering. The questions we would answer were selected
through an online survey of 20 questions. More than 4,000 people participated in the survey
and each chose 10 questions based on their prior knowledge and own particular interests. After
the 10 most important questions were determined,we began writing this guide to provide
strong, concise answers. The authors, three scientists dedicated to the area of electric-mobility,
correlated the data in this book and compiled it to provide detailed explanations of the key
concepts. A thorough reading will enable you to make up your own mind up about the
development and implementation possibilities of the electric car.
As an introduction we took a brief look at the current situation. It describes the benefits of
renewable energy through its unlimited availability and environmental friendliness when
compared to fossil fuels. Electric cars are now occupying space in automobile showrooms and
many people don’t realize that millions of hybrid cars are already sold and have spent years
safely navigating our streets. Their use already contributes to improving the environment.
45

49. The first chapter introduced the question of how to recharge an electric car and it was
demonstrated that multiple rapid charges of the batteries are by no means necessary for the
majority of users. Amongst other things it was made clear that the batteries do not require a
complete charge every time.
The second most important question- that of the lifespan of an electric car - was discussed in
chapter 2. It explained that the key component in the lifespan is the battery. Factors are also
being developed that can shorten or lengthen the lifespan and by using the vehicle “normally”
the battery of an electric car will last between 5 and 8 years.
Chapter 3 focused on the issue of
autonomy. It identified what the
autonomy of an electric vehicle depends
on. It is evident that today’s electric cars
could meet most of the mobility needs in
most countries, e.g. in Germany 90 % of
the population do not drive more than
50 km daily. In turn, the chapter illustrated
that electric cars are ideal for urban
traffic due to their ability to recuperate
energy.
The four th most relevant question
considered the total ownership costs of
an electric car. Most of the people
interested in this issue only consider the
purchase price which is undoubtedly still
higher than that of a conventional car. The
costs of repair and maintenance must not
be forgotten and this is where the
electric car has a clear advantage. It is also forecasted that the price of these vehicles will drop
significantly through technical innovations and mass production as has happened with other
technologies in the past.
46

50. Chapter 5 gave a brief overview on the support given to electric-mobility worldwide. In this
respect Japan offers the highest financial incentive for potential consumers. Germany is still
lagging behind in the direct promotion of electric cars although it aims to become one of the
leaders in the electric-mobility market.
Many potential customers are wondering if electric-mobility is just another hype but there are
many arguments that suggest otherwise. Not only are electric cars considered viable for many
market segments, they also provide two basic benefits. The first is that they can operate solely
using the unlimited availability of renewable energy and the second benefit is that unlike petrol
vehicles they are an ecological option, as discussed in chapter 6.
The survey respondents were interested in the question of CO2 emissions from electric cars
and this was discussed in chapter 7. As explained in this manual, the expansion of available
renewable energy sources makes it possible for there to be a continuous drop leading to the
eventual elimination of CO2 emissions through the generation of clean electricity. Electric cars
will be run on a totally “clean” network with no emissions and therefore be more
environmentally friendly than they have been to date.
47

51. The question answered in chapter 8 is about the maintenance and repair of an electric car. It
was pointed out that these vehicles have fewer parts that are susceptible to wear than a
conventional vehicle and suffer fewer breakdowns. However, electronics are still complex and
repairs performed on conventional vehicles are frequently electrical. In the future, vehicle
mechanics will need to be more qualified and electric cars will possibly encounter the same
problems that conventional vehicles currently succumb to.
Chapter 9 addressed the question of the raw materials needed to manufacture the batteries
and explained why there are no anticipated supply problems. Not only is lithium readily available
it is also reusable so the demand for the material is reduced.
What happens to the batteries when they reach the end of their life was explained in the tenth
and final chapter. Recycling plays an essential role in the life of vehicle batteries and a recycling
rate of almost 100% is already achieved. It is estimated that this will also be the case for the
traction batteries in electric cars.
After answering these ten questions we are faced with the final question about how the
development of electric cars will continue.
Undoubtedly, consumers are changing.
They are reconsidering the situation.
This has also has benefits for the
environment, manufacturers and
governments. All of the links on the
“consumption chain” are increasingly
dependent on the countries
producing fossil fuels and thus are
subject to their political tensions and
the increasing prices for the dwindling
stocks of oil and natural gas which
sooner or later will be exhausted. This
makes electric vehicles a more than
reasonable alternative.
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52. It should also not be forgotten that the authors are convinced of the advantages of electric-
mobility because the technology is available to put it into practice in addition to the fact that its
advantages hugely outweigh its disadvantages.
For this reason and in order to make consumers aware of all aspects of electric-mobility,
including the material and technology, Green & Energy GmbH was founded. You can learn more
about electric cars at our blog under: www.green-and-energy.com
.
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53. Glossary of key terms related
to electric-mobility
Starter Battery
Starter batteries provide the power to start the internal combustion engine. This process
requires currents between 100 and 1,000 amps to overcome the initial resistance of the engine.
In addition to starting the vehicle the starter battery also supplies power to the vehicles
electrical components.
Traction Battery
A high power battery designed to provide the propulsion that allows an electric vehicle to
move.
Battery Energy Content
Indicates the electrical energy contained in a battery in watt hours (Wh). It does not usually
indicate the content of the battery but the specific value in respect to the mass (Wh/kg).
Electric Vehicle
A vehicle propelled by a motor that is powered by the electricity from a traction battery.
Battery Capacity
Indicates how much electricity is stored within a battery. This information is usually shown in
amps per hour (Ah).
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54. Memory Effect
The memory effect is a phenomenon that reduces the quantity of power that the batteries can
hold that occurs in some types of batteries when they are charged without being completely
discharged. Crystals are created inside the battery by a chemical reaction caused when the
battery is heated either through use or by being improperly charged.
SOC - State Of Charge
Indicates the level of charge of a battery and can be compared with the petrol gauge of a
conventional car. A SOC of 100 % signifies that the vehicle is completely charged and on the
other hand a reading of 0 % indicates that the battery is completely flat.
SOH - State Of Health
SOH indicates the battery status in respect to its ideal charge. Usually a new battery has a SOH
of 100 % and it will subsequently descend for the duration of its life.
Range Extender
An additional component in an electric car that can extend its autonomy by recharging the
battery while driving. Most of the time it is the combustion engine that drives the generator.
(See the Hybrid series).
Full Hybrid
Both the combustion engine and the electric motor drive the wheels hence the full hybrid is a
parallel hybrid. The battery that feeds the electric motor is recharged with “surplus” energy
created through driving or during braking.
Plug In Hybrid
These vehicles have both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor. The batteries are
recharged by being plugged directly into a power outlet, hence the name “Plug In”. This type of
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55. hybrid has a greater storage capacity than Mild Hybrid or Full Hybrid and can travel longer
distances using only electricity. They can be manufactured with a hybrid configuration in series or
in parallel.
Parallel Hybrid
The internal combustion engine and the electric motor are both connected to the wheels and
each of them (or both together) can start the car.
Series Hybrid
The vehicle is powered solely by an electric motor that draws power from a traction battery
and the driver can increase the autonomy of the car with a generator that recharges the
battery. The generator is powered by an internal combustion engine.
Micro-Hybrid
This is a conventional car that has an automatic start-stop mechanism that turns the motor off
when the car is stopped and restarts it when the clutch is pressed. The energy required for
starting the vehicle is created through regenerative braking technology. The vehicle does not
have the electrical energy required for propulsion but this mechanism reduces the consumption
of the internal combustion engine.
Mild Hybrid
In this configuration both the internal combustion engine and the electric motor turn the
wheels. The energy needed to power the motor is obtained from the battery that stores
“surplus” energy created through driving and braking. However, the electric motor has very little
power and only operates during vehicle acceleration. The Mild Hybrid cannot be driven solely
by electricity.
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56. Number of Cycles
The number of cycles indicates how many times the battery can be charged and discharged. If a
battery or accumulator has a high number of cycles it has a longer lifespan.
Electric Mix
Specifies the portfolio of the sources (e.g. coal, gas, wind etc) from which the electricity is
generated.
Fuel Cell
Electrochemical conversion mechanism similar to a battery but different in that the battery or
cell allow the continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; that is to say that it
produces electricity from an external fuel and oxygen source in contrast to the limited storage
capacity of a regular battery.
Hybrid Propulsion
Alternative propulsion that combines several technologies. In the case of the electric hybrid: it
combines an electric motor fed by electrical energy from a traction battery and an internal
combustion engine.
Regenerative Braking (Energy Recovery System)
Regenerative brakes are based on the principle that an electric motor can be used as a
generator. The electric traction motor becomes a generator during braking, converting kinetic
energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy is used to recharge the batteries.
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57. The Authors
Lorenz Köll
Lorenz Köll, born in 1974, worked as a research associate in
the Research Center for Energy Economics in Munich
(Forschungstelle für Energiewirtschaft e.V.) after concluding his
studies in civil engineering. As project manager, Lorenz was
dedicated to carrying out studies in different areas of the
energy industry, especially in electric-mobility. In the year 2011
Lorenz was directely involved in founding the Green & Energy
GmbH. After a short time he has also become self employed
with his own company, the Energie Ingenieure GmbH (http://
energie-ingenieure.net), He is currently engaged in several
projects including some in the field of research and
development of electric transportation in order to introduce
electric-mobility onto the market. His website can be seen at:
http://www.lorenzkoell.com and some of his articles are published on http://www.green-and-
energy.com/blog .
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58. Olmo Tomás Mezger
Olmo Tomás Mezger, born in 1980, studied electrical
engineering after which he started working at the Research
Center for Energy Economics in Munich (Forschungsstelle für
Energiewirtschaft e.V.). As a collaborator he mainly focuses on
the complexities of electric-mobility and renewable energies
and is involved in investigation and research in the fields of
battery measurement, automobile simulation, the integration of
electric cars into the industry and the search for new
solutions. Olmo is also the author of numerous publications
and seminars on electric-mobility that can be found on his web
page: http://olmotomasmezger.com or through his blog:
http://www.green-and-energy.com/blog.
55

59. Thomas Rasilier
Thomas Rasilier, born in 1983, worked in the Research Center
for Energy Economics in Munich (Forschungstelle für
Energiewirtschaft e.V.) after finishing his studies in eco energy
technologies. His work mainly concentrated on electric-
mobility. With the help of analysis and numerous scientific
studies he was investigating solutions to the problems to
guarantee a rapid advance of this traction technology. With his
collegues he founded the Green & Energy GmbH (G&E) at
the beginning of the year 2011, i. a. for developing tools and
services to promote the further progress of electric mobility.
Since mid 2012 he is working for the Energie Ingenieure
GmbH (http://www.energie-ingenieure.net) besides his
function for G&E. At the Energie Ingenieure GmbH he is
enganged in the development and realization of project in the field of electric mobility and
renewable energies. Alongside his work as an engineer, Thomas writes substantiated articles that
are regularly published in: http://www.green-and-energy.com/blog.
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60. iEV: Electric car simulator for iPhone
Are you interested in electric cars?
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For more information visit: www.dottribes.com/iEV
www.green-and-energy.com
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