The Eagle The Beautiful Creation of God Ethomology

The Eagle
The Beautiful Creation of God Ethomology

Contents
1 Eagle 1
1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Fish eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.2 Booted eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.3 Snake eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.4 Harpy eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Eagles in culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.2 Religion and folklore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.3 Heraldry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Sea eagle 10
2.1 Webcams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Ichthyophaga 12
3.1 Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Synonymy with a parasitic ﬂatworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Harpy eagle 13
4.1 Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Distribution and habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
i

ii CONTENTS
4.4 Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4.1 Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4.2 Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5 Status and conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5.1 National initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.6 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Crested eagle 20
5.1 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2 Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.4 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.5 Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6 Papuan eagle 22
6.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7 Philippine eagle 23
7.1 Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.1.1 Evolutionary history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3 Distribution and habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.4 Ecology and behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.4.1 Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.4.2 Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.5 Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.6 Relationship with humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8 Crowned solitary eagle 29
8.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9 Montane solitary eagle 30
9.1 Range and habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9.3 Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

CONTENTS iii
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
10 African hawk-eagle 31
10.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11 Bonelli’s eagle 33
11.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11.2 Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
11.3 Conservation and rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
11.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
11.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
12 Steppe eagle 36
12.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
12.2 Habitat and Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
12.3 Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
12.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
12.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
12.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Chapter 1
Eagle
This article is about the bird. For other uses, see Eagle
(disambiguation).
“Eagles” redirects here. For other uses, see Eagles (dis-
ambiguation).
Eagle is a common name for many large birds of prey
Golden eagle
of the family Accipitridae; it belongs to several groups
of genera that are not necessarily closely related to each
other.
Most of the 60 species of eagles are from Eurasia and
Africa.[1]
Outside this area, just 14 species can be found
– two in North America, nine in Central and South Amer-
ica, and three in Australia.
1.1 Description
Eagles are large, powerfully built birds of prey, with a
heavy head and beak. Even the smallest eagles, like the
booted eagle (Aquila pennata) (which is comparable in
size to a common buzzard (Buteo buteo) or red-tailed
hawk (B. jamaicensis)), have relatively longer and more
evenly broad wings, and more direct, faster flight – de-
spite the reduced size of aerodynamic feathers. Most ea-
gles are larger than any other raptors apart from some
vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the South Nico-
bar serpent eagle (Spilornis klossi), at 450 g (0.99 lb) and
40 cm (16 in). The largest species are discussed below.
Like all birds of prey, eagles have very large hooked beaks
for tearing flesh from their prey, strong muscular legs, and
powerful talons. The beak is typically heavier than that of
most other birds of prey. Eagles’ eyes are extremely pow-
erful, having up to 3.6 times human acuity for the martial
eagle, which enables them to spot potential prey from a
very long distance.[2]
This keen eyesight is primarily at-
tributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure min-
imal diffraction (scattering) of the incoming light. The
female of all known species of eagles is larger than the
male.[3][4]
Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in tall
trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but
the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling
once it has hatched. The dominant chick tends to be a fe-
male, as they are bigger than the male. The parents take
no action to stop the killing.[5][6]
Due to the size and power of many eagle species, they
are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex preda-
tors in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus.
The Haliaeetus and Ichthyophaga eagles prefer to cap-
ture fish, though the species in the former often cap-
ture various animals, especially other water birds, and
are powerful kleptoparasites of other birds. The snake
and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius,
and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of
snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The ea-
gles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in
open habitats, taking almost any medium-sized vertebrate
they can catch. Where Aquila eagles are absent, other ea-
gles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle
of South America, may assume the position of top rap-
torial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, in-
cluding the species-rich Spizaetus genus, live predomi-
nantly in woodlands and forest. These eagles often target
various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds,
which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense,
knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among
the species and genera, with some individual eagles hav-
ing engaged in quite varied techniques based their envi-
ronment and prey at any given time. Most eagles grab
1

2 CHAPTER 1. EAGLE
prey without landing and take flight with it so the prey
can be carried to a perch and torn apart.[7]
The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest
load verified to be carried by any flying bird, since one
eagle flew with a 6.8 kg (15 lb) mule deer fawn.[8]
How-
ever, a few eagles may target prey considerably heavier
than themselves; such prey is too heavy to fly with, thus
it is either eaten at the site of the kill or taken in pieces
back to a perch or nest. Golden and crowned eagles have
killed ungulates weighing up to 30 kg (66 lb) and a martial
eagle even killed a 37 kg (82 lb) duiker, 7–8 times heav-
ier than the preying eagle.[7][9]
Authors on birds David
Allen Sibley, Pete Dunne, and Clay Sutton described the
behavioral difference between hunting eagles and other
birds of prey thus (in this case the bald and golden eagles
as compared to other North American raptors):[10]
They have at least one singular characteris-
tic. It has been observed that most birds of prey
look back over their shoulders before striking
prey (or shortly thereafter); predation is af-
ter all a two-edged sword. All hawks seem to
have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the
largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles.
Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey:
only the condors and some of the Old World vultures
are markedly larger. It is regularly debated which should
be considered the largest species of eagle. They could
be measured variously in total length, body mass, or
wingspan. Different lifestyle needs among various eagles
result in variable measurements from species to species.
For example, many forest-dwelling eagles, including the
very large harpy and Philippine eagles, have relatively
short wingspans, a feature necessary for being able to
maneuver in quick, short bursts through dense forested
habitats.[7]
Eagles in the genus Aquila, though found al-
most strictly in open country, are superlative soarers, and
have relatively long wings for their size.[7]
These lists of the top five eagles are based on weight,
length, and wingspan, respectively. Unless otherwise
noted by reference, the figures listed are the median re-
ported for each measurement in the guide Raptors of the
World[11]
in which only measurements that could be per-
sonally verified by the authors were listed.[7]
1.2 Distribution
• Nearctic (USA and Canada): golden eagle (also
found in Palearctic), bald eagle
• Neotropical (Central and South America): Spizaetus
(four species), solitary eagles (two spp.), harpy ea-
gle, crested eagle, black-chested buzzard-eagle
• Australasian
• Australia: wedge-tailed eagle (range extends
into southern New Guinea), white-bellied sea-
eagle (range extends into Asia), little eagle
• New Guinea: Papuan eagle, white-bellied sea-
eagle, pygmy eagle
1.3 Groups
Eagles are often informally divided into four
groups.[note 1][17]
The snake eagles are placed in the subfamily Circaetinae.
The fish eagles, booted eagles, and harpy eagles have tra-
ditionally been placed in the subfamily Buteoninae to-
gether with the buzzard-hawks (buteonine hawks) and
harriers. Some authors may treat these groups as tribes
of the Buteoninae; Lerner & Mindell[18]
proposed sep-
arating the eagle groups into their own subfamilies of
Accipitridae.
1.3.1 Fish eagles
Sea eagles or fish eagles take fish as a large part of their
diets, either fresh or as carrion.
Proposed subfamily Haliaeetinae. Genera: Haliaeetus,
Ichthyophaga.
Some authors include Gypohierax angolensis, the “vul-
turine fish eagle” (also called the palm-nut vulture) in
this group.[17]
However, genetic analyses indicate it is
related to a grouping of Neophron–Gypaetus–Eutriorchis
(Egyptian vulture, bearded vulture (lammergeier), and
Madagascan serpent eagle).[19]
The fish eagles have a close genetic relationship with
Haliastur and Milvus; the whole group is only distantly
related to the Buteo group.[19]
1.3.2 Booted eagles
For the species Hieraaetus pennatus (Aquila pennata),
see booted eagle.
Booted eagles or “true eagles”[17][20]
have feathered tarsi
(lower legs).
Tribe Aquililae or proposed subfamily Aquilinae. Gen-
era: Aquila, Hieraaetus; Spizaetus, Oroaetus, Spizas-
tur; Nisaetus;[19]
Ictinaetus, Lophoaetus; Polemaetus; and
Stephanoaetus.[17][20]
See comments under eagle species for changes to the
composition of these genera.

1.4. SPECIES 3
1.3.3 Snake eagles
Snake or serpent eagles are, as the name suggests, adapted
to hunting reptiles.
• Subfamily Circaetinae. Genera: Circaetus, Spilor-
nis, Dryotriorchis, Terathopius.[17]
• Eutriorchis (subfamily Gypaetinae or Circaetinae).
Despite filling the niche of a snake eagle, genetic studies
suggest that the Madagascan serpent eagle Eutriorchis is
not related.[19]
1.3.4 Harpy eagles
Harpy eagles[17]
or “giant forest eagles”[16]
are large ea-
gles that inhabit tropical forests. The group contains two
to six species, depending on the author. Although these
birds occupy similar niches, and have traditionally been
grouped together, they are not all related: the solitary ea-
gles are related to the black-hawks, and the Philippine
eagle to the snake eagles.
• Harpy eagles (proposed subfamily Harpiinae)
• Harpia harpyja, harpy eagle ― Central and
South America.
• Morphnus guianensis, crested eagle ― Central
and South America.
• Harpyopsis novaeguineae, Papuan eagle ―
New Guinea.
• Philippine eagle
• Pithecophaga jefferyi, Philippine eagle ―
Philippines.
• Solitary eagles
• Crowned eagle or crowned solitary eagle,
Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) corona-
tus ― South America.
• Solitary eagle or montane solitary eagle,
Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) solitar-
ius ― South America.
1.4 Species
Major new research into eagle taxonomy suggests that
the important genera Aquila and Hieraaetus are not com-
posed of nearest relatives, and it is likely that a reclassi-
fication of these genera will soon take place, with some
species being moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus.[18]
Martial eagle in Namibia.
Philippine eagle, Pithecophaga jefferyi in Southern Philippines.
Wedge-tailed eagle in Australia.

4 CHAPTER 1. EAGLE
• Bonelli’s eagle and the African hawk-eagle have
been moved from Hieraaetus to Aquila.
• Either the greater spotted eagle and lesser spotted
eagle should move from Aquila to join the long-
crested eagle in Lophaetus, or, perhaps better, all
three of these species should move to Ictinaetus with
the black eagle.
• The steppe eagle and tawny eagle, once thought to
be conspecific, are not even each other’s nearest rel-
atives.
Family Accipitridae
Main article: Accipitridae
• Subfamily Buteoninae – hawks (buzzards), true
eagles and seaeagles
• Genus Geranoaetus
• Black-chested buzzard-eagle, Geranoae-
tus melanoleucus
• Genus Harpyhaliaetus
• Crowned solitary eagle, Harpyhaliaetus
coronatus
• Montane solitary eagle, H. solitarius
• Genus Morphnus
• Crested eagle, Morphnus guianensis
• Genus Harpia
• Harpy eagle, Harpia harpyja
• Genus Pithecophaga
• Philippine eagle, Pithecophaga jefferyi
• Genus Harpyopsis
• Papuan eagle, Harpyopsis novaeguineae
• Genus Spizaetus
• Black hawk-eagle, S. tyrannus
• Ornate hawk-eagle, S. ornatus
• Black-and-white hawk-eagle, S.
melanoleucus - formerly Spizastur
• Black-and-chestnut eagle, S. isidori - for-
merly Oroaetus
• Genus Nisaetus - previously included in Spiza-
etus
• Changeable or crested hawk-eagle, N. cir-
rhatus
• Flores hawk-eagle N. floris - earlier a
subspecies, S. c. floris
• Sulawesi hawk-eagle, N. lanceolatus
• Mountain hawk-eagle, N. nipalensis
• Legge’s hawk-eagle, Nisaetus kelaarti
- previously a race of S. nipalensis
• Blyth’s hawk-eagle, N. alboniger
• Javan hawk-eagle, N. bartelsi
• (Northern) Philippine hawk-eagle, N.
philippensis
• Pinsker’s hawk-eagle (Southern
Philippine hawk-eagle), Nisaetus
pinskeri - earlier S. philippensis
pinskeri
• Wallace’s hawk-eagle, N. nanus
• Genus Lophaetus
• Long-crested eagle, Lophaetus occipitalis
– possibly belongs in Ictinaetus
• Genus Stephanoaetus
• Crowned eagle, Stephanoaetus coronatus
• Genus Polemaetus
• Martial eagle, Polemaetus bellicosus
• Genus Hieraaetus
• Ayres’s hawk-eagle, H. ayresii
• Little eagle, H. morphnoides
• Pygmy eagle, H. weiskei - previously sub-
species H. m. weiskei
• Booted eagle, H. pennatus
• Genus Harpagornis (extinct)
• Haast’s eagle, †Harpagornis moorei –
possibly belongs in either Hieraaetus or
Aquila[21]
• Genus Lophotriorchis
• Rufous-bellied hawk-eagle, L. kienerii
A steppe eagle in Lahore Zoo, Pakistan
• Genus Aquila
• Bonelli’s eagle, Aquila fasciata – formerly
Hieraaetus fasciatus
• African hawk-eagle, A. spilogaster – for-
merly in Hieraaetus
• Cassin’s hawk-eagle, A. africana – for-
merly in Hieraaetus or Spizaetus genera
• Golden eagle, A. chrysaetos
• Eastern imperial eagle, A. heliaca

1.5. EAGLES IN CULTURE 5
• Spanish imperial eagle A. adalberti
• Steppe eagle, A. nipalensis
• Tawny eagle, A. rapax
• Greater spotted eagle, A. clanga – to be
moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus
• Lesser spotted eagle, A. pomarina – to be
• Indian spotted eagle, A. hastata – to be
• Verreaux’s eagle, A. verreauxii
• Gurney’s eagle, A. gurneyi
• Wahlberg’s eagle, A. wahlbergi - to be
moved to Hieraaetus
• Wedge-tailed eagle, A. audax
• Genus Ictinaetus
• Black eagle, Ictinaetus malayensis
• Genus Haliaeetus
• White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla
• Bald eagle, H. leucocephalus
• Steller’s sea eagle, H. pelagicus
• African fish eagle, H. vocifer
• White-bellied sea eagle, H. leucogaster
• Sanford’s sea eagle, H. sanfordi
• Madagascar fish eagle, H. vociferoides
• Pallas’ sea eagle, H. leucoryphus
• Genus Ichthyophaga
• Lesser fish eagle, Ichthyophaga humilis
• Grey-headed fish eagle, I. ichthyaetus
Short-toed snake eagle in flight
• Subfamily Circaetinae: snake-eagles
• Genus Terathopius
• Bateleur, Terathopius ecaudatus
• Genus Circaetus
• Short-toed snake eagle, Circaetus gallicus
• Black-chested snake eagle, C. pectoralis
• Brown snake eagle, C. cinereus
• Fasciated snake eagle, C. fasciolatus
• Western banded snake eagle, C. cineras-
cens
• Genus Dryotriorchis
• Congo serpent eagle, D. spectabilis
• Genus Spilornis
• Crested serpent eagle, Spilornis cheela
• Central Nicobar serpent eagle, S.
minimus (subspecies or species)
• Great Nicobar serpent eagle, S. klossi
• Mountain serpent eagle, S. kinabaluensis
• Sulawesi serpent eagle, S. rufipectus
• Philippine serpent eagle, S. holospilus
• Andaman serpent eagle, S. elgini
• Genus Eutriorchis
• Madagascar serpent eagle, Eutriorchis as-
tur
1.5 Eagles in culture
The sculpture of eagle at the top of the fountain at Plac Orła
Białego in Szczecin, Poland
1.5.1 Etymology
The modern English term for the bird is derived from
Latin: aquila by way of French: aigle. The origin of
aquila is unknown, but it is believed to possibly derive
from either aquilus (meaning dark-colored, swarthy, or
blackish) as a reference to the plumage of eagles or from
aquilo (meaning north wind).
Old English used the term earn, related to Scandinavia’s
ørn / örn. It is similar to other Indo-European terms
for “bird” or “eagle”, including Greek: ὄρνις (ornís),
Russian: орёл (orël), and Welsh: eryr. The Albanian
word for eagle is shqiponjë, deriving from the root shqipe.

6 CHAPTER 1. EAGLE
In Britain before 1678, eagle referred speciﬁcally to the
golden eagle, with the other native species, the white-
tailed eagle, being known as erne. The modern name
“golden eagle” for aquila chrysaetos was introduced by
the naturalist John Ray.
1.5.2 Religion and folklore
Eagle lectern in St James’ Church, Sydney.
The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped the animal
and often depicted eagles in their art.[22]
The eagle is also the patron animal of the ancient Greek
god Zeus. In particular, Zeus was said to have taken the
form of an eagle in order to abduct Ganymede, and there
are numerous artistic depictions of the eagle Zeus bearing
Ganymede aloft, from Classical times up to the present
(see illustrations in the Ganymede (mythology) page.)
The United States eagle feather law stipulates that only
individuals of certiﬁable Native American ancestry en-
rolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally autho-
rized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual
reasons.[23]
In Canada, the poaching of eagle feathers for
the booming U.S. market has sometimes resulted in the
arrests of First Nations person for the crime.[24]
Psalm 103 mentions renewing one’s youth “as the eagle”.
Augustine of Hippo gives a curious explanation of this in
his commentary on the Psalms.[25]
Garuda, the Vahana of Lord Vishnu, depicted with an eagle’s
beak and wings.
The eagle is a common form in the Anglican tradition,
often used to support the Bible because of the symbolism
of spreading the gospel over the world. Additional sym-
bolic meanings for “eagle” include the pronouncements
to the Israelites in Exodus 19:4; Psalms 103:5 and Isaiah
40:31.
In Hinduism, Garuda is a lesser divinity, usually the
mount (vahanam) of Vishnu. Garuda is depicted as hav-
ing the golden body of a strong man with a white face, red
wings, and an eagle’s beak and with a crown on his head.
This ancient deity was said to be massive, large enough to
block out the sun.
1.5.3 Heraldry
Main article: Eagle (heraldry)
Eagles are an exceptionally common symbol in heraldry,
being considered the “King of Birds” in contrast to the
lion, the “King of Beasts”. They are particularly popular
in Germanic countries, due to their association with the
Roman Empire and its claimed successor the Holy Ro-
man Empire. The eagle of the Holy Roman Empire was
two-headed, supposedly representing the two divisions,
East and West, of the old Roman Empire.
Heraldic eagles are most often found displayed, i.e. with
their wings and legs extended. They can also occur close,

1.5. EAGLES IN CULTURE 7
Coat of Arms of Austria
Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor
i.e. with their wings folded, or rising, i.e. about to take
flight. The heads, wings, and legs of eagles can also be
found independently.
• The coat of arms and flag of Albania has a black
double-headed eagle. Furthermore, the eagle gives
Albania its name (in Albanian Shqiperia means
Land of the eagles) and Albanians call themselves
shqipetar or shqipe meaning eagles.
• The coat of arms of Armenia has a gold eagle and a
lion.
• The coat of arms of Austria has a black eagle.
Arms of Napoleon, Emperor of the French - an eagle perched on
a thunderbolt
• The coat of arms of the Czech Republic integrates
the symbols of Moravia and Silesia (both with fe-
male eagles in their emblems – red-and-white che-
quered and black respectively) with Bohemia's lion.
• The coat of arms of Egypt is a golden eagle look-
ing towards the viewer’s left. It is taking from the
golden Eagle of Saladin founded on Saladin Citadel
of Cairo.
• The coat of arms of Germany has a black eagle.
• The coat of arms of Ghana has two golden eagles
holding it.
• The coat of arms of Iceland has an eagle holding it,
as well as a dragon, a bull and a giant.
• The coat of arms of Indonesia has an eagle-like
garuda carrying a shield on its neck and a banner
on its feet.
• The coat of arms of Iraq has the golden Eagle of
Saladin.
• The Coat of Arms of Kurdistan has the eagle
of the Medes
• The coat of arms of Mexico has a golden eagle
perched upon a cactus devouring a snake.
• The coat of arms of Moldova consists of a stylized
eagle holding a cross in its beak and a sceptre and a
branch in its claws.
• The coat of arms of Montenegro represents the two-
headed eagle in flight.

8 CHAPTER 1. EAGLE
• The coat of arms of Moravia has a red-and-white
eagle.
• The coat of arms of Navarre/Basque Country King-
dom has a black eagle.
• The coat of arms of Nigeria has a red eagle on top.
• The coat of arms of Palestine has the golden Eagle
of Saladin.
• The coat of arms of Panama has a harpy eagle.
• The coat of arms of the Philippines has the bald ea-
gle of the United States as a symbol of its colonial
past, but the monkey-eating eagle is the de jure na-
tional bird of the country.
• The coat of arms of Poland has a white eagle with a
golden beak and talons wearing a golden crown.
• The coat of arms of Romania has a golden aquila
holding a cross in its beak and a mace and a sword
in its claws.
• The coat of arms of Russia has a gold double-headed
eagle.
• The coat of arms of Serbia has a white bicephalic
eagle of the House of Nemanjić.
• The coat of arms of Syria formerly had the eagle of
Saladin.
• The Great Seal of the United States has a bald eagle.
• The coat of arms of Yemen depicts a golden eagle
with a scroll between its claws.
• The coat of arms of Zambia has an orange red eagle
on top.
• The Polish and the Serbian eagles are distinguished
by their white color.
Historic uses:
• The Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt used it as their seal.
• Napoleon I used the Roman golden eagle as the sym-
bol of his new French empire.
• Persian Empire: the symbol of the Persian Army
was an eagle.
• The Romans used it on the standards of their armies.
From this derives:
• The late Byzantine Empire chose a two-
headed golden eagle as its symbol. It is popu-
larly that one head symbolised ancient Rome,
and the other head symbolized “new Rome” at
Constantinople. From this derives:
• The two-headed eagle is the emblem of
“Shqipëria” or Land of the Eagles, which
is known in English as Albania (see The
Tale of the Eagle for the legendary origin
of the name).
• After the fall of Constantinople, the
Russian Empire took the two-headed ea-
gle as its own symbol.
• After his crowning as the new Roman
Emperor, Charlemagne adopted the ancient
Roman eagle as his own symbol. The Holy
Roman Empire born of his kingdom took the
eagle. From this derives:
• The Austrian Empire had a two-headed
eagle as its symbol. After the abolition of
Austria-Hungary, Austria took as its sym-
bol a one-headed eagle in the modern coat
of arms of Austria.
• Prussia, and later Germany have used a
black eagle as their national symbol.
• The Spanish Catholic monarchs, Isabella
and Ferdinand, used the eagle as a part
of the royal shield representing Saint John
the Evangelist. The eagle was again on the
Spanish shield under the Francoist regime
and the transition to Democracy (1939–
1981).
• The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks both used a double-
headed eagle in their coats-of-arms.
• During the 1930s and 1940s, Adolf Hitler's Nazi
Germany used a black eagle with its wings out-
stretched and clutching a swastika as its insignia.
1.6 Notes
[1] “There are four major groups of eagles: fish eagles, booted
eagles, snake eagles and giant forest eagles.”[16]
1.7 References
[1] del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1994).
Handbook of the Birds of the World Volume 2: New World
Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-
15-6
[2] Shlaer, Robert (1972). “An Eagle’s Eye: Quality of the
Retinal Image” (PDF). Science 176 (4037): 920–922.
doi:10.1126/science.176.4037.920. PMID 5033635. Re-
trieved 16 April 2012.
[3] Leclerc, Georges Louis, Comte de Buffon (2010). The
Natural History of Birds: From the French of the Count de
Buffon; Illustrated with Engravings, and a Preface, Notes,
and Additions, by the Translator. Cambridge University
Press. pp. 60–. ISBN 978-1-108-02298-9.

1.8. FURTHER READING 9
[4] Grambo, Rebecca L. (2003). Eagles. Voyageur Press.
ISBN 978-0-89658-363-4.
[5] Grambo, Rebecca L (2003). Eagles. Voyageur Press. p.
32. ISBN 978-0-89658-363-4.
[6] Stinson, Christopher H (1979). “On the Selective Advan-
tage of Fratricide in Raptors”. Evolution 33 (4): 1219–
1225. doi:10.2307/2407480.
[7] Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D. (2001). Raptors of the
World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-8026-
1.
[8] “Amazing Bird Records”. Trails.com. Retrieved 20 July
2012.
[9] Watson, Jeff (2011). The Golden Eagle: Second Edition.
ISBN 978-0-30017-019-1.
[10] Sutton, C.; Dunne, P.; Sibley, D. (1989). Hawks in Flight:
The Flight Identification of North American Migrant Rap-
tors. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-3955-
1022-8.
[11] Ferguson-Lees, et al.)
[12] del Hoyo, J; Elliot, A; Sargatal, J (1996). Handbook of the
Birds of the World 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN
84-87334-20-2.
[13] Gamauf, A., Preleuthner, M., and Winkler, H. (1998).
“Philippine Birds of Prey: Interrelations among habitat,
morphology and behavior” (PDF). The Auk 115 (3): 713–
726. doi:10.2307/4089419.
[14] Morgan, A.M. “The spread and weight of the Wedge-
tailed Eagle” (PDF). South Australian Ornithologist 11:
156–157.
[15] Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal
Facts and Feats. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
[16] Stalcup, Carolyn. “All About Eagles”. The American Ea-
gle Foundation. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
[17] Rutledge, Hope. “Eagles of the World”. American
Bald Eagle Information. Retrieved 11 June 2014. from
Grambo, Rebecca L. (1999). Eagles. Voyageur Press,
Inc.
[18] Lerner, H. R. L.; Mindell, D. P. (2005). “Phy-
logeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Ac-
cipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA”.
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37 (2): 327–346.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. PMID 15925523.
[19] Lerner, Heather R. L.; Mindell, David P. (9 May 2006).
“Accipitridae”. The Tree of Life Web Project.
[20] Bouglouan, Nicole. “The booted eagles throughout the
world: introduction”. Oiseaux-birds. Retrieved 11 June
2014.
[21] Bunce, M.; et al. (2005). “Ancient DNA Pro-
vides New Insights into the Evolutionary History of
New Zealand’s Extinct Giant Eagle”. PLoS Biol 3 (1):
e9. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030009. PMC 539324.
PMID 15660162.
[22] Larco Herrera, Rafael and Berrin, Kathleen (1997) The
Spirit of Ancient Peru Thames and Hudson, New York,
ISBN 0500018022
[23] Office of Law Enforcement. “National Eagle Repository”.
Mountain-Prairie Region. United States Fish and Wildlife
Service. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007.
Retrieved 20 November 2007.
[24] Sin, Lena (30 April 2006). “Charges laid in eagle-
poaching case”. The Province (CanWest MediaWorks
Publications Inc.). Retrieved 20 November 2007.
[25] Psalm 103 in Augustine’s commentary.
1.8 Further reading
• Collinson, Martin. Splitting headaches? Recent tax-
onomic changes affecting the British and Western
Palaearctic lists British Birds vol 99 (June 2006),
306–323
1.9 External links
• PBS Nature: Eagles
• PBS Video Episode: American Eagle
• Eagle photos on Oriental Bird Images
• Eagle videos on the Internet Bird Collection
• Web of the Conservation Biology Team-Bonelli’s
Eagle, of the University of Barcelona
• Decorah Eagles: 24/7 Live Webcam from The Rap-
tor Resource Project
• EagleCAM: White-bellied Sea Eagles Live Webcam
at Discovery Centre in Sydney, Australia

Chapter 2
Sea eagle
This article is about the bird. For other uses, see Sea
eagle (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with seagull.
A sea eagle (also called erne or ern, mostly in refer-
ence to the white-tailed eagle) is any of the birds of
prey in the genus Haliaeetus[1]
in the bird of prey family
Accipitridae.
Sea eagles vary in size, from Sanford’s sea eagle, averag-
ing 2.0–2.7 kg, to the huge Steller’s sea eagle, weighing
up to 9 kg.[2]
At up to 6.9 kg, the white-tailed eagle is the
largest eagle in Europe. Bald eagles can weigh up to 6.3
kg, making them the largest eagle native to North Amer-
ica. The white-bellied sea eagle can weigh up to 3.4 kg.[2]
Their diets consist mainly of fish and small mammals.
The eight living species are:[2]
• White-bellied sea eagle (H. leucogaster)
• Sanford’s sea eagle (H. sanfordi)
• African fish eagle (H. vocifer)
• Madagascan fish eagle (H. vociferoides)
• Pallas’s fish eagle(H. leucoryphus)
• White-tailed eagle (H. albicilla)
• Bald eagle (H. leucocephalus)
• Steller’s sea eagle (H. pelagicus)
Their tails are entirely white in all adult Haliaeetus species
except Sanford’s, white-bellied, and Pallas’s. Three
species pairs exist: white-tailed and bald eagles, Sanford’s
and white-bellied sea eagles, and the African and Mada-
gascar fish eagles,[3]
each of these consists of a white- and
a tan-headed species.
Haliaeetus is possibly one of the oldest genera of living
birds. A distal left tarsometatarsus (DPC 1652) recov-
ered from early Oligocene deposits of Fayyum, Egypt
(Jebel Qatrani Formation, about 33 Mya) is similar in
general pattern and some details to that of a modern sea
eagle.[4]
The genus was present in the middle Miocene
(12-16 Mya) with certainty.[5]
Their closest relatives are the fishing eagles in the genus
Ichthyophaga, very similar to the tropical Haliaeetus
species.[2]
The relationships to other genera in the fam-
ily are less clear; they have long been considered closer
to the genus Milvus (kites) than to the true eagles in the
genus Aquila on the basis of their morphology and display
behaviour,[2][6]
more recent genetic evidence agrees with
this, but points to them being related to the genus Buteo
(buzzards), as well, a relationship not previously thought
close.[3]
The origin of the sea eagles and fishing eagles is proba-
bly in the general area of the Bay of Bengal. During the
Eocene/Oligocene, as the Indian subcontinent slowly col-
lided with Eurasia, this was a vast expanse of fairly shal-
low ocean; the initial sea eagle divergence seems to have
resulted in the four tropical (and Southern Hemisphere
subtropical) species found around the Indian Ocean to-
day. The Central Asian Pallas’s sea eagle’s relationships
to the other taxa is more obscure; it seems closer to the
three Holarctic species which evolved later and may be
an early offshoot of this northward expansion; it does not
have the hefty yellow bill of the northern forms, retaining
a smaller, darker beak like the tropical species.[3]
The rate of molecular evolution in Haliaeetus is fairly
slow, as is to be expected in long-lived birds which
take years to successfully reproduce. In the mtDNA
cytochrome b gene, a mutation rate of 0.5–0.7% per mil-
lion years (if assuming an Early Miocene divergence) or
maybe as little as 0.25–0.3% per million years (for a Late
Eocene divergence) has been shown.[3]
A 2005 molecular study found that the genus is
paraphyletic and subsumes Ichthyophaga, the species di-
verging into a temperate and tropical group.[7]
2.1 Webcams
Nesting pairs of both the bald eagle and white-bellied
sea eagle have been subject to live streaming webcam
footage.[8][9]
10

2.3. REFERENCES 11
2.2 See also
• Brahminy kite, also called red-backed sea eagle
2.3 References
[1] Etymology: New Latin “sea eagle”, from Ancient Greek
ἁλιάετος (haliaetos) or ἁλιαίετος (haliaietos, poetic (e.g.
Homeric) variant), “sea eagle, osprey” (hali, “at sea”
(dative case), + aetos, “eagle”). The two variant Greek
forms lie behind the equally correct Latinizations haliae-
tus (as in Pandion haliaetus) and haliaeetus.
[2] del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1994.
[3] Wink, Heidrich & Fentzloff 1996.
[4] Rasmussen, D., Tab, O., Storrs, L., & Simons, E. L.
(1987). Fossil Birds from the Oligocene Jebel Qatrani
Formation, Fayum Province, Egypt. Smithsonian Contri-
butions to Paleobiology 62: 1-20. PDF Fulltext (file size
8.1 MB)
[5] Lambrecht, K. (1933). Handbuch der Palaeornithologie.
Gebrüder Bornträger, Berlin.
[6] Brown, L. H, & Amadon, D. (1968). Eagles, Hawks and
Falcons of the World. Country Life Books, Feltham.
[7] LM2005.pdf
[8] AFP. “Eagle cam becomes net sensation”. Sydney Morn-
ing Herald. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
[9] “EagleCam”. Birds Australia website. Birds Australia. 8
February 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
Sources
• del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J., eds. (1994).
Handbook of the Birds of the World 2. Barcelona:
Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-15-6.
• Wink, M.; Heidrich, P.; Fentzloff, C. (1996). “A
mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles (genus Haliaeetus)
based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome
b gene” (PDF). Biochemical Systematics and Ecol-
ogy 24 (7–8): 783–791. doi:10.1016/S0305-
1978(96)00049-X.

Chapter 3
Ichthyophaga
Ichthyophaga is a genus of two species of eagles, closely
related to the sea-eagles in the genus Haliaeetus. Both are
native to southeastern Asia, from the Indian subcontinent
southeast to Sulawesi. They are smaller than the Hali-
aeetus eagles, though overlapping in size with the smaller
species of that genus. They share similar plumage, with
grey heads grading into dull grey-brown wings and bod-
ies, and white belly and legs. They differ in tail colour,
with lesser fish eagle having a brown tail, and grey-headed
fish eagle having a white tail with a black terminal band,
and also in size, with lesser fish eagle only about half of
the weight of grey-headed fish eagle.[1]
3.1 Species
• Lesser fish eagle Ichthyophaga humilis
• Grey-headed fish eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus
3.2 Ecology
As both the common and generic names suggest, both
species feed largely on fish, caught mainly in freshwater
on lakes and large rivers, but also occasionally in saltwater
in estuaries and along coasts.[1]
3.3 Synonymy with a parasitic flat-
worm
Syromiatnikova created in 1949 [2]
the genus
Ichthyophaga for a prolecithophoran turbellarian
parasitic in fish. Because the genus was preoccu-
pied by Ichthyophaga Lesson, 1843, a replacement
name, Piscinquilinus, was proposed in 2005 by Sluys
& Kawakatsu.[3]
Species of turbellarians previously
assigned to Ichthyophaga are thus now placed within
Piscinquilinus, and Ichthyophaga subcutanea should now
be named Piscinquilinus subcutaneus (Syromiatnikova,
1949) Sluys & Kawakatsu, 2005.
3.4 References
[1] del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., & Sargatal, J., eds. (1994).
Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 2. Lynx Edi-
cions, Barcelona ISBN 84-87334-15-6.
[2] Syromiatnikova I.P. 1949. A new turbellarian parasitic
in fish and called Ichthyophaga subcutanea. Dokl Akad
Nauk SSSR 68:805–808 (in Russian)
[3] Sluys R., Kawakatsu M. 2005. A replacement name
for Ichthyophaga Syromiatnikova, 1949 (Platyhelminthes:
Prolecithophora), with a nomenclatural analysis of its
avian senior homonym. Species Diversity, 10, 63-68.
12

Chapter 4
Harpy eagle
This article is about the harpy eagle of the Americas.
For the harpy eagle of New Guinea, see Papuan eagle.
The harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) is a neotropical species
of eagle.
It is sometimes known as the American harpy eagle
to distinguish it from the Papuan eagle, which is some-
times known as the New Guinea harpy eagle or Papuan
harpy eagle.[3]
It is the largest and most powerful raptor
found in the Americas,[4]
and among the largest extant
species of eagles in the world. It usually inhabits tropical
lowland rainforests in the upper (emergent) canopy layer.
Destruction of its natural habitat has caused it to vanish
from many parts of its former range, and it is nearly ex-
tirpated in Central America. In Brazil, the harpy eagle is
also known as royal-hawk (in Portuguese: gavião-real).[5]
4.1 Taxonomy
The harpy eagle was ﬁrst described by Linnaeus in his
Systema Naturae in 1758 as Vultur harpyja,[6]
after the
mythological beast harpy. The only member of the genus
Harpia, the harpy eagle is most closely related to the
crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) and the New Guinea
harpy eagle (Harpyopsis novaeguineae), the three com-
posing the subfamily Harpiinae within the large fam-
ily Accipitridae. Previously thought to be related, the
Philippine eagle has been shown by DNA analysis to be-
long elsewhere in the raptor family, as it is related to the
Circaetinae.[7]
Its name refers to the Harpies of Ancient Greek mythol-
ogy. These were wind spirits that took the dead to Hades,
and were said to have a body like an eagle and the face of
a human.[8]
4.2 Description
The upper side of the harpy eagle is covered with slate-
black feathers, and the underside is mostly white, ex-
cept for the feathered tarsi, which are striped black. A
broad black band across the upper breast separates the
gray head from the white belly. The head is pale grey,
and is crowned with a double crest. The upper side of the
tail is black with three gray bands, while the underside
of it is black with three white bands. The iris is gray or
brown or red, the cere and bill are black or blackish and
the tarsi and toes are yellow. The plumage of males and
females are identical. The tarsus is up to 13 cm (5.1 in)
long.[9][10]
Female harpy eagles typically weigh 6 to 9 kg (13 to 20
lb).[9][11]
One source states that adult females can weigh
up to 10 kg (22 lb).[12]
An exceptionally large captive fe-
male, “Jezebel”, weighed 12.3 kg (27 lb).[13]
Being cap-
tive, this large female may not be representative of the
weight possible in wild harpy eagles due to diﬀerences
in the food availability.[14][15]
The male, in comparison,
is much smaller and weighs only about 4 to 4.8 kg (8.8
to 10.6 lb).[9][11]
Harpy eagles are 86.5–107 cm (2 ft 10
in–3 ft 6 in) long[10][11]
and have a wingspan of 176 to
224 cm (5 ft 9 in to 7 ft 4 in).[9][10]
Among the standard
measurements, the wing chord measures 54–63 cm (1 ft
9 in–2 ft 1 in), the tail measures 37–42 cm (1 ft 3 in–1 ft
5 in), the tarsus is 11.4–13 cm (4.5–5.1 in) long, and the
exposed culmen from the cere is 4.2 to 6.5 cm (1.7 to 2.6
in).[9][16][17]
Upper body of an adult in captivity
It is sometimes cited as the largest eagle alongside the
13

14 CHAPTER 4. HARPY EAGLE
Philippine eagle, that is somewhat longer on average
and the Steller’s sea eagle, that is slightly heavier on
average.[8]
The wingspan of the harpy eagle is relatively
small, an adaptation that increases maneuverability in
forested habitats and is shared by other raptors in similar
habitats. The wingspan of the harpy eagle is surpassed by
several large eagles who live in more open habitats, such
as those in the Haliaeetus and Aquila genera.[9]
The ex-
tinct Haast’s eagle was significantly larger than all extant
eagles, including the harpy.[18]
This species is largely silent away from the nest. There,
the adults give a penetrating, weak, melancholy scream,
with the incubating males’ call described as “whispy
screaming or wailing”.[19]
The females’ calls while in-
cubating are similar, but are lower-pitched. While ap-
proaching the nest with food, the male calls out “rapid
chirps, goose-like calls, and occasional sharp screams”.
Vocalization in both parents decreases as the nestlings
age, while the nestlings become more vocal. The nestlings
call chi-chi-chi...chi-chi-chi-chi, seemingly in alarm in re-
sponse to rain or direct sunlight. When humans approach
the nest, the nestlings have been described as uttering
croaks, quacks, and whistles.[20]
4.3 Distribution and habitat
Rare throughout its range, the harpy eagle is found from
Mexico (almost extinct), through Central America and
into South America to as far south as Argentina. The ea-
gle is most common in Brazil, where it is found across the
entire national territory.[21]
With the exception of some
areas of Panama, the species is almost extinct in Cen-
tral America, subsequent to the logging of much of the
rainforest there.[22]
The harpy eagle inhabits tropical low-
land rainforests and may occur within such areas from
the canopy to the emergent vegetation. They typically
occur below an elevation of 900 m (3,000 ft), but have
been recorded at elevations up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft).[1]
Within the rainforest, they hunt in the canopy or some-
times on the ground, and perch on emergent trees looking
for prey. They do not generally occur in disturbed areas,
but regularly visit semiopen forest/pasture mosaic, mainly
in hunting forays.[23]
Harpies, however, can be found fly-
ing over forest borders in a variety of habitats, such as
cerrados, caatingas, buriti palm stands, cultivated fields,
and cities.[24]
They have been found in areas where high-
grade forestry is practiced.
4.4 Behavior
4.4.1 Feeding
The harpy eagle is an actively hunting carnivore and is
an apex predator; adults are at the top of a food chain
Feeding at Zoo Miami, USA
and have no natural predators.[25]
Its main prey are tree-
dwelling mammals and a majority of the diet has been
shown to focus on sloths[26]
and monkeys. Research
conducted by Aguiar-Silva between 2003 and 2005 in a
nesting site in Parintins, Amazonas, Brazil, collected re-
mains from prey offered to the nestling and after sort-
ing them, concluded, in terms of individuals preyed
upon, the harpy’s prey basis was composed in 79% by
sloths from two species: Bradypus variegatus amounting
to 39% of the individual prey base, and Choloepus di-
dactylus to 40%; various monkeys amounted to 11.6%
of the same prey base.[27]
In a similar research venture
in Panama, where a couple of captive-bred subadults
was released, 52% of the male’s captures and 54% of
the female’s were of two sloth species (Bradypus var-
iegatus and Choloepus hoffmanni).[28]
At one Venezue-
lan nest, the remains comprised sloths. Monkeys reg-
ularly taken can include capuchin monkeys, saki mon-
keys, howler monkeys, titi monkeys, squirrel monkeys,
and spider monkeys. Smaller monkeys, such as tamarins
and marmosets, are seemingly ignored as prey by this
species.[9]
At several nest in Guyana, monkeys made up
about 37% of the prey remains found at the nests.[29]
Similarly, cebid monkeys made up 35% of the remains
found at 10 nests in Amazonian Ecuador.[30]
Other par-
tially arboreal and even land mammals are also preyed
on given the opportunity, including porcupines, squirrels,
opossums, anteaters, armadillos, and even relatively large
carnivores such as kinkajous, coatis, and tayras.[9]
In the
Pantanal, a pair of nesting eagles preyed largely on the
porcupine Coendou prehensilis and the agouti Dasyprocta
azarae.[31]
The eagle may also attack bird species such as
macaws: At the Parintins research site, the red-and-green
macaw made up for 0.4% of the prey base, with other
birds amounting to 4.6%.[27]
" [32]
Other parrots have also
been preyed on, as well as cracids such as curassows
and seriemas.[9]
Additional prey items reported include
reptiles such as iguanas, tejus, and snakes.[9][33]
Snakes
up to 5 cm (2.0 in) in diameter have been observed to
be cut in half, then the pieces are swallowed whole.[9]
On
occasion, larger prey such as capybaras, peccaries, and
deer are taken and they are usually taken to a stump or
low branch and partially eaten, since they are too heavy to

4.5. STATUS AND CONSERVATION 15
be carried whole to the nest.[9][34][35]
Red brocket deer, a
species commonly weighing over 30 kg (66 lb), have been
reportedly taken and, in such cases, the eagle may have
to tear it into pieces or feed on it at the killing site rather
than fly with it, as it would be too heavy.[36]
The harpy
has been recorded as taking domestic livestock, includ-
ing chickens, lambs, goats, and young pigs, but this is ex-
tremely rare under normal circumstances.[9]
They control
the population of mesopredators such as capuchin mon-
keys which prey extensively on bird’s eggs and which (if
not naturally controlled) may cause local extinctions of
sensitive species.[37]
Harpy eagle in flight
Harpy eagles routinely take prey weighing more than 7
kg (15 lb).[9]
They possess the largest talons of any living
eagle. Their feet are extremely powerful and can exert a
pressure of 42 kgf/cm² (4.1 MPa or 530 lbf/in2
or 400
N/cm2
) with their talons.[38]
They have been recorded as
lifting prey up to equal their own body weight.[9]
That al-
lows the birds to snatch a live sloth from tree branches,
as well as other huge prey items. Males usually take rel-
atively smaller prey, with a typical range of 0.5 to 2.5
kg (1.1 to 5.5 lb) or about half their own weight.[9]
The
larger females take larger prey, with a minimum recorded
prey weight of around 2.7 kg (6.0 lb). Adult female
harpies regularly grab large male howler or spider mon-
keys or mature sloths weighing 6 to 9 kg (13 to 20 lb)
in flight and fly off without landing, an enormous feat of
strength.[9][34][39]
Prey items taken to the nest by the par-
ents are normally medium-sized, having been recorded
from 1 to 4 kg (2.2 to 8.8 lb).[9]
The prey brought to the
nest by males averaged 1.5 kg (3.3 lb), while the prey
brought to the nest by females averaged 3.2 kg (7.1 lb).[20]
Sometimes, harpy eagles are “sit-and-wait” predators
(common in forest-dwelling raptors).[9]
In harpies, this
consists of perching and watching for long times from
a high perch near an opening, a river, or a salt-lick
(where many mammals go to feed for nutrients).[9]
The
more common hunting technique of the species is perch-
hunting, which consists of scanning around for prey activ-
ity while briefly perched between short flights from tree
to tree.[9]
When prey is spotted, the eagle quickly dives
and grabs the prey.[9]
On occasion, they may also hunt
by flying within or above the canopy.[9]
They have also
been observed tail-chasing, a predation style common to
hawks that hunt birds, the genus Accipiter.[9]
This com-
prises the eagle pursuing another bird in flight, rapidly
dodging among trees and branches.[9]
4.4.2 Breeding
In ideal habitats, nests would be fairly close together. In
some parts of Panama and Guyana, active nests were lo-
cated 3 km (1.9 mi) away from one another, while they
are within 5 km (3.1 mi) of each other in Venezuela. In
Peru, the average distance between nests was 7.4 km (4.6
mi) and the average area occupied by each breeding pairs
was estimated at 4,300 ha (11,000 acres). In less ideal
areas, with fragmented forest, breeding territories were
estimated at 25 km (16 mi).[33]
The female harpy eagle
lays two white eggs in a large stick nest, which commonly
measures 1.2 m (3.9 ft) deep and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) across and
may be used over several years. Nests are located high up
in a tree, usually in the main fork, at 16 to 43 m (52 to
141 ft), depending on the stature of the local trees. The
harpy often builds its nest in the crown of the kapok tree,
one of the tallest trees in South America. In many South
American cultures, it is considered bad luck to cut down
the kapok tree, which may help safeguard the habitat of
this stately eagle.[40]
The bird also uses other huge trees
on which to build its nest, such as the Brazil nut tree.[41]
A nesting site found in the Brazilian Pantanal was built
on a cambará tree (Vochysia divergens).[42]
No display is known between pairs of eagles, and they are
believed to mate for life. A pair of harpy eagles usually
only raises one chick every 2–3 years. After the first chick
hatches, the second egg is ignored and normally fails to
hatch unless the first egg perishes. The egg is incubated
around 56 days. When the chick is 36 days old, it can
stand and walk awkwardly. The chick fledges at the age of
6 months, but the parents continue to feed it for another 6
to 10 months. The male captures much of the food for the
incubating female and later the eaglet, but also takes an
incubating shift while the female forages and also brings
prey back to the nest. Breeding maturity is not reached
until birds are 4 to 6 years of age.[9][20][23]
Adults can be
aggressive toward humans who disturb the nesting site or
appear to be a threat to its young.[43]
4.5 Status and conservation
Although the harpy eagle still occurs over a considerable
range, its distribution and populations have dwindled con-
siderably. It is threatened primarily by habitat loss due
to the expansion of logging, cattle ranching, agriculture,
and prospecting. Secondarily, it is threatened by being

Subadult, “Panama”, in Belize Zoo
hunted as an actual threat to livestock and/or a supposed
one to human life, due to its great size.[44]
Although not
actually known to prey on humans and only rarely on do-
mestic stock, the species’ large size and nearly fearless be-
havior around humans reportedly make it an “irresistible
target” for hunters.[33]
Such threats apply throughout its
range, in large parts of which the bird has become a tran-
sient sight only; in Brazil, it was all but wiped out from
the Atlantic rainforest and is only found in appreciable
numbers in the most remote parts of the Amazon basin;
a Brazilian journalistic account of the mid-1990s already
complained that at the time it was only found in signifi-
cant numbers in Brazilian territory on the northern side of
the Equator.[45]
Scientific 1990s records, however, sug-
gest that the harpy Atlantic Forest population may be
migratory.[46]
Subsequent research in Brazil has estab-
lished that, as of 2009, the harpy eagle, outside the Brazil-
ian Amazon, is critically endangered in Espírito Santo,[47]
São Paulo and Paraná, endangered in Rio de Janeiro, and
probably extirpated in Rio Grande do Sul (where there
is a recent (March 2015) record for the Parque Estadual
do Turvo) and Minas Gerais[48]
– the actual size of their
total population in Brazil is unknown.[49]
Globally, the harpy eagle is considered Near Threatened
by IUCN[1]
and threatened with extinction by CITES (ap-
pendix I). The Peregrine Fund until recently considered it
a “conservation-dependent species”, meaning it depends
on a dedicated effort for captive breeding and release
to the wild, as well as habitat protection, to prevent it
from reaching endangered status, but now has accepted
the Near Threatened status. The harpy eagle is consid-
ered critically endangered in Mexico and Central Amer-
ica, where it has been extirpated in most of its former
range; in Mexico, it used to be found as far north as
Veracruz, but today probably occurs only in Chiapas in
the Selva Zoque. It is considered as Near Threatened or
Vulnerable in most of the South American portion of its
range; at the southern extreme of its range, in Argentina,
it is found only in the Parana Valley forests at the province
of Misiones.[50][51]
It has disappeared from El Salvador,
and almost so from Costa Rica.[22]
4.5.1 National initiatives
Adult at São Paulo Zoo, Brazil
Various initiatives for restoration of the species are in
place in various countries. Since 2002, Peregrine Fund
initiated a conservation and research program for the
harpy eagle in the Darién Province.[52]
A similar—and
grander, given the dimensions of the countries involved—
research project is occurring in Brazil, at the National In-
stitute of Amazonian Research, through which 45 known
nesting locations (updated to 62, only three outside the
Amazonian basin and all three inactive) are being mon-
itored by researchers and volunteers from local commu-
nities. A harpy eagle chick has been fitted with a radio
transmitter that allows it to be tracked for more than three
years via a satellite signal sent to the Brazilian National
Institute for Space Research.[53]
Also, a photographic
recording of a nest site in the Carajás National Forest is
being made by the photographer for the Brazilian edition
of National Geographic Magazine, João Marcos Rosa.[54]
In Belize, the Belize Harpy Eagle Restoration Project be-
gan in 2003 with the collaboration of Sharon Matola,
founder and director of the Belize Zoo and the Peregrine

4.6. POPULAR CULTURE 17
Adult in Belize
Fund. The goal of this project was the re-establishment
of the harpy eagle within Belize. The population of the
eagle declined as a result of forest fragmentation, shoot-
ing, and nest destruction, resulting in near extirpation of
the species. Captive-bred harpy eagles were released in
the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area in Be-
lize, chosen for its quality forest habitat and linkages with
Guatemala and Mexico. Habitat linkage with Guatemala
and Mexico were important for conservation of quality
habitat and the harpy eagle on a regional level. As of
November 2009, 14 harpy eagles have been released and
are monitored by the Peregrine Fund, through satellite
telemetry.[55]
In January 2009, a chick from the all-but-extirpated pop-
ulation in the Brazilian state of Paraná was hatched in
captivity at the preserve kept in the vicinity of the Itaipu
Dam by the Brazilian/Paraguayan state-owned company
Itaipu Binacional.[56]
In September 2009, an adult fe-
male, after being kept captive for 12 years in a private
reservation, was fitted with a radio transmitter before be-
ing restored to the wild in the vicinity of the Pau Brasil
National Park (formerly Monte Pascoal NP), in the state
of Bahia.[57]
In December 2009, a 15th harpy eagle was released into
the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area in Be-
lize. The release was set to tie in with the United Nations
Climate Change Conference 2009, in Copenhagen. The
15th eagle, nicknamed “Hope” by the Peregrine officials
in Panama, was the “poster child” for forest conservation
in Belize, a developing country, and the importance of
these activities in relation to climate change. The event
received coverage from Belize’s major media entities, and
was supported and attended by the U.S. Ambassador to
Belize, Vinai Thummalapally, and British High Commis-
sioner to Belize, Pat Ashworth.[58]
In Colombia, as of 2007, an adult male and a subadult fe-
male confiscated from wildlife trafficking were restored
to the wild and monitored in Paramillo National Park in
Córdoba, and another couple was being kept in captivity
at a research center for breeding and eventual release.[59]
A monitoring effort with the help of volunteers from lo-
cal Native American communities is also being made in
Ecuador, including the joint sponsorship of various Span-
ish universities[60]
—this effort being similar to another
one going on since 1996 in Peru, centered around a na-
tive community in the Tambopata Province, Madre de
Dios Region.[61]
Another monitoring project, begun in
1992, was operating as of 2005 in the state of Bolívar,
Venezuela.[62]
4.6 Popular culture
• The harpy eagle is the national bird of Panama and
is depicted on the coat of arms of Panama.[63]
• The harpy eagle was the inspiration behind the de-
sign of Fawkes the Phoenix in the Harry Potter film
series.[64]
• A live harpy eagle was used to portray the now-
extinct Haast’s eagle in BBC’s Monsters We Met.[65]
4.7 References
[1] BirdLife International (2013). "Harpia harpyja". IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2.
International Union for Conservation of Nature. Re-
trieved 26 November 2013.
[2] “Aves de Rapina BR | Gavião-Real (Harpia harpyja)".
avesderapinabrasil.com. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
[3] Tingay; Katzner (23 February 2011). Rt-Eagle Watch-
ers Z. Cornell University Press. pp. 167–. ISBN 978-
0-8014-5814-9.
[4] The illustrated atlas of wildlife. University of California
Press. 2009. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-520-25785-6.
[5] “It works!". gaviaoreal.inpa.gov.br. Retrieved 2014-01-
25.
[6] Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria natu-
rae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum char-
acteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Edi-
tio decima, reformata. (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii
Salvii). p. 86. V. occipite subcristato.
[7] Lerner, Heather R. L.; Mindell, David P. (November
2005). “Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and

other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial
DNA” (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37
(2): 327–346. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. ISSN
1055-7903. PMID 15925523. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
[8] Ross Piper (2007). Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclo-
pedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Greenwood Pub-
lishing Group. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-313-33922-6.
[9] J. Ferguson-Lees; David A. Christie (2001). Raptors of
the world. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 717–19.
ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7.
[10] Steve N. G. Howell (30 March 1995). A Guide to the Birds
of Mexico and Northern Central America. Oxford Univer-
sity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854012-0.
[11] Thiollay, J. M. (1994). Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja). p.
191 in: del Hoy, J, A. Elliott, & J. Sargatal, eds. (1994).
Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2. New World
Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN
84-87334-15-6
[12] Trinca, C.T., Ferrari, S.F. & Lees, A.C. “Curiosity
killed the bird: arbitrary hunting of Harpy Eagles Harpia
harpyja on an agricultural frontier in southern Brazilian
Amazonia” (PDF). Cotinga. Retrieved 2013-03-28.
[13] Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats.
Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
[14] O'Connor, R. J. (1984). The Growth and Development of
Birds, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-90345-0
[15] Arent, L. A. (2007). Raptors in Captivity. Hancock
House, Washington. ISBN 978-0-88839-613-6
[16] Sagip Eagle. Gbgm-umc.org. Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
[17] Smithsonian miscellaneous collections (1862).
Archive.org. Retrieved on 2013-03-09.
[18] Museum of New Zealand (1998). Giant eagle (Aquila
moorei), Haast’s eagle, or Pouakai. Accessed 4 June 2011
[19] “Identification – Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) – Neotrop-
ical Birds”. Neotropical.birds.cornell.edu. Retrieved
2013-05-13.
[20] Rettig, N. (1978). “Breeding behavior of the Harpy Eagle
(Harpia harpyja)". Auk 95 (4): 629–643.
[21] “Gavião-real, uma das maiores aves de rapina do mundo –
Terra Brasil”. noticias.terra.com.br. Retrieved 2014-01-
25.
[22] Weidensaul, Scott (2004). The Raptor Almanac: A Com-
prehensive Guide to Eagles, Hawks, Falcons, and Vultures.
New York, New York: Lyons Press. pp. 280–81. ISBN
1-58574-170-1.
[23] Rettig, N., K. Hayes (1995). Remote world of the harpy
eagle. National Geographic, 187(2): 40–49.
[24] Sigrist, Tomas (2013) Ornitologia Brasileira. Vinhedo:
Avis Brasilis. ISBN 978-85-60120-25-3. p. 192
[25] The Encyclopedia of Birds. Infobase Publishing. 2007-
01-01. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8160-5904-1.
[26] Santos, D. W. (2011). WA548962, Harpia harpyja (Lin-
naeus, 1758). Wiki Aves – A Enciclopédia das Aves do
Brasil.. Retrieved August 30, 2013
[27] Aguiar-Silva, F. Helena (2014). “Food Habits of the
Harpy Eagle, a Top Predator from the Amazonian Rain-
forest Canopy”. Journal of Raptor Research 48 (1): 24–
35. doi:10.3356/JRR-13-00017.1.
[28] Touchton, Janeene M.; Yu-Cheng Hsu; Palleroni, Al-
berto (2002). “Foraging ecology of reintroduced captive-
bred subadult harpy eagles (Harpia harpiya) on Barro
Colorado Island, Panama” (PDF). Ornitologia Neotropical
(The Neotropical Ornithological Society) 13.
[29] Izor, R. J. (1985). “Sloths and other mammalian prey of
the Harpy Eagle”. pp. 343–346 in G. G. Montgomery
(ed.), The evolution and ecology of armadillos, sloths, and
vermilinguas. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
[30] Muñiz-López, R., O. Criollo, and A. Mendúa. 2007. Re-
sults of five years of the “Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja)
Research Program” in the Ecuadorian tropical forest. pp.
23–32 in K. L Bildstein, D. R. Barber, and A. Zimmer-
man (eds.), Neotropical raptors. Hawk Mountain Sanctu-
ary, Orwigsburg, PA.
[31] Aves de Rapina BR | Gavião-Real (Harpia harpyja).
Avesderapinabrasil.com. Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
[32] Aguiar-Silva (2007). “Dieta do gavião-real Harpia
harpyja (Aves: Accipitridae) em florestas de terra firme
de Parintins, Amazonas, Brasil”. Thesis
[33] Bierregaard, R. O. 1994. “Harpy Eagle”. Page 191 in
J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal (editors). Hand-
book of birds of the world. Volume 2. Lynx Edicions,
Barcelona, Spain.
[34] San Diego Zoo’s Animal Bytes: Harpy Eagle. Sandiego-
zoo.org. Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
[35] Capybara. akronzoo.org
[36] Mazama americana (Red Brocket). Iucnredlist.org. Re-
trieved on 2012-08-21.
[37] Shaner, K. 2011. “Harpia harpyja” (On-line), Animal Di-
versity Web. Accessed August 21, 2012
[38] “Giant Harpy Eagle grabs the Sloth Video”. Disclose.tv.
Retrieved 2009-01-12.
[39] “Gavião-real”. Brasil 500 Pássaros (in Portuguese).
Eletronorte. Retrieved July 6, 2010.
[40] Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclo-
pedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.
[41] Holly Hughes (29 January 2009). Frommer’s 500 Places
to See Before They Disappear. John Wiley & Sons. p.
178. ISBN 978-0-470-43162-7.
[42] Harpia (gavião-real). Avesderapinabrasil.com. Retrieved
on 2012-08-21.
[43] Adam Vaughan (July 6, 2010). “Monkey-eating ea-
gle divebombs BBC filmmaker as he fits nest-cam”.
guardian.co.uk.

4.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 19
[44] Talia Salanotti, researcher for the Brazilian National Insti-
tute of Amazonian Research, cf. O Globo, May the 13th.
2009; abridgement available at Maior águia das Améri-
cas, gavião-real sofre com destruição das florestas; on the
random killing of harpies in frontier regions, see Cristiano
Trapé Trinca, Stephen F. Ferrari and Alexander C. Lees
Curiosity killed the bird: arbitrary hunting of Harpy Ea-
gles Harpia harpyja on an agricultural frontier in southern
Brazilian Amazonia. Cotinga 30 (2008): 12–15
[45] “Senhora dos ares”, Globo Rural, ISSN 0102-6178,
11:129, July 1996, pp. 40 and 42
[46] Alluvion of the Lower Schwalm near Borken.
Birdlife.org. Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
[47] Where an adult male was observed in August 2005 at
the preserve kept by mining corporation Vale do Rio
Doce at Linhares: cf. Srbek-Araujo, Ana C.; Chiarello,
Adriano G. (2006). “Registro recente de harpia, Harpia
harpyja (Linnaeus) (Aves, Accipitridae), na Mata Atlân-
tica da Reserva Natural Vale do Rio Doce, Linhares, Es-
pírito Santo e implicações para a conservação regional da
espécie”. Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 23 (4): 1264.
doi:10.1590/S0101-81752006000400040.
[48] Nevertheless, in 2006, an adult female – probably during
migration – was seen and photographed at the vicinity of
Tapira, in the Minas Gerais cerrado: cf. Oliveira, Adil-
son Luiz de and Silva, Robson Silva e (2006). “Registro
de Harpia (Harpia harpyja) no cerrado de Tapira, Minas
Gerais, Brasil” (PDF). Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia 14
(4): 433–434.
[49] Couto, Clarice. “Viva a Rainha”. Globo Rural 25 (288):
65.
[50] The Misiones Green Corridor. Redyaguarete.org.ar. Re-
[51] For a map of the species historical and current range, see
Fig. 1 in Lerner, Heather R. L.; Johnson, Jeff A.; Lind-
say, Alec R.; Kiff, Lloyd F.; Mindell, David P. (2009).
Ellegren, Hans, ed. “It’s not too Late for the Harpy Eagle
(Harpia harpyja): High Levels of Genetic Diversity and
Differentiation Can Fuel Conservation Programs”. PLoS
ONE 4 (10): e7336. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007336.
PMC 2752114. PMID 19802391.
[52] Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja. Globalraptors.org. Re-
[53] Projecto Gavião-real INPA; Globo Rural, 25:288, page 62
[54] João Marcos Rosa (2011-06-22). Mirada alemã: um ol-
har crítico sobre o seu próprio trabalho. abril.com.br
[55] THE BELIZE HARPY EAGLE RESTORATION PRO-
GRAM (BHERP). belizezoo.org
[56] G1 > Brasil – NOTÍCIAS – Ave rara no Brasil nasce no
Refúgio Biológico de Itaipu. G1.globo.com. Retrieved on
2012-08-21.
[57] Revista Globo Rural, 24:287, September 2009, 20
[58] “The Importance of Hope, the Harpy Eagle”. 7 News Be-
lize. 2009-12-14.
[59] Márquez C., Gast-Harders F., Vanegas V. H., Bechard M.
(2006). Harpia harpyja (L., 1758). siac.net.co
[60] “Sponsorship and Exhibition at ATBC OTS” (PDF). In-
ternational Conference Celebrating the 50th Anniversary
of the Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation
and the Organization for Tropical Studies. 23–27 June
2013, San José, Costa Rica. 2013.
[61] Piana, Renzo P. “The Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) in the
Infierno Native Community”. inkaways.com
[62] (Spanish) Programa de conservación del águila arpía.
Ecoportal.net (2005-12-15). Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
[63] Goldish, Meish (2007). Bald Eagles: A Chemical Night-
mare. Bearport Publishing Company, Incorporated. p.
29. ISBN 978-1-59716-505-1.
[64] Lederer, Roger J. (2007). Amazing Birds: A Treasury of
Facts and Trivia about the Avian World. Barron’s Educa-
tional Series, Incorporated. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-7641-
3593-4.
[65] “BBC Nature – Haast’s eagle videos, news and facts”.
bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
• “BBC Nature – Haast’s eagle videos, news and
facts”. BBC Online. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
4.8 External links
• Harpy eagle Facts and Pictures on AnimalSpot.net
• Harpy eagle videos, photos & sounds on the Internet
Bird Collection
• San Diego Zoo info about the harpy eagle
• Peregrine Fund info about the harpy eagle
• Harpy eagle information and photo

Chapter 5
Crested eagle
The crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) is a large
Neotropical eagle.
It is the only member of the genus Morphnus.
5.1 Distribution
It is sparsely distributed throughout its extensive range
from northern Guatemala through Belize, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, the subtropical Andes of
Colombia, northeastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname,
French Guiana, Brazil (where it has suffered greatly from
habitat destruction,[2]
being now found practically only
in the Amazonian basin[3]
), and east Andean Ecuador,
southeastern Peru, Paraguay and eastern Bolivia to north
Argentina.
5.2 Habitat
The crested eagle lives in humid lowland forests, mostly
comprised by tropical rainforests. They can also range in
gallery strips and forest ravines. Over most of the range,
sightings of the species are from sea-level to 600 m (2,000
ft). However, in the Andean countries, they appear to be
local residents in foothill forests up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft)
elevation or even 1,600 m (5,200 ft).
5.3 Description
This species is a large but slender eagle. It measures 71–
89 cm (28–35 in) long and has a wingspan of 138–176 cm
(55–70 in). A small handful of crested eagles have been
weighed, entirely either males or unsexed birds, and have
scaled from 1.3 to 3 kg (2.9 to 6.6 lb). Standard mea-
surements have indicated females are about 14% larger
on average than males.[4][5]
The crested eagle has a large head, an effect enhanced
by the often extended feather crest of its name. It has
bare legs, with a sizable tarsus length of 10.3 to 11.2 cm
(4.1 to 4.4 in). The tail is fairly long, measuring 34 to
43 cm (13 to 17 in) in length. The wings are quite short
for the eagle’s size but are broad and rounded. Forest-
dwelling raptors often have a relatively small wingspan in
order to enable movement within the dense, twisted forest
environments. The wing chord measures 42.5–48.5 cm
(16.7–19.1 in). The plumage of the crested eagle is some-
what variable. The head, back and chest of most adults
are light brownish-gray, with a white throat and a dark
spot on the crest and a small dark mask across the eyes.
There are also various dark morphs where the plumage
is sooty-gray or just blackish in some cases. The distinc-
tive juvenile crested eagle is white on the head and chest,
with a marbled-gray coloration on the back and wings.
They turn to a sandy-gray color in the second year of life.
Dark morph juveniles are similar but are dark brownish-
gray from an early age. In flight, crested eagles are all
pale below except for the grayish coloration on the chest.
This species often overlaps in range with the less scarce
Harpy eagle, which is likely its close relative and is some-
what similar to appearance. However, the crested eagle is
roughly half that species’ bulk and is clearly more slender.
Generally, crested eagles are silent but do make a call oc-
casionally that consists of a pair of high whistles, with the
second whistle being higher pitched than the first.
5.4 Ecology
The crested eagle may avoid direct competition with the
harpy eagle by taking generally smaller prey. Birds may
comprise a larger portion of the diet for crested than
they do for harpys. Birds such as jays, trumpeters and
guans have been observed to be predated at fruiting trees
and male cocks-of-the-rock have been predated while
conspicuously performing at their leks. However, the
crested eagle is certainly a powerful avian predator in its
own right and most studies have indicated they are pri-
marily a predator of small mammals. Often reflected
in the diet are small monkeys, such as capuchin mon-
keys,[6]
tamarins,[7]
and woolly monkeys. Other mam-
malian prey may include numerous arboreal rodents as
well as opossums and kinkajous. Various studies have
also pointed to the abundance of snakes (both arboreal
and terrestrial varieties) and other reptiles (principally
lizards) in its prey base, but the relative frequency of dif-
20

5.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 21
ferent types of prey apparently varies greatly on the in-
dividual level.[8]
The crested eagle seems to be a still-
hunter, as it has been observed perched for long periods
of time while visual scanning the forest around them.
The crested eagle is almost always observed singly or in
pairs. The breeding season is from March–April (the bor-
derline between the dry season and the wet season in the
neotropics) onwards. The nest is often huge but has a
shallow cup and is typically in the main fork of a large
tree, often concealed near the canopy in greenery. No
further details are known of the breeding or brooding be-
havior of the species.
5.5 Status
The crested eagle has always seemed to occur at low den-
sities and may occasionally elude detection in areas where
they do occur. Though they still have a large distribu-
tion, they are currently classified as Near Threatened by
the IUCN.[1]
Due to their seemingly high dependence on
sprawling forest, they are highly effected by habitat de-
struction. They are believed to no longer occur in several
former breeding areas where extensive forest have been
cleared. It is thought that they are occasionally hunted by
local people and, in some cases, are shot on sight. If dis-
covered while perched, they are relatively easy to shoot,
since they usually perch for extended periods of time.
5.6 References
[1] BirdLife International (2012). "Morphnus guianensis".
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2.
International Union for Conservation of Nature. Re-
trieved 26 November 2013.
[2] Jorge Luiz B. Albuquerque et al. (2006). "Águia-cinzenta
(Harpyhaliaetus coronatus) e o Gavião-real-falso (Mor-
phnus guianensis) em Santa Catarina e Rio Grande do Sul:
prioridades e desafios para sua conservação” (PDF). Re-
vista Brasileira de Ornitologia 14 (4): 411–415.
[3] Uiraçu-falso (in Portuguese). eln.gov.br
[4] James Ferguson-Lees (15 October 2001). Raptors of the
World. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-
618-12762-7. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
[5] Hilty, Steven L. Birds of Venezuela. Princeton University
Press, 2002.
[6] Uiraçu-falso. Wikiaves.com.br (2012-06-29). Retrieved
on 2012-08-23.
[7] Oversluijs Vasquez, MR; Heymann, EW (2001).
“Crested Eagle (Morphnus guianensis) Predation on
Infant Tamarins (Saguinus mystax) and Saguinus
fuscicollis, Callitrichinae)". Folia primatologica; in-
ternational journal of primatology 72 (5): 301–3.
doi:10.1159/000049952. PMID 11805427.
[8] Cf. Gavião-real-falso (Morphnus guianensis). avesderap-
inabrasil.com
• Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. &
Franklin, Kim (2005): Raptors of the world: a Field
Guide. Christopher Helm, London & Princeton.
ISBN 0-7136-6957-8
5.7 External links
• BirdLife Species Factsheet

Chapter 6
Papuan eagle
The Papuan eagle (Harpyopsis novaeguineae) also
known as the Papuan harpy eagle, New Guinea eagle,
or Kapul eagle, is a large (length 75–90 cm, wingspan
157 cm, weight 1600–2400 g)[2]
greyish brown raptor
with a short full crest, broad three-banded wings, pow-
erful beak, large iris, long rounded tail and white under-
parts. It has long and powerful unfeathered legs with
sharp claws. The sexes are similar, and the female is
slightly larger than the male. It is the only member of
the monotypic genus Harpyopsis.
The Papuan eagle is endemic to undisturbed tropical rain-
forests of New Guinea, where it became the top predator
of the island. The diet consists mainly of phalangers or
Kapul in a local language, hence its alternative name. It
also feeds on other mammals, birds and snakes.
One of a group of four large eagles, the others being
the crested and harpy eagle of South America and the
Philippine eagle of the Philippines (although the latter
may be more closely related to species of snake eagle
around the world), the New Guinea harpy eagle is essen-
tially a mountain bird that nests in high forest trees, but
may be found down to sea level in the few places where
forests remain undisturbed.
Due to ongoing habitat loss, small population size, and
hunting for its feathers which are used on ceremonial oc-
casions, the Papuan eagle is evaluated as Vulnerable on
the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[1]
It is listed
on Appendix II of CITES.
6.1 References
[1] BirdLife International (2012). "Harpyopsis no-
vaeguineae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of
Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
[2] del Hoyo, J. Elliott, A. and Sargatal,J.(1994) Handbook
of the Birds of the World. Volume 2:New World Vultures
to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona
6.2 External links
• BirdLife Species Factsheet
22

Chapter 7
Philippine eagle
The Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), also
known as the monkey-eating eagle or great Philippine
eagle, is an eagle of the family Accipitridae endemic
to forests in the Philippines. It has brown and white-
coloured plumage, and a shaggy crest, and generally mea-
sures 86 to 102 cm (2.82 to 3.35 ft) in length and weighs
4.7 to 8.0 kilograms (10.4 to 17.6 lb). It is considered the
largest of the extant eagles in the world in terms of length
and wing surface, with the Steller’s sea eagle and the
harpy eagle being larger in terms of weight and bulk.[2][3]
Among the rarest and most powerful birds in the world,
it has been declared the Philippine national bird.[4]
It is
critically endangered, mainly due to massive loss of habi-
tat due to deforestation in most of its range. Killing a
Philippine eagle is punishable under Philippine law by 12
years in jail and heavy fines.[5]
7.1 Taxonomy
The first European to discover the species was the English
explorer and naturalist John Whitehead in 1896, who ob-
served the bird and whose servant, Juan, collected the first
specimen a few weeks later.[6]
The skin of the bird was
sent to William Robert Ogilvie-Grant in London in 1896,
who initially showed it off in a local restaurant and de-
scribed the species a few weeks later.[7]
Upon its discovery, the Philippine eagle was first called
the monkey-eating eagle because of reports from natives
of Bonga, Samar, where the species was first discovered,
that it preyed exclusively on monkeys;[8]
from these re-
ports it gained its generic name, from the Greek pithe-
cus (πίθηκος) (“ape or monkey”) and phagus (-φάγος)
(“eater of”).[9]
The specific name commemorates Jeffery
Whitehead, the father of John Whitehead.[7]
Later stud-
ies revealed, however, that the alleged monkey-eating ea-
gle also ate other animals, such as colugos, civets, large
snakes, monitor lizards, and even large birds, such as
hornbills. This, coupled with the fact that the same name
applied to the African crowned eagle and the Central and
South American harpy eagle, resulted in a presidential
proclamation to change its name to Philippine eagle in
1978, and in 1995 was declared a national emblem. This
species has no recognized subspecies.[10]
Apart from Philippine eagle and monkey-eating eagle, it
has also been called the great Philippine eagle. It has
numerous names in the many Philippine languages, in-
cluding ágila (“eagle”), háribon (from haring ibón, “king
bird”) and banog (“kite”).[4][11]
7.1.1 Evolutionary history
A study of the skeletal features in 1919 led to the sugges-
tion that the nearest relative was the harpy eagle.[12]
The
species was included in the subfamily Harpiinae until a
2005 study of DNA sequences which identified them as
not members of the group, finding instead, that the near-
est relatives are snake eagles (Circaetinae), such as the
bateleur. The species has subsequently been placed in the
subfamily Circaetinae.[13]
7.2 Description
The Philippine eagle’s nape is adorned with long, brown
feathers that form a shaggy crest. These feathers give it
the appearance of possessing a lion’s mane, which in turn
resembles the mythical griffin. The eagle has a dark face
and a creamy-brown nape and crown. The back of the
Philippine eagle is dark brown, while the underside and
underwings are white. The heavy legs are yellow, with
large, powerful dark claws, and the prominent large, high-
arched, deep beak is a bluish-gray. The eagle’s eyes are
blue-gray. Juveniles are similar to adults except their up-
perpart feathers have pale fringes.[14]
The Philippine eagle is typically reported as measuring
86–102 cm (2 ft 10 in–3 ft 4 in) in total length,[3][14][15][16]
but a survey of several specimens from some of the largest
natural history collections in the world found the aver-
age was 95 cm (3 ft 1 in) for males and 105 cm (3 ft
5 in) for females.[17]
Based on the latter measurements,
this makes it the longest extant species of eagle, as the
average for the female equals the maximum reported for
the harpy eagle[16]
and Steller’s sea eagle.[3]
The longest
Philippine eagle reported anywhere and the longest eagle
outside of the extinct Haast’s eagle is a specimen from
Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH) with a length
23

24 CHAPTER 7. PHILIPPINE EAGLE
of 112 cm (3 ft 8 in), but it had been kept in captivity[2]
so
may not represent the wild individuals due to differences
in the food availability.[18][19]
The level of sexual dimor-
phism in size is not certain, but the male is believed to be
typically about 10% smaller than the female,[3]
and this is
supported by the average length provided for males and
females in one source.[17]
In many of the other large ea-
gle species, the size difference between adult females and
males can exceed 20%.[3]
For adult Philippine eagles, the
complete weight range has been reported as 4.7 to 8 kg
(10 to 18 lb),[3][20][21]
while others have found the average
was somewhat lower than the above range would indicate,
at 4.5 kg (9.9 lb) for males and 6 kg (13 lb) for females.[17]
One male (age not specified) was found to weigh 4.04 kg
(8.9 lb).[22]
The Philippine eagle has a wingspan of 184
to 220 cm (6 ft 0 in to 7 ft 3 in) and a wing chord length
of 57.4–61.4 cm (22.6–24.2 in).[3][23]
The maximum re-
ported weight is surpassed by two other eagles (the harpy
and Steller’s sea eagle) and the wings are shorter than
large eagles of open country (such as the white-tailed ea-
gle, Steller’s sea eagle, martial eagle or wedge-tailed ea-
gle), but are quite broad.[3]
The tarsus of the Philippine
eagle ties as the longest of any eagle from 12.2 to 14.5
cm (4.8 to 5.7 in) long, which is about the same length as
that of the much smaller but relatively long-legged New
Guinea eagle.[3]
The very large but laterally compressed
bill rivals the size of the Steller’s sea eagle’s as the largest
bill for an extant eagle. Its bill averages 7.22 cm (2.84 in)
in length from the gape.[2]
The tail is fairly long at 42–
45.3 cm (16.5–17.8 in) in length,[3]
while another source
lists a tail length of 50 cm (20 in).[24]
The most frequently heard noises made by the Philip-
pine eagle are loud, high-pitched whistles ending with
inflections in pitch.[25]
Additionally, juveniles have been
known to beg for food by a series of high-pitched calls.[14]
7.3 Distribution and habitat
The Philippine eagle is endemic to the Philippines and
can be found on four major islands: eastern Luzon,
Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. The largest number of
eagles reside on Mindanao, with between 82 and 233
breeding pairs. Only six pairs are found on Samar, two on
Leyte, and a few on Luzon. It can be found in Northern
Sierra Madre National Park on Luzon and Mount Apo,
Mount Malindang and Mount Kitanglad National Parks
on Mindanao.[7][26]
This eagle is found in dipterocarp and mid-montane
forests, particularly in steep areas. Its elevation ranges
from the lowlands to mountains of over 1,800 metres
(5,900 ft). Only an estimated 9,220 km2
(2,280,000
acres) of old-growth forest remain in the bird’s range.[7]
However, its total estimated range is about 146,000 km2
(56,000 sq mi).[14]
7.4 Ecology and behavior
Illustration of a bird kept in captivity in London in 1909–1910
Evolution in the Philippine islands, without other preda-
tors, made the eagles the dominant hunter in the Philip-
pine forests. Each breeding pair requires a large home
range to successfully raise a chick, thus the species is ex-
tremely vulnerable to deforestation. Earlier, the territory
has been estimated at about 100 km2
(39 sq mi), but a
study on Mindanao Island found the nearest distance be-
tween breeding pairs to be about 13 km (8.1 mi) on aver-
age, resulting in a circular plot of 133 km2
(51 sq mi).[27]
The species’ flight is fast and agile, resembling the smaller
hawks more than similar large birds of prey.[28]
Juveniles in play behavior have been observed gripping
knotholes in trees with their talons and, using their tails
and wings for balance, inserting their heads into tree
cavities.[29]
Additionally, they have been known to attack
inanimate objects for practice, as well as attempt to hang
upside down to work on their balance.[29]
As the parents
are not nearby when this occurs, they apparently do not
play a role in teaching the juvenile to hunt.[29]
Life expectancy for a wild eagle is estimated to be from 30
to 60 years. A captive Philippine eagle lived for 41 years
in Rome Zoo, and it was already adult when it arrived at
the zoo.[29]
However, wild birds on average are believed
to live shorter lives than captive birds.[29]
7.4.1 Diet
The Philippine eagle was known initially as the Philippine
monkey-eating eagle because it was believed to feed on
monkeys (the only monkey native to the Philippines is the
Philippine long-tailed macaque) almost exclusively; this
has proven to be inaccurate. This may be because the first
examined specimen was found to have undigested pieces
of a monkey in its stomach.[30]
Like most predators, the
Philippine eagle is an opportunist that takes prey based
on its local level of abundance and ease.[30]
It is the apex
predator in its range.
Prey specimens found at the eagle’s nest have ranged
in size from a small bat weighing 10 g (0.35 oz) to a

7.4. ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR 25
Philippine deer weighing 14 kg (31 lb).[30]
The primary
prey varies from island to island depending on species
availability, particularly in Luzon and Mindanao, because
the islands are in different faunal regions. For exam-
ple, the tree squirrel-sized Philippine flying lemurs, the
preferred prey in Mindanao, are absent in Luzon.[7]
The
primary prey for the eagles seen in Luzon are monkeys,
birds, flying foxes, giant cloud-rats Phloeomys pallidus
which can weigh twice as much as flying lemurs at 2 to
2.5 kg (4.4 to 5.5 lb), and reptiles such as large snakes and
lizards.[31]
The flying lemur could make up an estimated
90% of the raptor’s diet in some locations.[28]
While the
eagles generally seem to prefer flying lemurs where avail-
able, most other animals found in the Philippines, short of
adult ungulates and humans, may be taken as prey. This
can include Asian palm civets (12% of the diet in Min-
danao), macaques, flying squirrels, tree squirrels, fruit
bats, rats, birds (owls and hornbills), reptiles (snakes and
monitor lizards), and even other birds of prey.[7][28][30]
They have been reported to capture young pigs and small
dogs.[28]
Philippine eagles primarily use two hunting techniques.
One is still-hunting, in which it watches for prey activ-
ity while sitting almost motionlessly on a branch near the
canopy. The other is perch-hunting, which entails peri-
odically gliding from one perch to another. While perch-
hunting, they often work their way gradually down from
the canopy on down the branches and, if not successful in
find prey in their initial foray, will fly or circle back up to
the top of the trees to work them again. Eagles in Min-
danao often find success using the latter method while
hunting flying lemurs, since they are nocturnal animals
which try to use camouflage to protect them by day.[3]
Ea-
gle pairs sometimes hunt troops of monkey cooperatively,
with one bird perching nearby to distract the primates,
allowing the other to swoop in from behind, hopefully
unnoticed, for the kill.[3][28]
Since the native macaque is
often around the same size as the eagle itself, at approxi-
mately 9 kg (20 lb) in adult males, it is a potentially haz-
ardous prey, and an eagle has been reported to suffer a
broken leg after it struggled and fell along with a large
male monkey.[30]
7.4.2 Reproduction
The complete breeding cycle of the Philippine eagle lasts
two years. The female matures sexually at five years of
age and the male at seven. Like most eagles, the Philip-
pine eagle is monogamous. Once paired, a couple re-
mains together for the rest of their lives.[6]
If one dies,
the remaining eagle often searches for a new mate to re-
place the one lost.[29]
The beginning of courtship is signaled by nest-building,
and the eagle remaining near its nest. Aerial displays
also play a major role in the courtship. These displays
include paired soaring over a nesting territory, the male
chasing the female in a diagonal dive, and mutual talon
A Philippine eagle nestling
presentation, where the male presents his talons to the fe-
male’s back and she flips over in midair to present her own
talons. Advertisement displays coupled with loud calling
have also been reported. The willingness of an eagle to
breed is displayed by the eagle bringing nesting materials
to the bird’s nest. Copulation follows and occurs repeat-
edly both on the nest and on nearby perches. The earliest
courtship has been reported in July.[29]
Breeding season is in July; birds on different islands, most
notably Mindanao and Luzon, begin breeding at different
ends of this range.[6]
The amount of rainfall and popula-
tion of prey may also affect the breeding season.[6]
The
nest is normally built on an emergent dipterocarp, or any
tall tree with an open crown, in primary or disturbed for-
est. The nests are lined with green leaves, and can be
around 1.5 m (4.9 ft) across. The nesting location is
around 30 m (98 ft) or even more above the ground.[7][28]
As in many other large raptors, the eagle’s nest resembles
a huge platform made of sticks.[3][28]
The eagle frequently
reuses the same nesting site for several different chicks.[7]
Eight to 10 days before the egg is ready to be laid, the fe-
male is afflicted with a condition known as egg lethargy.
In this experience, the female does not eat, drinks lots
of water, and holds her wings droopingly.[29]
The female
typically lays one egg in the late afternoon or at dusk, al-
though occasionally two have been reported.[28][29]
If an
egg fails to hatch or the chick dies early, the parents will
likely lay another egg the following year. Copulation may
last a few days after the egg is laid to enable another egg
to be laid should the first one fail. The egg is incubated
for 58 to 68 days (typically 62 days) after being laid.[3]
Both sexes participate in the incubation, but the female
does the majority of incubating during the day and all of
it at night.[29]
Both sexes help feed the newly hatched eaglet. Addition-
ally, the parents have been observed taking turns shield-
ing the eaglet from the sun and rain until it is seven
weeks old.[29]
The young eaglet fledges after four or five
months.[28]
The earliest an eagle has been observed mak-
ing a kill is 304 days after hatching.[29]
Both parents take

26 CHAPTER 7. PHILIPPINE EAGLE
care of the eaglet for a total of 20 months and, unless the
previous nesting attempt had failed, the eagles can breed
only in alternate years.[3][6]
The Philippine eagle rivals
two other large tropical eagles, namely the crowned ea-
gle and harpy eagle, for having the longest breeding cycle
of any bird of prey.[3][32]
Even nests have no predators
other than humans, as even known nest predators such as
palm civets and macaques (being prey species) are likely
to actively avoid any area with regular eagle activity.[33]
7.5 Conservation
A Philippine eagle named Sir Arny, at Philippine eagle Center,
Davao City
In 2010, the IUCN and BirdLife International listed this
species as critically endangered.[1][14]
The International
Union for the Conservation of Nature believes be-
tween 180 and 500 Philippine eagles survive in the
Philippines.[6]
They are threatened primarily by defor-
estation through logging and expanding agriculture. Old-
growth forest is being lost at a high rate, and most of the
forest in the lowlands is owned by logging companies.[7]
Mining, pollution, exposure to pesticides that affect
breeding, and poaching are also major threats.[5][6]
Ad-
ditionally, they are occasionally caught in traps laid by
local people for deer. Though this is no longer a major
problem, the eagle’s numbers were also reduced by being
captured for zoos.[6]
The diminishing numbers of the Philippine eagle were
first brought to international attention in 1965 by the
noted Filipino ornithologist Dioscoro S. Rabor, and the
director of the Parks and Wildlife Office, Jesus A. Al-
varez.[34][35][36]
Charles Lindbergh, best known for cross-
ing the Atlantic alone and without stopping in 1927, was
fascinated by this eagle. As a representative of the World
Wildlife Fund, Lindbergh traveled to the Philippines sev-
eral times between 1969 and 1972, where he helped per-
suade the government to protect the eagle. In 1969, the
Monkey-eating Eagle Conservation Program was started
to help preserve this species. In 1992, the first Philip-
pine eagles were born in captivity through artificial in-
semination; however, not until 1999 was the first naturally
bred eaglet hatched. The first captive-bred bird to be re-
leased in the wild, Kabayan, was released in 2004 on Min-
danao; however, he was accidentally electrocuted in Jan-
uary 2005. Another eagle, Kagsabua, was released March
6, 2008, but was shot and eaten by a farmer.[6]
Killing this
critically endangered species is punishable under Philip-
pine law by 12 years in jail and heavy fines.[5]
A wood carving of a Philippine eagle
Its numbers have slowly dwindled over the decades to
the current population of 180 to 500 eagles. A series of
floods and mud slides, caused by deforestation, further
devastated the remaining population. The Philippine ea-
gle may soon no longer be found in the wild, unless direct
intervention is taken. The Philippine Eagle Foundation
in Davao City, Philippines is one organization dedicated
to the protection and conservation of the Philippine ea-
gle and its forest habitat. The Philippine Eagle Founda-
tion has successfully bred Philippine eagles in captivity
for over a decade and conducted the first experimental
release of a captive-bred eagle to the wild. The founda-
tion has 35 eagles at its center, of which 18 were bred in
captivity.[6]
Ongoing research on behavior, ecology, and
population dynamics is also underway. In recent years,
protected lands have been established specifically for this
species, such as the 700 km2
(170,000 acres) of Cabuaya
Forest and the 37.2 square kilometers (9,200 acres) of

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